Female body image as a function of themes in rap music videos: A content analysis

Sex Roles

Volumn 62, Issue 11, 2010, Pages 787-797

  Zhang, Yuanyuan ^a   Dixon, Travis L ^a   Conrad, Kate ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY OF ILLINOIS AT URBANA CHAMPAIGN   (United States)

Author keywords

African Americans; Body image; Content analysis; Rap music videos; Theme

Indexed keywords

EID: 77954690480     PISSN: 03600025     EISSN: 15732762     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1007/s11199-009-9656-y     Document Type: Article

References (74)

1. Abrams, K. K., Allen, L. R., & Gray, J. J. (1993). Disordered eating attitudes and behaviors, psychological adjustment, and ethnic identity: a comparison of black and white female college students. International Journal of Eating Disorders, 14(1), 49-57.
2. Allen, R. (2001). The concept of self: A study of black identity and self-esteem. Detroit, MI: Wayne State University Press.
3. Bartko, J. (1966). Intraclass correlation coefficient as a measure of reliability. Psychological Reports, 19, 3-11.
4. Botta, R. A. (2000). The mirror of television: a comparison of black and white adolescents' body image. Journal of Communication, 50, 144-159.
5. Buss, D. M. (2003). The evolution of desire: Strategies of human mating (Rev. ed.). New York: Basic Books.
6. Buss, D. M., & Schmitt, D. P. (1993). Sexual strategies theory: an evolutionary perspective on human mating. Psychological Review, 100, 204-232.
7. Cohen, J., & Weimann, G. (2000). Cultivation revisited: some genres have some effects have some effects on some viewers. Communication Reports, 13, 99-114.
8. Crocker, J., & Major, B. (1989). Social stigma and self-esteem: the self-protective properties of stigma. Psychological Review, 96, 608-630.
9. Dixon, T. L., & Brooks, T. (2002). Rap music and rap audiences: controversial themes, psychological effects and political resistance. African American Research Perspective, 8, 106-116.
10. Dixon, T. L., & Linz, D. G. (1997). Obscenity law and sexually explicit rap music: understanding the effects of sex, attitudes, and beliefs. Journal of Applied Communication Research, 25, 217-241.
11. Eggermont, S., Buellens, K., & van den Bulck, J. (2005). Television viewing and adolescent females' body dissatisfaction: the mediating role of opposite sex expectations. Communications: The European Journal of Communication Research, 30, 343-357.
12. Elliott, S. (2003, April 21). Blacks prefer TV fare with Black casts, but tastes of Black and White are converging. New York Times, pp. C12.
13. Englis, B. G., Solomon, M. R., & Olofosson, A. (1993). Consumption imagery in music television: a bi-cultural perspective. Journal of Advertising, XXII(4), 21-33.
14. Fleiss, J. L. (1981). Statistical methods for rates and proportions. New York: Wiley.
15. Fouts, G., & Burggraf, K. (1999). Television situation comedies: female body images and verbal reinforcements. Sex Roles, 40, 473-481.
16. Fouts, G., & Burggraf, K. (2000). Television situation comedies: female weight, male negative comments, and audience reactions. Sex Roles, 42, 925-932.
17. Fried, C. B. (1996). Bad rap for rap: bias in reactions to music lyrics. Journal of Applied Social Psychology, 26, 2135-2146.
18. Gan, S. L., Zillmann, D., & Mitrook, M. (1997). Stereotyping effect of black women's sexual rap on white audiences. Basic and Applied Social Psychology, 19, 381-399.
19. Gerbner, G., Gross, L., Morgan, M., & Signorielli, N. (1994). Growing up with television: The cultivation perspective. In J. Bryant & D. Zillmann (Eds.), Media effects: Advances in theory and research (pp. 17-41). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.
20. Grabe, S., & Hyde, J. S. (2006). Ethnicity and body dissatisfaction among women in the United States: a meta-analysis. Psychological Bulletin, 132(4), 622-640.
21. Greenberg, B. S., & Brand, J. E. (1994). Minorities and the mass media: 1970s to 1990s. In J. Bryant & D. Zillmann (Eds.), Media effects: Advances in theory and research (pp. 273-314). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.
22. Greenberg, D. R., & LaPorte, D. J. (1996). Racial differences in body type preferences of men for women. International Journal of Eating Disorders, 19, 275-278.
23. Gunter, B. (1994). The question of media violence. In J. Bryant & D. Zillmann (Eds.), Media effects: Advances in theory and research (pp. 163-211). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.
