Avian longevities and their interpretation under evolutionary theories of senescence

Journal of Zoology

Volumn 280, Issue 2, 2010, Pages 103-155

  Wasser, D E ^a,b   Sherman, P W ^a  

^a Department of Obstetrics Gynecology   (United States)

^b TEL AVIV UNIVERSITY   (Israel)

Author keywords

Aging; Avian body mass; Avian longevity; Avian senescence; Bird life span; Longevity; Maximum life span; Senescence; Sociality

Indexed keywords

AGING; AVIFAUNA; BODY MASS; BREEDING SITE; EVOLUTIONARY THEORY; LIFE HISTORY TRAIT; LONGEVITY; MIGRATORY BEHAVIOR; MORTALITY; MULTIVARIATE ANALYSIS; NEST SITE; SENESCENCE; WADER;

ACCIPITRINAE; ANATIDAE; ANSERIFORMES; ARDEIDAE; AVES; CHARADRIIFORMES; CICONIIFORMES; COLUMBA; COLUMBIFORMES; CORVIDAE; EMBERIZINAE; FALCONIFORMES; GRUIDAE; GRUIFORMES; PASSERI; PASSERIFORMES; PELECANIDAE; PELECANIFORMES; PHOENICOPTERIDAE; PHOENICOPTERIFORMES; PHYLLOSCOPUS SIBILATRIX; PICIDAE; PICIFORMES; PODICIPEDIDAE; PODICIPEDIFORMES; PROCELLARIIDAE; PROCELLARIIFORMES; PSITTACIDAE; PSITTACIFORMES; SPHENISCIDAE; SPHENISCIFORMES; STRIGIFORMES; TYRANNIDAE;

EID: 77953432557     PISSN: 09528369     EISSN: 14697998     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1111/j.1469-7998.2009.00671.x     Document Type: Review

References (152)

