Infections of the central nervous system in the neurosurgical patient

Handbook of Clinical Neurology

Volumn 96, Issue C, 2010, Pages 125-141

  Zunt, Joseph R ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY OF WASHINGTON   (United States)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

EID: 77954337417     PISSN: 00729752     EISSN: None     Source Type: Book Series    
DOI: 10.1016/S0072-9752(09)96009-2     Document Type: Article

References (164)

1. Aarabi B, Taghipour M, Alibaii E, et al. (1998). Central nervous system infections after military missile head wounds. Neurosurgery 42: 500-507; discussion 507-509.
2. Alleyne CH, Hassan M, Zabramski JM, et al. (2000). The efficacy and cost of prophylactic and periprocedural antibiotics in patients with external ventricular drains. Neurosurgery 47: 1124-1127; discussion 1127-1129.
3. Arciola CR, Campoccia D, Montanaro L (2002). Detection of biofilm-forming strains of Staphylococcus epidermidis and S. aureus. Expert Rev MoI Diagn 2: 478-484.
4. Aryan HE, Meltzer HS, Park MS, et al. (2005). Initial experience with antibiotic-impregnated silicone catheters for shunting of cerebrospinal fluid in children. Childs Nerv Syst 21: 56-61.
5. Ascroft PB (1943). Treatment of head wounds due to missiles: analysis of 500 cases. Lancet 2: 211-218.
6. Aucoin PJ, Kotilainen HR, Gantz NM, et al. (1986). Intracranial pressure monitors. Epidemiologic study of risk factors and infections. Am J Med 80: 369-376.
7. Backer-Grundahl N (1934). Recherches sur les altérations dans le liquide rachidien après rachianésthesie. Acta Chir Scand 73: 485.
8. Baer ET (2000). Iatrogenic meningitis: the case for face masks. Clin Infect Dis 31: 519-521.
9. Barnes NP, Jones SJ, Hayward RD, et al. (2002). Ventriculoperitoneal shunt block: what are the best predictive clinical indicators? Arch Dis Child 87: 198-201.
10. Baumann DP, Koch LC (1952). Streptococcal meningitis following diagnostic lumbar puncture. Ann Intern Med 36: 1090-1092.
11. Bayston R (1994). Hydrocephalus shunt infections. J Antimicrob Chemother 34: 75-84.
12. Bayston R, Grove N, Siegel J, et al. (1989). Prevention of hydrocephalus shunt catheter colonisation in vitro by impregnation with antimicrobials. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry 52: 605-609.
13. Bayston R, Bannister C, Boston V, et al. (1990). A prospective randomised controlled trial of antimicrobial prophylaxis in hydrocephalus shunt surgery. Z Kinderchir 45: 5-7.
14. Bayston R, Compton C, Richards K (1994). Production of extracellular slime by coryneforms colonizing hydrocephalus shunts. J Clin Microbiol 32: 1705-1709.
15. Bayston R, de Louvois J, Brown EM, et al. (2000). Use of antibiotics in penetrating craniocerebral injuries. "Infection in Neurosurgery" Working Party of British Society for Antimicrobial Chemotherapy. Lancet 355: 1813-1817.
16. Beeler BA, Crowder JG, Smith JW, et al. (1976). Propionibacterium acnes: pathogen in central nervous system shunt infection. Report of three cases including immune complex glomerulonephritis. Am J Med 61: 935-938.
17. Berenguer J, Diaz-Mediavilla J, Urra D, et al. (1989). Central nervous system infection caused by Pseudallescheria boydii: case report and review. Rev Infect Dis 11: 890-896.
18. Blackmore TK, Morley HR, Gordon DL (1993). Streptococcus mitis-induced bacteremia and meningitis after spinal anesthesia. Anesthesiology 78: 592-594.