24. Hansen, C. H., & Hansen, R. D. (2000). Music and music videos. In D. Zillman & P. Vorderer (Eds.), Media Entertainment: The Psychology of Its Appeal (pp. 175-196). Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum.
25. Harris, M. B., Walters, L. C., & Waschull, S. (1991). Gender and ethnic differences in obesity-related behaviors and attitudes in a college sample. Journal of Applied Social Psychology, 21, 1545-1566.
26. Harrison, K., & Cantor, J. (1997). The relationship between media exposure and eating disorders. Journal of Communication, 47, 40-67.
27. Hawkins, R. P., & Pingree, S. (1982). Television's influence on social reality. In D. Pearl, L. Bouthilet, & J. Lazar (Eds.), Television and behavior: Ten years of scientific progress and implications for the eighties (DHHS Publications No. ADM 82-1196, Vol. 2, pp. 224-247). Washington, DC: U. S. Government Printing Office.
28. Hooks, B. (1992). Black looks: Race and representation. Boston: South End.
29. Jackson, L. A., & McGill, O. D. (1996). Body type preferences and body characteristics associated with attractive and unattractive bodies by African American and Anglo Americans. Sex Roles, 35, 295-307.
30. Kemper, K. A., Sargent, R. G., Drane, J. W., Valois, R. F., Hussey, J. R., & Leatherman, T. L. (1994). Black and white adolescent females' perceptions of ideal body size and social norms. Obesity Research, 2, 117-126.
31. Kolbe, R. H., & Albanese, P. J. (1996). Man to man: a content analysis of sole-male images in male-audience magazines. Journal of Advertising, 25, 1-20.
32. Kubrin, C. (2005). Gangstas, thugs, and hustlas: identity and the code of the street in rap music. Social Problems, 52, 360-378.
33. Leit, R. A., Pope, H. G., & Gray, J. J. (2001). Cultural expectations of muscularity in men: the evolution of playgirl centerfolds. International Journal of Eating Disorders, 29, 90-93.
34. Liebert, R. M., & Sprafkin, J. (1988). The early window: Effects of television on children and youth (3rd ed.). Elmsford, NY: Pergamon.
35. Lin, C. A. (1998). Use of sex appeals in prime-time television commercials. Sex Roles, 38, 461-475.
36. MacKinnon, C. A. (1993). Only words. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
37. Marsh, D. (1994, April). The sound and the furies. Playboy, p. 126.
38. McGraw, K. O., & Wong, S. P. (1996). Forming inferences about some intraclass correlation coefficients. Psychological Methods, 1, 30-46.
39. Mokdad, A. H., Serdula, M. K., & Dietz, W. H. (1999). The spread of the obesity epidemic in the United States, 1991-1998. Journal of the American Medical Association, 282, 1519-1522.
40. Moore, D. S., & McCabe, G. P. (1999). Introduction to the practice of statistics. New York: W. H. Freeman.
41. National Center for Health Statistics (1994). U. S. A. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Division of Health Examination Statistics. Retrieved February 20th, 2009 from http://www. cdc. gov/nchs.
42. O'Connor, L. A., Brooks-Gunn, J., & Graber, J. (2000). Black and white girls' racial preferences in media and peer choices and the role of socialization for black girls. Journal of Family Psychology. Special Issue: Cultural Variation in Families, 14, 510-521.
43. Parnell, K., Sargent, S., Thompson, S. H., Duhe, S. F., Valois, R. F., & Kemper, R. C. (1996). Black white adolescent females' perceptions of ideal body size. Journal of School Health, 66, 112-118.
44. Perkins, K. (1996). The influence of television images on black female's self perceptions of physical attractiveness. Journal of Black Psychology, 22, 453-469.
45. Potter, W., & Levine-Donnerstein, D. (1999). Rethinking validity and reliability in content analysis. Journal of Applied Communication Research, 27, 258-284.
46. Raciti, M., & Hendrick, S. S. (1992). Relationship between eating disorder characteristics and love and sex attitudes. Sex Roles, 27, 553-564.
47. Regan, P. C. (1996). Sexual outcasts: the perceived impact of body weight and gender on sexuality. Journal of Applied Social Psychology, 26, 1803-1815.
48. Roberts, A., Cash, T. F., Feingold, A., & Johnson, B. T. (2006). Are black-white differences in females' body dissatisfaction decreasing? A meta-analytic review. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 74, 1121-1131.
49. Rose, T. (1989). Orality and technology-rap music and Afro-American cultural resistance. Popular Music And Society, 13(4), 35-44.
