Phospholipases A2 in ocular homeostasis and diseases

Biochimie

Volumn 92, Issue 6, 2010, Pages 611-619

  Wang, Jinmei ^a   Kolko, Miriam ^a,b  

^a UNIVERSITY OF COPENHAGEN   (Denmark)

^b Rigshospitalet   (Denmark)

Author keywords

Eicosanoids; Ocular diseases; Ocular homeostasis; Phospholipases A2

Indexed keywords

ACETYLSALICYLIC ACID; CAY 10502; NONSTEROID ANTIINFLAMMATORY AGENT; PHOSPHOLIPASE A2; PHOSPHOLIPASE A2 GROUP IB; PHOSPHOLIPASE A2 GROUP II; PHOSPHOLIPASE A2 GROUP IIA; PHOSPHOLIPASE A2 GROUP IIE; PHOSPHOLIPASE A2 GROUP IIF; PHOSPHOLIPASE A2 GROUP III; PHOSPHOLIPASE A2 GROUP V; PHOSPHOLIPASE A2 GROUP X; PHOSPHOLIPASE A2 GROUP XIIA; PHOSPHOLIPASE A2 INHIBITOR; SECRETORY PHOSPHOLIPASE A2; STEROID; UNCLASSIFIED DRUG;

ALLERGIC CONJUNCTIVITIS; ANALGESIC ACTIVITY; ANTIANGIOGENIC ACTIVITY; ANTIINFLAMMATORY ACTIVITY; ANTIPYRETIC ACTIVITY; BACTERIAL IMMUNITY; BLEPHARITIS; CELL PROLIFERATION; CELL SURVIVAL; CONGENITAL CORNEA DYSTROPHY; CONJUNCTIVITIS; DIABETIC MACULAR EDEMA; DRUG TARGETING; DRY EYE; ENZYME ACTIVITY; ENZYME INHIBITION; EYE DISEASE; EYE INFLAMMATION; EYE PAIN; GENE EXPRESSION; GLAUCOMA; HOMEOSTASIS; HOST RESISTANCE; HUMAN; KERATITIS; NONHUMAN; PATHOGENESIS; PROLIFERATIVE RETINOPATHY; PROTEIN FUNCTION; RETINA DEGENERATION; RETINA MACULA AGE RELATED DEGENERATION; RETINA MACULA CYSTOID EDEMA; RETINITIS PIGMENTOSA; REVIEW; SECOND MESSENGER; SIGNAL TRANSDUCTION; VITREORETINOPATHY; ANIMAL; CORNEA DISEASE; ENZYMOLOGY; METABOLISM; NERVE CELL; PHOTORECEPTOR CELL; RETINA;

ANIMALS; CORNEAL DISEASES; EYE DISEASES; HOMEOSTASIS; HUMANS; NEURONS; PHOSPHOLIPASES A2; PHOTORECEPTOR CELLS; RETINA; SIGNAL TRANSDUCTION;

EID: 77953286235     PISSN: 03009084     EISSN: 61831638     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1016/j.biochi.2010.04.007     Document Type: Review

References (112)