19. Bland RS, Nelson LH, Meis PJ, et al. (1983). Gonococcal ventriculitis associated with ventriculoamniotic shunt placement. Am J Obstet Gynecol 147: 781-784.
20. Blomstedt GC (1985). Results of trimethoprim-sulfamethoxazole prophylaxis in ventriculostomy and shunting procedures. A double-blind randomized trial. J Neurosurg 62: 694-697.
21. Blomstedt GC (1992). Craniotomy infections. Neurosurg Clin North Am 3: 375-385.
22. Borgbjerg BM, Gjerris F, Albeck MJ, et al. (1998). A comparison between ventriculo-peritoneal and ventriculoatrial cerebrospinal fluid shunts in relation to rate of revision and durability. Acta Neurochir (Wien) 140:459-464; discussion 465.
23. Borges LF (1982). Cerebrospinal fluid shunts interfere with host defenses. Neurosurgery 10: 55-60.
24. Brown BS, Thorp P (1984). The ultrasonographic diagnosis of bacterial meningitis and ventriculitis in infancy: six case reports. J Can Assoc Radiol 35: 47-51.
25. Bryant MS, Bremer AM, Tepas JJ, et al. (1988). Abdominal complications of ventriculoperitoneal shunts. Case reports and review of the literature. Am Surg 54: 50-55.
26. Brydon HL, Hay ward R, Harkness W, et al. (1996). Does the cerebrospinal fluid protein concentration increase the risk of shunt complications? Br J Neurosurg 10: 267-273.
27. Burke JW, Podrasky AE, Bradley WG (1990). Meninges: benign postoperative enhancement on MR images. Radiology 174: 99-102.
28. Butler WE, Khan SA (2001). The application of controlled intracranial hypertension in slit ventricle syndrome patients with obstructive hydrocephalus and shunt malfunction. Pediatr Neurosurg 35: 305-310.
29. Camarata PJ, McGeachie RE, Haines SJ (1990). Dorsal midbrain encephalitis caused by Propionibacterium acnes. Report of two cases. J Neurosurg 72: 654-659.
30. Carey ME, Young HF, Rish BL, et al. (1974). Follow-up study of 103 American soldiers who sustained a brain wound in Vietnam. J Neurosurg 41: 542-549.
31. Carmel PW, Greif LK (1993). The aseptic meningitis syndrome: a complication of posterior fossa surgery. Pediatr Neurosurg 19: 276-280.
32. Carmel PW, Fraser RA, Stein BM (1974). Aseptic meningitis following posterior fossa surgery in children. J Neurosurg 41: 44-48.
33. Carp H, Bailey S (1992). The association between meningitis and dural puncture in bacteremic rats. Anesthesiology 76: 739-742.
34. Chan KH, Mann KS, Seto WH (1991). Infection of a shunt by Mycobacterium fortuitum: case report. Neurosurgery 29: 472-474.
35. Chiou CC, Wong TT, Lin HH, et al. (1994). Fungal infection of ventriculoperitoneal shunts in children. Clin Infect Dis 19: 1049-1053.
36. Choi S, McComb JG, Levy ML, et al. (2003). Use of elemental iodine for shunt infection prophylaxis. Neuro-surgery 52: 908-913.
37. Clark WC, Muhlbauer MS, Lowrey R, et al. (1989). Complications of intracranial pressure monitoring in trauma patients. Neurosurgery 25: 20-24.
38. Colli BO, Martelli N, Assirati JA, et al. (1986). Results of surgical treatment of neurocysticercosis in 69 cases. J Neurosurg 65: 309-315.
39. Coplin WM, Avellino AM, Kim DK, et al. (1999). Bacterial meningitis associated with lumbar drains: a retrospective cohort study. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry 67:468-473.
40. Couzigou C, Vuong TK, Botherel AH, et al. (2003). Iatrogenic Streptococcus salivarius meningitis after spinal anaesthesia: need for strict application of standard precautions. J Hosp Infect 53: 313-314.