1. Animal Diversity Web. (1995-2006). University of Michigan Museum of Zoology. Available at http://animaldiversity.ummz.umich.edu/site/index.html (accessed 15 August 2009).
2. Arnold, K.E. & Owens, I.P.F. (1998). Cooperative breeding in birds: a comparative test of the life history hypothesis. Proc. Roy. Soc. Lond. Ser. B 265, 739-745.
3. Austad, S.N. (1993). Retarded senescence in an insular population of Virginia opossums (Didelphis virginiana). J. Zool. (Lond.) 229, 695-708.
4. Austad, S.N. (1997). Why we age: what science is discovering about the body's journey through life. New York: John Wiley & Sons Inc.
5. Austad, S.N. & Fischer, K.E. (1991). Mammalian aging, metabolism and ecology: evidence from the bats and marsupials. J. Gerontol. 46, B47-B53.
6. Bennett, P.M. & Owens, I.P.F. (2002). Evolutionary ecology of birds: life histories, mating systems and extinction. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
7. Birds in Backyards. 2. Australian Museum, 2007. Available at http://www.birdsinbackyards.net/ (accessed 30 August 2005).
8. Birds of North America Online, 2005. Cornell Lab of Ornithology. Available at http://bna.birds.cornell.edu/BNA/ (accessed 15 August 2009).
9. Björklund, M. (1997). Are 'comparative methods' always necessary? Oikos 80, 607-612.
10. Blanco, M.A. & Sherman, P.W. (2005). Maximum longevities of chemically protected and non-protected fishes, reptiles, and amphibians support evolutionary hypotheses of aging. Mech. Ageing Dev. 126, 794-803.
11. Blondel, J. (2000). Evolution and ecology of birds on islands: trends and prospects. Vie Milieu 50, 205-220.
12. Blumstein, D.T. & Møller, A.P. (2008). Is sociality associated with high longevity in North American birds? Biol. Lett. 4, 146-148.
13. Böhning-Gaese, K., Halbe, B., Lemoine, N. & Oberrath, R. (2000). Factors influencing the clutch size, number of broods and annual fecundity of North American and European land birds. Evol. Ecol. Res. 2, 823-839.
14. Bonduriansky, R., Maklakov, A., Zajitschek, F. & Brooks, R. (2008). Sexual selection, sexual conflict, and the evolution of ageing and life span. Funct. Ecol. 22, 443-453.
15. Botkin, D.B. & Miller, R.S. (1974). Mortality rates and survival of birds. Am. Nat. 108, 181-192.
16. Bourke, A.F.G. (2007). Kin selection and the evolutionary theory of aging. Annu. Rev. Ecol. Evol. Syst. 38, 103-128.
17. Bouwhuis, S., Sheldon, B.C., Verhulst, S. & Charmantier, A. (2009). Great tits growing old: selective disappearance and the partitioning of senescence to stages within the breeding cycle. Proc. Roy. Soc. Lond. Ser. B 276, 2769-2777.
18. Braun, E.L. & Kimball, R.T. (2002). Examining basal avian divergences with mitochondrial sequences: model complexity, taxon sampling, and sequence length. Syst. Biol. 51, 614-625.
19. Brawn, J.D., Karr, J.R. & Nichols, J.D. (1995). Demography of birds in a neotropical forest: effects of allometry, taxonomy and ecology. Ecology 76, 41-51.
20. Brittingham, M.C., Temple, S.A. & Duncan, R.M. (1988). A survey of the prevalence of selected bacteria in wild birds. J. Wildl. Dis. 24, 299-307.
21. Brooks, D.R. & McLennan, D.A. (1991). Phylogeny, ecology and behavior: a research program in comparative biology. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
22. Brouwer, K., Jones, M.L., King, C.E. & Schifter, H. (2000). Longevity records for Psittaciformes in captivity. Int. Zoo Yearb. 37, 299-316.
23. Brown, J.W., Rest, J.S., García-Moreno, J., Sorenson, M.D. & Mindell, D.P. (2008). Strong mitochondrial DNA support for a Cretaceous origin of modern avian lineages. BMC Biol. 6, 1-18.
24. Brunet-Rossinni, A.K. & Austad, S.N. (2006). Senescence in natural populations of mammals and birds. In Handbook of the biology of aging: 243-265. Masoro, E.J. & Austad, S.N. (Eds). San Diego: Academic Press.
25. Buffenstein, R. (2008). Negligible senescence in the longest living rodent, the naked mole-rat: insights from a successfully aging species. J. Comp. Physiol. B Biochem. Syst. Environ. Physiol. 178, 439-445.