50. Rose, T. (1994). Black noise: rap music and black culture in contemporary America. Hanover and London: Wesleyan University Press.
51. Rosen, J. C. (1990). Body image disturbances in eating disorders. In T. F. Cash & T. Pruzinsky (Eds.), Body images: Development, deviance, and change (pp. 190-214). New York, NY: Guilford.
52. Shaw, H., Ramirez, L., Trost, A., Randall, R., & Stice, E. (2004). Body image eating disturbances across ethnic groups: more similarities than differences. Psychology of Addictive Behaviors, 18, 12-18.
53. Silverstein, B., Perdue, L., Peterson, B., & Kelly, E. (1986). The role of the mass media in promoting a thin standard of attractiveness for women. Sex Roles, 14, 519-532.
54. Sipiora, M. P. (1991). Alienation, the self, and television: psychological life in mass culture. Humanistic Psychologist, 19, 158-169.
55. Smith, S. L., & Boyson, A. (2002). Violence in music videos: examining the prevalence and context of physical aggression. Journal of Communication, 52, 61-83.
56. Sobal, J., Nicolopoulos, V., & Lee, J. (1995). Attitudes about overweight and dating among secondary school students. International Journal of Obesity, 19, 376-381.
57. Spillman, D. M., & Everington, C. (1989). Somatotypes revisited: have the media changed our perception of the female body image? Psychological Reports, 64, 887-890.
58. Spitzer, B. L., Henderson, K. A., & Zivian, M. T. (1999). Gender differences in population versus media body sizes: a comparison over four decades. Sex Roles, 40, 545-565.
59. Striegel-Moore, R. H., Schreiber, G. B., Pike, K. M., Wilfley, D. E., & Rodin, J. (1995). Drive for thinness in black and white preadolescent girls. International Journal of Eating Disorders, 18, 59-69.
60. Stunkard, A. J., Sorensen, T. I., & Schulsinger, F. (1983). Use of the Danish adoption register for the study of obesity and thinness. In S. Kety (Ed.), The genetics of neurological and psychiatric disorders (pp. 115-120). New York: Raven.
61. Tirodkar, M. A., & Jain, A. (2003). Food messages on African American television shows. American Journal of Public Health, 93, 439-441.
62. Trial witness ties rap to violent act. (1993, July 10). Billboard, p. 71.
63. Twenge, J. M., & Crocker, J. (2002). Race and self-esteem: meta-analyses comparing Whites, Blacks, Hispanics, Asians, and American Indians and comment on Gray-Little and Halfdahl (2000). Psychological Bulletin, 128, 371-408.
64. Ward, L. M. (2003). Understanding the role of entertainment media in the sexual socialization of American youth: a review of empirical research. Developmental Review, 23, 347-388.
65. Watts, E. K. (1997). An exploration of spectacular consumption: gangsta rap as cultural commodity. Communication Studies, 48(1), 42-58.
66. Wilfley, D., Schreiber, G., Pike, K., Striegel-Moore, R., Wright, D., & Rodin, J. (1996). Eating disturbance and body image: a comparison of a community sample of adult black and white women. International Journal of Eating Disorders, 20, 377-387.
67. Wilson, B. J., Kunkel, D., Linz, D., Potter, J., Donnersetin, E., Smith, S. L., et al. (1998). Violence in television overall: University of California study. In National television violence study II (pp. 3-204). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
68. Wimmer, R. D., & Dominick, J. R. (2000). Mass media research: An introduction (6th ed.). Belmont, CA: Wadsworth.
69. Wimmer, R. D., & Dominick, J. R. (2005). Mass media research: An introduction (8th ed.). Australia: Wadsworth.
70. Wingood, G. M., DiClemente, R. J., Bernhardt, J. M., Harrington, K., Davies, S. L., Robillard, A., et al. (2003). A prospective study of exposure to rap music videos and African American female adolescents' health. Journal of Public Health, 93, 437-439.
71. Wiseman, C. V., Gray, J. J., Moismann, J. E., & Ahrens, A. H. (1990). Cultural expectations of thinness in women: an update. International Journal of Eating Disorders, 11(1), 85-89.
72. Wood, J. V., & Taylor, K. L. (1991). Serving self-relevant goals through social comparison. In J. Suls & T. A. Wills (Eds.), Social comparison: Contemporary theory and research (pp. 23-50). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.
73. Zillmann, D., Aust, C. F., Hoffman, K. D., Love, C. C., Ordman, V. L., Pope, J. T., et al. (1995). Radical rap: does it further ethnic division? Basic and Applied Social Psychology, 16(1 & 2), 1-25.
74. Zimmerman, K. (1992, March 16). Censure for censor bills. Variety, pp. 72-74.