41. Cuetter AC, Garcia-Bobadilla J, Guerra LG, et al. (1997). Neurocysticercosis: focus on intraventricular disease. Clin Infect Dis 24: 157-164.
42. Cushing H (1918). A study of a series of wounds involving the brain and its enveloping structure. Br J Surg 5: 558-684.
43. Dallacasa P, Dappozzo A, Galassi E, et al. (1995). Cerebrospinal fluid shunt infections in infants. Childs Nerv Syst 11: 643-648.
44. Davis SE, Levy ML, McComb JG, et al. (1999). Does age or other factors influence the incidence of ventriculoperitoneal shunt infections? Pediatr Neurosurg 30: 253-257.
45. de Jong J, Barrs AC (1992). Lumbar myelography followed by meningitis. Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol 13: 74-75.
46. Del Bigio MR (1998). Biological reactions to cerebrospinal fluid shunt devices: a review of the cellular pathology. Neurosurgery 42: 319-325; discussion 325-326.
47. Diaz-Mitoma F, Harding GK, Hoban DJ, et al. (1987). Clinical significance of a test for slime production in ventriculoperitoneal shunt infections caused by coagulase-negative staphylococci. J Infect Dis 156: 555-560.
48. Dinsmore JH, Manhart C, Raineri R, et al. (2000). No evidence for infection of human cells with porcine endogenous retrovirus (PERV) after exposure to porcine fetal neuronal cells. Transplantation 70: 1382-1389.
49. Doem GV, Ferraro MJ, Brueggemann AB, et al. (1996). Emergence of high rates of antimicrobial resistance among viridans group streptococci in the United States. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 40: 891-894.
50. Domingo P, Mancebo J, Blanch L, et al. (1994). Iatrogenic streptococcal meningitis. Clin Infect Dis 19: 356-357.
51. Drake JM, Kestle JR, Milner R, et al. (1998). Randomized trial of cerebrospinal fluid shunt valve design in pediatric hydrocephalus. Neurosurgery 43: 294-303; discussion 303-305.
52. Dunbar SA, Eason RA, Musher DM, et al. (1998). Microscopic examination and broth culture of cerebrospinal fluid in diagnosis of meningitis. J Clin Microbiol 36: 1617-1620.
53. Durand ML, Calderwood SB, Weber DJ, et al. (1993). Acute bacterial meningitis in adults. A review of 493 episodes. N Engl J Med 328: 21-28.
54. Eng RH, Seligman SJ (1981). Lumbar puncture-induced meningitis. JAMA 245: 1456-1459.
55. Enger PO, Svendsen F, Wester K (2003). CSF shunt infections in children: experiences from a population-based study. Acta Neurochir (Wien) 145:243-248; discussion 248.
56. Evans RW (1998). Complications of lumbar puncture. Neurol Clin 16:83-105.
57. Everett ED, Eickhoff TC, Simon RH (1976). Cerebrospinal fluid shunt infections with anaerobic diphtheroids (Propionibacterium species). J Neurosurg 44: 580-584.
58. Federico G, Tumbarello M, Spanu T, et al. (2001). Risk factors and prognostic indicators of bacterial meningitis in a cohort of 3580 postneurosurgieal patients. Scand J Infect Dis 33: 533-537.
59. Ferrera PC, Thibodeau L, Shillito J (1994). Long-term lumboureteral shunt removed secondary to iatrogenic meningitis. Surg Neurol 42: 231-233.
60. Finlayson AI, Penfield W (1941). Acute postoperative aseptic leptomeningitis: review of cases and discussion of pathogenesis. Arch Neurol Psychiatry 46: 250-276.
61. Forgacs P, Geyer CA, Freidberg SR (2001). Characterization of chemical meningitis after neurological surgery. Clin Infect Dis 32: 179-185.