26. Carranza, J., Alarcos, A., Sanchez-Prieto, C.B., Valencia, J. & Mateos, C. (2004). Disposable-soma senescence mediated by sexual selection in an ungulate. Nature 432, 215-218.
27. Carvalho, P., Diniz-Filho, J.A. & Bini, L.M. (2006). Factors influencing changes in trait correlations across species after using phylogenetic independent contrasts. Evol. Ecol. 20, 591-602.
28. Charmantier, A., Perrins, C., McCleery, R.H. & Sheldon, B.C. (2006). Quantitative genetics of age at reproduction in wild swans: support for antagonistic pleiotropy models of senescence. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 103, 6587-6592.
29. Charnov, E.L. (1993). Life history invariants. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
30. Chojnowski, J.L., Kimball, R.T. & Braun, E.L. (2008). Introns outperform exons in analyses of basal avian phylogeny using clathrin heavy chain genes. Gene 410, 89-96.
31. Christe, P., Keller, L. & Roulin, A. (2006). The predation cost of being a male: implications for sex-specific rates of ageing. Oikos 114, 381-394.
32. Chubb, A.L. (2004). New nuclear evidence for the oldest divergence among neognath birds: the phylogenetic utility of ZENK. Mol. Phyl. Evol. 30, 140-151.
33. Clutton-Brock, T.H., Gaynor, D., Mcllrth, G.M., Maccoll, A.D.C., Kansky, R., Chadwick, P., Manser, M., Skinner, J.D. & Brotherton, P.N.M. (1999). Predation, group size, and mortality in a cooperative mongoose, Suricata suricatta. J. Anim. Ecol. 68, 672-683.
34. Clutton-Brock, T.H. & Isvaran, K. (2007). Sex differences in ageing in natural populations of vertebrates. Proc. Roy. Soc. Lond. Ser. B 274, 3097-3104.
35. Costantini, D. (2008). Oxidative stress in ecology and evolution: lessons from avian studies. Ecol. Lett. 11, 1238-1251.
36. Cott, H.B. & Benson, C.W. (1970). The palatability of birds, mainly based on observations of a tasting panel in Zambia. Ostrich 8 (Suppl.), 375-384.
37. Cracraft, J. (2001). Avian evolution, Gondwana biogeography and the Cretaceous-Tertiary mass extinction event. Proc. Roy. Soc. Lond. Ser. B 268, 459-469.
38. Cramp, S. & Perrins, C.M. (Eds). (1977-1994). The birds of the Western Paleartic, Vols. 1-9. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
39. Criscuolo, F., Bize, P., Nasir, L., Metcalfe, N.B., Foote, C.G., Griffiths, K., Gault, E.A. & Monaghan, P. (2009). Realtime quantitative PCR assay for measurement of avian telomeres. J. Avian Biol. 40, 342-347.
40. Doerr, V.J., Doerr, E.D. & Jenkins, S.H. (2006). Habitat selection in two Australasian tree-creepers: what cues should they use? Emu 106, 93-103.
41. Dostine, P.L. & Franklin, D.C. (2002). A comparison of the diet of three finch species in the Yinberrie Hills area, Northern Territory. Emu 102, 159-164.
42. Dumbacher, J.P., Deiner, K., Thompson, L. & Fleischer, R.C. (2008). Phylogeny of the avian genus Pitohui and the evolution of toxicity in birds.Mol. Phylogenet. Evol. 49, 774-781.
43. Ericson, P.G.P., Anderson, C.L., Britton, T., Elzanowski, A., Johansson, U.S., Kallersjo, M., Ohlson, J.I., Parsons, T.J., Zuccon, D. & Mayr, G. (2006). Diversification of neoaves: integration of molecular sequence data and fossils. Biol. Lett. 2, 543-547.
44. European Longevity Records. (2006). The European Union for Bird Ringing. Available at http://www.euring.org/data_and_codes/longevity-voous.htm (accessed 15 August 2009).
45. Fain, M.G. & Houde, P. (2004). Parallel radiations in the primary clades of birds. Evolution 58, 2558-2573.
46. Felsenstein, J. (1985). Phylogenies and the comparative method. Am. Nat. 125, 1-15.
47. Felsenstein, J. (2008). Comparative methods with sampling error and within-species variation: contrasts revisited and revised. Am. Nat. 171, 713-725.
48. Finch, C.E. (1990). Longevity, senescence, and the genome. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
49. Finch, C.E. (2009). Update on slow aging and negligible senescence - a mini review. Gerontology 55, 307-313.
50. Finch, C.E. & Ricklefs, R.E. (1995). Aging: a natural history. New York: Scientific American Library.
51. Fontaine, J.J., Martel, M., Markland, H.A., Niklison, A.A., Decker, K.L. & Martin, T.E. (2007). Testing ecological and behavioral correlates of nest predation. Oikos 116, 1887-1894.