62. Friedman WA, Vries JK (1980). Percutaneous tunnel ventriculostomy. Summary of 100 procedures. J Neurosurg 53: 662-665.
63. Gardner P, Leipzig T, Phillips P (1985). Infections of central nervous system shunts. Med Clin North Am 69: 297-314.
64. Gaynes RP, Culver DH, Horan TC, et al. (2001). Surgical site infection (SSI) rates in the United States, 19921998: the National Nosocomial Infections Surveillance System basic SSI risk index. Clin Infect Dis 33: S69-S77.
65. Geiseler PJ, Nelson KE, Levin S, et al. (1980). Communityacquired purulent meningitis: a review of 1316 cases during the antibiotic era, 1954-1976. Rev Infect Dis 2: 725-745.
66. Gelfand MS, Abolnik IZ (1995). Streptococcal meningitis complicating diagnostic myelography: three cases and review. Clin Infect Dis 20: 582-587.
67. George R, Leibrock L, Epstein M (1979). Long-term analysis of cerebrospinal fluid shunt infections. A 25-year experience. J Neurosurg 51: 804-811.
68. Gorelick PB, Biller J (1986). Lumbar puncture. Technique, indications, and complications. Postgrad Med 79:257-268.
69. Govender ST, Nathoo N, van Dellen JR (2003). Evaluation of an antibiotic-impregnated shunt system for the treatment of hydrocephalus. J Neurosurg 99: 831-839.
70. Gower DJ, Horton D, Pollay M (1990). Shunt-related brain abscess and ascending shunt infection. J Child Neurol 5: 318-320.
71. Hader WJ, Steinbok P (2000). The value of routine cultures of the cerebrospinal fluid in patients with external ventricular drains. Neurosurgery 46: 1149-1155.
72. Haines SJ, Taylor F (1982). Prophylactic methicillin for shunt operations: effects on incidence of shunt malfunction and infection. Childs Brain 9: 10-22.
73. Haines SJ, Walters BC (1994). Antibiotic prophylaxis for cerebrospinal fluid shunts: a metanalysis. Neurosurgery 34: 87-92.
74. Harris CH, Smith RS, Helmer SD, et al. (2002). Placement of intracranial pressure monitors by non-neurosurgeons. Am Surg 68: 787-790.
75. Hasan D, Vermeulen M, Wijdicks EF, et al. (1989). Management problems in acute hydrocephalus after subarachnoid hemorrhage. Stroke 20: 747-753.
76. Hasan D, Lindsay KW, Vermeulen M (1991). Treatment of acute hydrocephalus after subarachnoid hemorrhage with serial lumbar puncture. Stroke 22: 190-194.
77. Haynes WG (1945). Penetrating brain wounds: analysis of 342 cases. J Neurosurg 2: 365-378.
78. Huang CI, Huang MC, Chen I, et al. (1993). Diverse applications of continuous lumbar drainage of cerebrospinal fluid in neurosurgical patients. Ann Acad Med Singapore 22:456-458.
79. Huebner J, Goldmann DA (1999). Coagulase-negative staphylococci: role as pathogens. Annu Rev Med 50: 223-236.
80. Infection in Neurosurgery Working Party of the British Society for Antimicrobial Chemotherapy (2000). The management of neurosurgical patients with postoperative bacterial or aseptic meningitis or external ventricular drain-associated ventriculitis. Br J Neurosurg 14: 7-12.
81. Irby PB 3rd, Wolf JS Jr, et al. (1993). Long-term follow-up of ventriculoureteral shunts for treatment of hydrocephalus. Urology 42: 193-197.
82. Iskandar BJ, McLaughlin C, Mapstone TB, et al. (1998). Pitfalls in the diagnosis of ventricular shunt dysfunction: radiology reports and ventricular size. Pediatrics 101: 1031-1036.
83. Jackson J (1949). Aseptic hemogenie meningitis: an experimental study of meningeal reactions due to blood and its breakdown products. Arch Neurol Psychiatry 62: 572-589.
84. James HE, Walsh JW, Wilson HD, et al. (1980). Prospective randomized study of therapy in cerebrospinal fluid shunt infection. Neurosurgery 7: 459-463.
85. Jamjoom AH, Wilson PJ (1988). Misleading clinical syndromes of CSF shunt malfunction. Br J Neurosurg 2: 391-394.
86. Jones RF, Stening WA, Kwok BC, et al. (1993). Third ventriculostomy for shunt infections in children. Neurosurgery 32: 855-859; discussion 860.
87. Kanter RK, Weiner LB, Patti AM, et al. (1985). Infectious complications and duration of intracranial pressure monitoring. Crit Care Med 13: 837-839.
88. Kaufman BA, Tunkel AR, Pryor JC, et al. (1990). Meningitis in the neurosurgical patient. Infect Dis Clin North Am 4: 677-701.
89. Kaups KL, Parks SN, Morris CL (1998). Intracranial pressure monitor placement by midlevel practitioners. J Trauma 45: 884-886.
90. Kestle JR, Garton HJ, Whitehead WE, et al. (2006). Management of shunt infections: a multicenter pilot study. J Neurosurg 105: 177-181.
91. Khanna RK, Rosenblum ML, Rock JP, et al. (1995). Prolonged external ventricular drainage with percutaneous long-tunnel ventriculostomies. J Neurosurg 83: 791-794.
92. Kourbeti IS, Jacobs AV, Koslow M, et al. (2007). Risk factors associated with postcraniotomy meningitis. Neurosurgery 60: 317-325; discussion 325-326.
93. Kulkarni AV, Drake JM, Lamberti-Pasculli M (2001). Cerebrospinal fluid shunt infection: a prospective study of risk factors. J Neurosurg 94: 195-201.
94. Lan CC, Wong TT, Chen SJ, et al. (2003). Early diagnosis of ventriculoperitoneal shunt infections and malfunctions in children with hydrocephalus. J Microbiol Immunol Infect 36: 47-50.
95. Langley JM, LeBlanc JC, Drake J, et al. (1993). Efficacy of antimicrobial prophylaxis in placement of cerebrospinal fluid shunts: meta-analysis. Clin Infect Dis 17: 98-103.
96. Lee TT, Uribe J, Ragheb J, et al. (1999). Unique clinical presentation of pediatric shunt malfunction. Pediatr Neurosurg 30: 122-126.
97. Leib SL, Boscacci R, Gratzl O, et al. (1999). Predictive value of cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) lactate level versus CSF/blood glucose ratio for the diagnosis of bacterial meningitis following neurosurgery. Clin Infect Dis 29: 69-74.
98. Levi L, Borovich B, Guilburd JN, et al. (1990). Wartime neurosurgical experience in Lebanon, 1982-85. I: Penetrating craniocerebral injuries. Isr J Med Sci 26: 548-554.
99. Lund-Johansen M, Svendsen F, Wester K (1994). Shunt failures and complications in adults as related to shunt type, diagnosis, and the experience of the surgeon. Neurosurgery 35: 839-844; discussion 844.
100. Lurie S, Feinstein M, Heifetz C, et al. (1999). Epidural analgesia for labor pain is not associated with a decreased frequency of uterine activity. Int J Gynaecol Obstet 65: 125-127.
101. Marquardt G, Schick U, Moller-Hartmann W (2000). Brain abscess decades after a penetrating shrapnel injury. Br J Neurosurg 14: 246-248.
102. Martinez-Manas RM, Santamarta D, de Campos JM, et al. (2000). Camino intracranial pressure monitor: prospective study of accuracy and complications. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry 69: 82-86.
103. Mayhall CG, Archer NH, Lamb V, et al. (1984). Ventriculostomy-related infections. A prospective epidemiologic study. N Engl J Med 310: 553-559.