52. Fox, G.A., Kendall, B.E., Fitzpatrick, J.W. & Woolfenden, G.E. (2006). Consequences of heterogeneity in survival probability in a population of Florida scrub-jays. J. Anim. Ecol. 75, 921-927.
53. Galis, F., van der Sluijs, I., van Dooren, T.J.M., Metz, J.A.J. & Nussbaumer, M. (2007). Do large dogs die young? J. Exp. Zool. 308B, 119-126.
54. Gibb, G.C., Kardailsky, O., Kimball, R.T., Braun, E.L. & Penny, D. (2007). Mitochondrial genomes and avian phylogeny: complex characters and resolvability without explosive radiations. Mol. Biol. Evol. 24, 269-280.
55. Global Raptor Information Network. (1999-2007). The Peregrine Fund. Available at http://www.globalraptors.org (accessed 15 August 2009).
56. Götmark, F. (1994). Are bright birds distasteful? A reanalysis of Cott, H.B. data on the edibility of birds. J. Avian Biol. 25, 184-197.
57. Götmark, F. & Post, P. (1996). Prey selection by sparrow hawks, Accipiter nisus: relative predation risk for breeding passerine birds in relation to their size, ecology and behavior. Philos. Trans. Roy. Soc. Lond. Ser. B 351, 1559-1577.
58. Goüy de Bellocq, J., Sara, M., Casanova, J.C., Feliu, C. & Morand, S. (2003). A comparison of the structure of helminth communities in the wood mouse, Apodemus sylvaticus, on islands of the Western Mediterranean and continental Europe. Parasitol. Res. 90, 64-70.
59. Groth, J.G. & Barrowclough, G.F. (1999). Basal divergences in birds and the phylogenetic utility of the nuclear RAG-1 gene. Mol. Phyl. Evol. 12, 115-123.
60. Hackett, S.J., Kimball, R.T., Reddy, S., Bowie, R.C.K., Braun, E.L., Braun, M.J., Chojnowski, J.L., Cox, W.A., Han, K.L., Harshman, J., Huddleston, C.J., Marks, B.D., Miglia, K.J., Moore, W.S., Sheldon, F.H., Steadman, D.W., Witt, C.C. & Yuri, T. (2008). A phylogenomic study of birds reveals their evolutionary history. Science 320, 1763-1768.
61. Hailman, J.P., McGowan, K.J. & Woolfenden, G.E. (1994). Role of helpers in the sentinel behavior of the Florida scrub jay (Aphelocoma c. coerulescens). Ethology 97, 119-140.
62. Hamilton, W.D. (1966). The molding of senescence by natural selection. J. Theor. Biol. 12, 12-45.
63. Harvey, P.H. & Pagel, M.D. (1991). The comparative method in evolutionary biology. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
64. Hatchwell, B.J. & Komdeur, J. (2000). Ecological constraints, life history traits and the evolution of cooperative breeding. Anim. Behav. 59, 1079-1086.
65. Haussmann, M.F., Winkler, D.W., Huntington, C.E., Vleck, D., Sanneman, C.E., Hanley, D. & Vleck, C.M. (2005b). Cell-mediated immunosenescence in birds. Oecologia 145, 270-275.
66. Haussmann, M.F., Winkler, D.W. & Vleck, C.M. (2005a). Longer telomeres associated with higher survival in birds. Biol. Lett. 1, 212-214.
67. Heller, J. (1990). Longevity in molluscs. Malacologia 31, 259-295.
68. Holmes, D.J. & Austad, S.N. (1994). Fly now, die later - life-history correlates of gliding and flying mammals. J. Mammal. 75, 224-226.
69. Holmes, D.J. & Austad, S.N. (1995). The evolution of avian senescence patterns - implications for understanding primary aging processes. Am. Zool. 35, 307-317.
70. Holmes, D.J., Fluckinger, R. & Austad, S.N. (2001). Comparative biology of aging in birds: an update. Exp. Gerontol. 36, 869-883.
71. Holmes, D.J. & Martin, K. (2009). A bird's-eye view of aging: what's in it for ornithologists? Auk 126, 1-23.
72. Hoogland, J.L. (1981). The evolution of coloniality in whitetailed and black-tailed prairie dogs (Sciuridae, Cynomys leucurus and C. ludovicianus). Ecology 62, 252-272.
73. Hoogland, J.L. & Sherman, P.W. (1976). Advantages and disadvantages of bank swallow (Riparia riparia) coloniality. Ecol. Monogr. 46, 33-58.
74. del Hoyo, J., Elliot, A. & Sargatal, J. (Eds). (1997). Handbook of the birds of the world. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions.
75. Hulbert, A.J., Pamplona, R., Buffenstein, R. & Buttemer, W.A. (2007). Life and death: metabolic rate, membrane composition, and life span of animals. Physiol. Rev. 87, 1175-1213.