104. McClelland S 3rd, Hall WA (2007). Postoperative central nervous system infection: incidence and associated factors in 2111 neurosurgical procedures. Clin Infect Dis 45: 55-59.
105. McClinton D, Carraccio C, Englander R (2001). Predictors of ventriculoperitoneal shunt pathology. Pediatr Infect Dis J 20: 593-597.
106. McGirt MJ, Leveque JC, Wellons JC, et al. (2002). Cerebrospinal fluid shunt survival and etiology of failures: a seven-year institutional experience. Pediatr Neurosurg 36: 248-255.
107. Meirovitch J, Kitai-Cohen Y, Keren G, et al. (1987). Cerebrospinal fluid shunt infections in children. Pediatr Infect Dis J 6: 921-924.
108. Moen V (1998). Meningitis is a rare complication of spinal anesthesia. Good hygiene and face masks are simple preventive measures. Lakartidningen 95: 628,631-632,635.
109. Molia L, Winterkorn JM, Schneider SJ (1996). Hemianopic visual field defects in children with intracranial shunts: report of two cases. Neurosurgery 39: 599-603.
110. Mollman HD, Haines SJ (1986). Risk factors for postoperative neurosurgical wound infection. A case-control study. J Neurosurg 64: 902-906.
111. Myers MG, Schoenbaum SC (1975). Shunt fluid aspiration: an adjunct in the diagnosis of cerebrospinal fluid shunt infection. Am J Dis Child 129: 220-222.
112. Nachamkin I, Dalton HP (1983). The clinical significance of streptococcal species isolated from cerebrospinal fluid. Am J Clin Pathol 79: 195-199.
113. Narayan RK, Kishore PR, Becker DP, et al. (1982). Intracranial pressure: to monitor or not to monitor? A review of our experience with severe head injury. J Neurosurg 56: 650-659.
114. National Nosocomial Infections Surveillance (NNIS) System Report (2002). Data summary from January 1992 to June 2002, issued August 2002. Am J Infect Control 30: 458-475.
115. Noetzel MJ, Baker RP (1984). Shunt fluid examination: risks and benefits in the evaluation of shunt malfunction and infection. J Neurosurg 61: 328-332.
116. Nulsen FE, Spitz EB (1952). Treatment of hydrocephalus by direct shunt from ventricle to jugular vein. Surg Forum 2: 399-403.
117. O'Brien DP, Rawluk DJ (1999). Iatrogenic Mycobacterium infection after an epidural injection. Spine 24: 1257-1259.
118. Odio C, McCracken GH Jr, Nelson JD, et al. (1984). CSF shunt infections in pediatrics. A seven-year experience. Am J Dis Child 138: 1103-1108.
119. Ohrstrom JK, Skou JK, Ejlertsen T, et al. (1989). Infected ventriculostomy: bacteriology and treatment. Acta Neurochir (Wien) 100: 67-69.
120. Owen R, Pittman T (2003). Shunt malfunction presenting with cerebral edema. Pediatr Neurosurg 38: 110-112.
121. Paramore CG, Turner DA (1994). Relative risks of ventriculostomy infection and morbidity. Acta Neurochir (Wien) 127: 79-84.
122. Philips BJ, Fergusson S, Armstrong P, et al. (1992). Surgical face masks are effective in reducing bacterial contamination caused by dispersal from the upper airway. Br J Anaesth 69: 407-408.
123. Pickering LK, Ericsson CD, Ruiz-Palacios G, et al. (1978). Intraventricular and parenteral gentamicin therapy for ventriculitis in children. Am J Dis Child 132: 480-483.
124. Pople K, Bayston R, Hayward RD (1992). Infection of cerebrospinal fluid shunts in infants: a study of etiological factors. J Neurosurg 77: 29-36.
125. Raedler C, Lass-Florl C, Puhringer F, et al. (1999). Bacterial contamination of needles used for spinal and epidural anaesthesia. Br J Anaesth 83: 657-658.
126. Raimondi AJ, Robinson JS, Kuwawura K (1977). Complications of ventriculo-peritoneal shunting and a critical comparison of the three-piece and one-piece systems. Childs Brain 3: 321-342.
127. Raquet F, Mann WJ (1993). Lumbar cerebrospinal fluid drainage for prevention of cerebrospinal fluid fistulas. HNO 41: 335-338.
128. Ratilal B, Costa J, Sampaio C (2006). Antibiotic prophylaxis for surgical introduction of intracranial ventricular shunts. Cochrane Database Syst Rev 3: CD005365.
129. Rebuck JA, Murry KR, Rhoney DH, et al. (2000). Infection related to intracranial pressure monitors in adults: analysis of risk factors and antibiotic prophylaxis. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry 69: 381-384.
130. Rehman L, Ghani E, Hussain A, et al. (2007). Infection in compound depressed fracture of the skull. J Coll Physicians Surg Pak 17: 140-143.
131. Renier D, Lacombe J, Pierre-Kahn A, et al. (1984). Factors causing acute shunt infection. Computer analysis of 1174 operations. J Neurosurg 61: 1072-1078.
132. Rish BL, Caveness WF, Dillon JD, et al. (1981). Analysis of brain abscess after penetrating craniocerebral injuries in Vietnam. Neurosurgery 9: 535-541.
133. Ritz R, Roser F, Morgalla M, et al. (2007). Do antibioticimpregnated shunts in hydrocephalus therapy reduce the risk of infection? An observational study in 258 patients. BMC Infect Dis 7: 38.
134. Ross D, Rosegay H, Pons V (1988). Differentiation of aseptic and bacterial meningitis in postoperative neurosurgical patients. J Neurosurg 69: 669-674.
135. Rowe SN, Turner OA (1945). Infection in penetrating wounds of the head. J Neurosurg 2: 391-401.
136. Sainte-Rose C, Piatt JH, Renier D, et al. (1991). Mechanical complications in shunts. Pediatr Neurosurg 17: 2-9.
137. Salord F, Boussaid O, Eynard N, et al. (1994). Value of D(-) lactate determination for the fast diagnosis of meningitis after craniotomy. An initial study. Ann Fr Anesth Reanim 13: 647-653.
138. Sarubbi FA, Vasquez JE (1997). Spinal epidural abscess associated with the use of temporary epidural catheters: report of two cases and review. Clin Infect Dis 25: 1155-1158.
139. Schlech WF 3rd, Ward JI, Band JD, et al. (1985). Bacterial meningitis in the United States, 1978 through 1981. The National Bacterial Meningitis Surveillance Study. JAMA 253: 1749-1754.
140. Schneeberger PM, Janssen M, Voss A (1996). Alpha-hemolytic streptococci: a major pathogen of iatrogenic meningitis following lumbar puncture. Case reports and a review of the literature. Infection 24: 29-33.
141. Schoenbaum SC, Gardner P, Shillito J (1975). Infections of cerebrospinal fluid shunts: epidemiology, clinical manifestations, and therapy. J Infect Dis 131: 543-552.
142. Schuhmann MU, Ostrowski KR, Draper EJ, et al. (2005). The value of C-reactive protein in the management of shunt infections. J Neurosurg 103: 223-230.
143. Sciubba DM, Stuart RM, McGirt MJ, et al. (2005). Effect of antibiotic-impregnated shunt catheters in decreasing the incidence of shunt infection in the treatment of hydrocephalus. J Neurosurg 103: 31-136.
144. Siegel JD, Rhinehart E, Jackson M, et al. (2007). 2007 Guidelines for Isolation Precautions: Preventing Transmission of Infectious Agents in Healthcare Settings. 2007. Available online at: http://www.cdc.gov/ncidod/dhpq/ pdf/isolation2007.pdf (accessed September 1, 2007).