76. Jenkins, S.H. (2004). How science works. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
77. Jones, O.R., Gaillard, J.-M., Tuljapurkar, S., Alho, J.S., Armitage, K.B., Becker, P.H., Bize, P., Brommer, J., Charmantier, A., Charpentier, M., Clutton-Brock, T.H., Dobson, F.S., Festa-Bianchet, M., Gustafsson, L., Jensen, H., Jones, C.G., Lillandt, B.G., McCleery, R., Merila, J., Neuhaus, P., Nicoll, M.A.C., Norris, K., Oli, M.K., Pemberton, J., Pietiäinen, H., Ringsby, T.-H., Roulin, A., Saether, B.-E., Setchell, J.M., Sheldon, B.C., Thompson, P.M., Weimerskirch, H., Wickings, E.J. & Coulson, T. (2008). Senescence rates are determined by ranking on the fast-slow life history continuum. Ecol. Lett. 11, 664-673.
78. Jønsson, K.A., Bowie, R.C.K., Norman, J.A., Christidis, L. & Fedlsa, J. (2008). Polyphyletic origin of toxic Pitohui birds suggests widespread occurrence of toxicity in corvid birds. Biol. Lett. 4, 71-74.
79. Juniper, T. (1998). Parrots: a guide to parrots of the world. New Haven: Yale University Press.
80. Keller, L. & Genoud, M. (1997). Extraordinary life spans in ants: a test of evolutionary theories of aging. Nature 389, 958-960.
81. Keller, L.F., Reid, J.M. & Arcese, P. (2008). Testing evolutionary models of senescence in a natural population: age and inbreeding effects on fitness components in song sparrows. Proc. Roy. Soc. Lond. Ser. B 275, 597-604.
82. Kirkwood, T.B.L. (1977). Evolution of aging. Nature 270, 301-304.
83. Kirkwood, T.B.L. (2002). Evolution of ageing. Mech. Ageing Dev. 123, 737-745.
84. Kirkwood, T.B.L. & Austad, S.N. (2000). Why do we age? Nature 408, 233-238.
85. Li, Y., Deeb, B., Pendergrass, W. & Wolf, N. (1996). Cellular proliferative capacity and life span in small and large dogs. J. Genontol. 51A, B403-B408.
86. Livezey, B.C. & Zusi, R.L. (2007). Higher-order phylogeny of modern birds (Theropoda, Aves: Neornithes) based on comparative anatomy. II. Analyses and discussion. Zool. J. Linn. Soc. 149, 1-95.
87. Lombardo, M.P., Thorpe, P.A., Cichewicz, R., Henshaw, M., Millard, C., Steen, C. & Zeller, T.K. (1996). Communities of cloacal bacteria in tree swallow families. Condor 98, 167-172.
88. Longevity Records: Life Spans of Mammals, Birds, Amphibians, Reptiles and Fish, 2002. Max Planck Institute for Demographic Research. Available at http://www.demogr.mpg.de/longevityrecords/0303.htm (accessed 15 August 2009).
89. Losos, J.B. (1999). Uncertainty in the reconstruction of ancestral character states and limitations on the use of phylogenetic comparative methods. Anim. Behav. 58, 1319-1324.
90. de Magalhaes, J.P., Costa, J. & Church, G.M. (2007). An analysis of the relationship between metabolism, developmental schedules, and longevities using phylogenetic independent contrasts. J. Gerontol. 62, 149-160.
91. Martin, T.E. (1995). Avian life-history evolution in relation to nest sites, nest predation, and food. Ecol. Monogr. 65, 101-127.
92. Martin, T.E., Bassar, R.D., Bassar, S.K., Fontaine, J.J., Lloyd, P., Mathewson, H.A., Niklison, A.M. & Chalfoun, A. (2006). Life history and ecological correlates of geographic variation in egg and clutch mass among passerine species. Evolution 60, 390-398.
93. Martin, T.E. & Ghalambor, C.K. (1999). Males feeding females during incubation. I. Required by microclimate or constrained by nest predation? Am. Nat. 153, 131-139.
94. Martin, T.E. & Li, P.J. (1992). Life-history traits of open-nesting vs. cavity-nesting birds. Ecology 73, 579-592.
95. Mazer, S.J. (1998). Alternative approaches to the analysis of comparative data: compare and contrast. Am. J. Bot. 85, 1194-1199.
96. Medawar, P.B. (1952). An unsolved problem of biology. London: Lewis.
97. Mindell, D.P., Sorenson, M.D. & Dimcheff, D.E. (1998). Multiple independent origins of mitochondrial gene order in birds. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 95, 10693-10697.
98. Møller, A.P. (2006). Sociality, age at first reproduction and senescence: comparative analyses of birds. J. Evol. Biol. 19, 682-689.