145. Smith RW, Alksne JF (1976). Infections complicating the use of external ventriculostomy. J Neurosurg 44:567-570.
146. Spanos A, Harrell FE Jr, Durack DT (1989). Differential diagnosis of acute meningitis. An analysis of the predictive value of initial observations. JAMA 262: 2700-2707.
147. Stenager E, Gerner-Smidt P, Kock-Jensen C (1986). Ventriculostomy-related infections - an epidemiological study. Acta Neurochir (Wien) 83: 20-23.
148. Taha JM, Haddad FS, Brown JA (1991). Intracranial infection after missile injuries to the brain: report of 30 cases from the Lebanese conflict. Neurosurgery 29: 864-868.
149. Tenney JH, Vlahov D, Salcman M, et al. (1985). Wide variation in risk of wound infection following clean neurosurgery. Implications for perioperative antibiotic prophylaxis. J Neurosurg 62: 243-247.
150. Thompson DN, Hartley JC, Hayward RD (2007). Shunt infection: is there a near-miss scenario? J Neurosurg 106: 15-19.
151. TuIi S, Drake J, Lawless J, et al. (2000). Risk factors for repeated cerebrospinal shunt failures in pediatric patients with hydrocephalus. J Neurosurg 92: 31-38.
152. Tung H, Raffel C, McComb JG (1991). Ventricular cerebrospinal fluid eosinophilia in children with ventriculoperitoneal. shunts. J Neurosurg 75: 541-544.
153. Tunkel AR, Hartman BJ, Kaplan SL, et al. (2004). Practice guidelines for the management of bacterial meningitis. Clin Infect Dis 39: 1267-1284.
154. Tureen J (1995). Effect of recombinant human tumor necrosis factor-alpha on cerebral oxygen uptake, cerebrospinal fluid lactate, and cerebral blood flow in the rabbit: role of nitric oxide. J Clin Invest 95: 1086-1091.
155. Veringa E, van Belkum A, Schellekens H (1995). Iatrogenic meningitis by Streptococcus salivarius following lumbar puncture. J Hosp Infect 29: 316-318.
156. Weed LH, Wegeforth P, Ayer J, et al. (1920). Influence of certain experimental procedures upon the production of meningitis by intravenous inoculation. Monogr Rockefeller Inst Med Res 12: 57-112.
157. Wen DY, Bottini AG, Hall WA, et al. (1992). Infections in neurologic surgery. The intraventricular use of antibiotics. Neurosurg Clin North Am 3: 343-354.
158. Wenger JD, Hightower AW, Facklam RR, et al. (1990). Bacterial meningitis in the United States, 1986: report of a multistate surveillance study. The Bacterial Meningitis Study Group. J Infect Dis 162: 1316-1323.
159. Whitaker R (1918). Gunshot wounds of the cranium: with special reference to those of the brain. Br J Surg 3: 708-735.
160. Winfield JA, Rosenthal P, Kanter RK, et al. (1993). Duration of intracranial pressure monitoring does not predict daily risk of infectious complications. Neurosurgery 33: 424-430; discussion 430-431.
161. Wintergerst U, Daumling S, Belohradsky BH (1986). Meningitis following lumbar puncture in bacteremia? Monatsschr Kinderheilkd 134: 826-828.
162. Wyler AR, Kelly WA (1972). Use of antibiotics with external ventriculostomies. J Neurosurg 37: 185-187.
163. Yaniv LG, Potasman I (2000). Iatrogenic meningitis: an increasing role for resistant viridans streptococci? Case report and review of the last 20 years. Scand J Infect Dis 32: 693-696.
164. Younger JJ, Christensen GD, Bartley DL, et al. (1987). Coagulase-negative staphylococci isolated from cerebrospinal fluid shunts: importance of slime production, species identification, and shunt removal to clinical outcome. J Infect Dis 156: 548-554.