99. Møller, A.P. (2007). Senescence in relation to latitude and migration in birds. J. Evol. Biol. 20, 750-757.
100. Monaghan, P., Charmantier, A., Nussey, D.H. & Ricklefs, R.E. (2008). The evolutionary ecology of senescence. Funct. Ecol. 22, 371-378.
101. Munshi-South, J. & Wilkinson, G.S. (2006). Diet influences life span in parrots. Auk 123, 108-118.
102. Mysterud, A., Yoccoz, N.G., Stenseth, N.C. & Langvatn, R. (2001). Effects of age, sex and density on body weight of Norwegian red deer: evidence of density-dependent senescence. Proc. Roy. Soc. Lond. Ser. B 268, 911-919.
103. NatureServe. (2008). NatureServe Network. Available at http://www.natureserve.org/explorer/servlet/NatureServe?post_processes=P ostReset&loadTemplate=nameSearchSpecies.wmt&Type=Reset (accessed 15 August 2009).
104. Nussey, D.H., Coulson, T., Festa-Bianchet, M. & Gaillard, J.-M. (2008). Measuring senescence in wild animal populations: towards a longitudinal approach. Funct. Ecol. 22, 393-406.
105. Owens, I.P.F. & Bennett, P.M. (1995). Ancient ecological diversification explains life history variation among living birds. Proc. Roy. Soc. Lond. Ser. B 261, 227-232.
106. Palacios, M.G., Cunnick, J.E., Winkler, D.W. & Vleck, C.M. (2007). Immunosenescence in some but not all immune components in a free-living vertebrate, the tree swallow. Proc. Roy. Soc. Lond. Ser. B 274, 951-957.
107. Partridge, L. & Barton, N.H. (1996). On measuring the rate of aging. Proc. Roy. Soc. Lond. Ser. B 263, 1365-1371.
108. Pratt, R.C., Gibb, G.C., Morgan-Richards, M., Phillips, M.J., Hendy, M.D. & Penny, D. (2009). Toward resolving deep neoaves phylogeny: data, signal enhancement, and priors. Mol. Biol. Evol. 26, 313-326.
109. Price, T. (1997). Correlated evolution and independent contrasts. Philos. Trans. Roy. Soc. Lond. B 352, 519-529.
110. Promislow, D.E.L. (1991). Senescence in natural populations of mammals: a comparative study. Evolution 45, 1869-1887.
111. Promislow, D.E.L. (2003). Mate choice, sexual conflict and evolution of senescence. Behav. Genet. 33, 191-201.
112. Reeve, H.K. & Pfennig, D.W. (2003). Genetic biases for showy males: are some genetic systems especially conducive to sexual selection? Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 100, 1089-1094.
113. Reeve, H.K. & Sherman, P.W. (2001). Optimality and phylogeny: a critique of current thought. In Adaptationism and optimality: 45-63. Orzack, S. & Sober, E. (Eds). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
114. Ricklefs, R.E. (1998). Evolutionary theories of aging: confirmation of a fundamental prediction, with implications for the genetic basis and evolution of lifespan. Am. Nat. 152, 24-44.
115. Ricklefs, R.E. (2000). Intrinsic aging-related mortality in birds. J. Avian Biol. 31, 103-111.
116. Ricklefs, R.E. (2006). Embryo development and aging in birds andmammals. Proc. Roy. Soc. Lond. Ser. B 273, 2077-2082.
117. Ricklefs, R.E. (2008). The evolution of senescence from a comparative perspective. Funct. Ecol. 22, 379-392.
118. Ricklefs, R.E. & Cadena, C.D. (2007). Life span is unrelated to investment in reproduction in populations of mammals and birds in captivity. Ecol. Lett. 10, 867-875.
119. Ricklefs, R.E. & Scheuerlein, A. (2001). Comparison of agerelated mortality among birds and mammals. Exp. Gerontol. 36, 845-857.
120. Ricklefs, R.E. & Scheuerlein, A. (2003). Life span in the light of avian life histories. Pop. Dev. Rev. 29 (Suppl.), 71-98.
121. Ricklefs, R.E. & Starck, J.M. (1996). Applications of phylogenetically independent contrasts: a mixed progress report. Oikos 77, 167-172.
122. Roff, D.A. (2002). Life history evolution. Sunderland: Sinauer Associates.
123. Rohlf, F.J. (2006). A comment on phylogenetic correction. Evolution 60, 1509-1515.
124. Rose, M.R. (1984). Laboratory evolution of postponed senescence in Drosophila melanogaster. Evolution 38, 1004-1010.
125. Rose, M.R. (1991). The evolutionary biology of aging. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
126. Safran, R.J., Doerr, V.A.J., Sherman, P.W., Doerr, E.D., Flaxman, S.M. & Winkler, D.W. (2007). Group breeding in vertebrates: linking individual and population-level analyses. Evol. Ecol. Res. 9, 1163-1185.
127. Salomons, H.M., Mulder, G.A., van de Zande, L., Haussmann, M.F., Linskens, M.H.K. & Verhulst, S. (2009). Telomere shortening and survival in free-living corvids. Proc. Roy. Soc. Lond. Ser. B 276, 3157-3165.
128. SAS Institute Inc. (2007). JMP Statistical Software: 7.0. Cary: SAS Institute.
129. Schaub, R., Mumme, R.L. & Woolfenden, G.E. (1992). Predation on the eggs and nestlings of Florida scrub jays. Auk 109, 585-593.
130. Shapiro, L.H. & Dumbacher, J.P. (2001). Adenylate kinase intron 5: a new nuclear locus for avian systematics. Auk 118, 248-255.
131. Sherman, P.W. (1988). The levels of analysis. Anim. Behav. 36, 616-619.
132. Sherman, P.W., Holland, E. & Shellman Sherman, J. (2008). Allergies: their role in cancer prevention. Q. Rev. Biol. 83, 339-362.
133. Sherman, P.W. & Jarvis, J.U.M. (2002). Extraordinary life spans of naked mole-rats (Heterocephalus glaber). J. Zool. (Lond.) 258, 307-311.
134. Sherman, P.W., Morton, M.L., Hoopes, L.M., Bochantin, J. & Watt, J.M. (1985). The use of tail collagen strength to estimate age in Belding's ground squirrels. J. Wildl. Mgmt. 49, 874-879.
135. Shine, R. (1989). Ecological causes for the evolution of sexual dimorphism: a review of the evidence. Q. Rev. Biol. 64, 419-461.
136. Sibley, C.G. & Ahlquist, J.E. (1990). Phylogeny and classification of birds: a study in molecular evolution. New Haven: Yale University Press.
137. Slack, K.E., Delsuc, F., McLenachan, P.A., Arnason, U. & Penny, D. (2007). Resolving the root of the avian mitogenomic tree by breaking up long branches. Mol. Phyl. Evol. 42, 1-13.
138. Speakman, J.R. (2005). Body size, energy metabolism and lifespan. J. Exp. Biol. 208, 1717-1730.
139. Speakman, J.R., Acker, A.V. & Harper, E.J. (2003). Agerelated changes in the metabolism and body composition of three dog breeds and their relationship to life expectancy. Aging Cell 2, 265-275.
140. Stearns, S.C., Ackermann, M., Doebell, M. & Kaiser, M. (2000). Experimental evolution of aging, growth, and reproduction in fruit flies. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 97, 3309-3313.
141. Strehler, B.L. (1962). Time, cells, and aging. New York: Academic Press.
142. The Longevity List. (2006). NIOO-CTE Vogeltrekstation. Available at http://www.vogeltrekstation.nl/staav.htm. Site Combined Material from: Staav R. 1998. Longevity list of birds ringed in Europe. EURING News Letter 2. Staav R. 2001. Complementary longevity list of birds ringed in Europe. EURING News Letter 3 (accessed 15 August 2009).
143. van Tuinen, M. & Hedges, S.B. (2001). Calibration of avian molecular clocks. Mol. Biol. Evol. 18, 206-213.
144. Varela, S.A.M., Danchin, E. & Wagner, R.H. (2007). Does predation select for or against avian coloniality? A comparative analysis. J. Evol. Biol. 20, 1490-1503.
145. Vleck, C.M., Haussmann, H.F. & Vleck, D. (2007). Avian senescence: underlying mechanisms. J. Ornithol. 148, S611-S624.
146. Weathers, W.W. & Siegel, R.B. (1995). Body size establishes the scaling of avian post-natal metabolic rate - an interspecific analysis using phylogenetically independent contrasts. Ibis 137, 532-542.
147. Westoby, M., Leishman, M.R. & Lord, J.M. (1995). On misinterpreting the phylogenetic correction. J. Ecol. 83, 531-534.
148. Wilkin, T.A., Garant, D., Gosler, A.G. & Sheldon, B.C. (2006). Density effects on life-history traits in a wild population of the great tit, Parus major: analyses of longterm data with GIS techniques. J. Anim. Ecol. 75, 604-615.
149. Wilkinson, G.S. & South, J.M. (2002). Life history, ecology, and longevity in bats. Aging Cell 1, 124-131.
150. Williams, G.C. (1957). Pleiotropy, natural selection and the evolution of senescence. Evolution 11, 398-411.
151. Williams, P.D., Day, T., Fletcher, Q. & Rowe, L. (2006). The shaping of senescence in the wild. Trends Ecol. Evol. 21, 458-463.
152. Zoellick, B.W., Ulmschneider, H.M., Cade, B.S. & Stanley, A.W. (2004). Isolation of Snake River islands and mammalian predation of waterfowl nests. J. Wildl. Mgmt. 68, 650-662.