1. Diaz B.L., Arm J.P. Phospholipase A2. Prostaglandins Leukot. Essent. Fatty Acids 2003, 69:87-97.
2. Farooqui A.A., Yang H.C., Rosenberger T.A., Horrocks L.A. Phospholipase A2 and its role in brain tissue. J. Neurochem. 1997, 69:889-901.
3. Meves H. Arachidonic acid and ion channels: an update. Br. J. Pharmacol. 2008, 155:4-16.
4. Pruzanski W., Vadas P. Phospholipase A2-a mediator between proximal and distal effectors of inflammation. Immunol. Today 1991, 12:143-146.
5. Bazan N.G. Neuroprotectin D1-mediated anti-inflammatory and survival signaling in stroke, retinal degenerations, and Alzheimer's disease. J. Lipid Res. 2009, (50 Suppl):S400-S405.
6. Singh M. Essential fatty acids, DHA and human brain. Indian J. Pediatr. 2005, 72:239-242.
7. Jeffrey B.G., Weisinger H.S., Neuringer M., Mitchell D.C. The role of docosahexaenoic acid in retinal function. Lipids 2001, 36:859-871.
8. Balsinde J., Winstead M.V., Dennis E.A. Phospholipase A2 regulation of arachidonic acid mobilization. FEBS Lett. 2002, 531:2-6.
9. Dennis E.A. The growing phospholipase A2 superfamily of signal transduction enzymes. Trends Biochem. Sci. 1997, 22:1-2.
10. Burke J.E., Dennis E.A. Phospholipase A2 biochemistry. Cardiovasc. Drugs Ther. 2009, 23:49-59.
11. Kudo I., Murakami M. Phospholipase A2 enzymes. Prostaglandins Other Lipid Mediat. 2002, 68-69:3-58.
12. Lambeau G., Gelb M.H. Biochemistry and physiology of mammalian secreted phospholipases A2. Annu. Rev. Biochem. 2008, 77:495-520.
13. Nevalainen T.J., Aho H.J., Peuravuori H. Secretion of group 2 phospholipase A2 by lacrimal glands. Invest. Ophthalmol. Vis. Sci. 1994, 35:417-421.
14. Helin M., Rönkkö S., Puustjärvi T., Teräsvirta M., Uusitalo H. Phospholipases A2 in normal human conjunctiva and from patients with primary open-angle glaucoma and exfoliation glaucoma. Graefes Arch. Clin. Exp. Ophthalmol. 2008, 246:739-746.
15. Landreville S., Coulombe S., Carrier P., Gelb M.H., Guerin S.L., Salesse C. Expression of phospholipases A2 and C in human corneal epithelial cells. Invest. Ophthalmol. Vis. Sci. 2004, 45:3997-4003.
16. Kolko M., Wang J., Zhan C., Poulsen K.A., Prause J.U., Nissen M.H., Heegaard S., Bazan N.G. Identification of intracellular phospholipases A2 in the human eye: involvement in phagocytosis of photoreceptor outer segments. Invest. Ophthalmol. Vis. Sci. 2007, 48:1401-1409.
17. Rönkkö S., Rekonen P., Kaarniranta K., Puustjärvi T., Teräsvirta M., Uusitalo H. Phospholipase A2 in chamber angle of normal eyes and patients with primary open angle glaucoma and exfoliation glaucoma. Mol. Vis. 2007, 13:408-417.
18. Demos C., Bandyopadhyay M., Rohrer B. Identification of candidate genes for human retinal degeneration loci using differentially expressed genes from mouse photoreceptor dystrophy models. Mol. Vis. 2008, 14:1639-1649.
19. Sastry B.V., Hemontolor M.E., Vidaver P.S., Sastry W.S., Janson V.E. Influence of halothane on phospholipase A2 and enzymatic methylations in the rat retinal membranes. J. Ocul. Pharmacol. Ther. 1999, 15:165-178.
20. Jacob M., Weech P.K., Salesse C. Phospholipases A2 of rod outer segment-free bovine retinae are different from well-known phospholipases A2. Biochim. Biophys. Acta 1998, 1391:169-180.
21. Jacob M., Weech P.K., Salesse C. Presence of a light-independent phospholipase A2 in bovine retina but not in rod outer segments. J. Biol. Chem. 1996, 271:19209-19218.
22. Castagnet P.I., Giusto N.M. Properties of phospholipase A2 activity from bovine retinal rod outer segments. Exp. Eye Res. 1993, 56:709-719.
23. Jelsema C.L. Light activation of phospholipase A2 in rod outer segments of bovine retina and its modulation by GTP-binding proteins. J. Biol. Chem. 1987, 262:163-168.
24. Kolko M., Kiilgaard J.F., Wang J., Poulsen K.A., Andreasen J.R., .la Cour M., Nissen M.H., Heegaard S., Bazan N.G., Prause J.U. Calcium-independent phospholipase A2 regulates retinal pigment epithelium proliferation and may be important in the pathogenesis of retinal diseases. Exp. Eye. Res. 2009, 89:383-391.
25. Kolko M., Christoffersen N.R., Barreiro S.G., Bazan N.G. Expression and location of mRNAs encoding multiple forms of secretory phospholipase A2 in the rat retina. J. Neurosci. Res. 2004, 77:517-524.
26. Kolko M., Prause J.U., Bazan N.G., Heegaard S. Human secretory phospholipase A2, group IB in normal eyes and in eye diseases. Acta. Ophthalmol. Scand. 2007, 85:317-323.
27. Aho H.J., Saari K.M., Kallajoki M., Nevalainen T.J. Synthesis of group II phospholipase A2 and lysozyme in lacrimal glands. Invest. Ophthalmol. Vis. Sci. 1996, 37:1826-1832.
28. Li Q., Luyo D., Matteson D.M., Chan C.C. Suppressive effect of antiflammin-2 on compound 48/80-induced conjunctivitis. Role of phospholipase A2s and inducible nitric oxide synthase. Ocul. Immunol. Inflamm. 1998, 6:65-73.
29. Kim S.W., Rhee H.J., Ko J., Kim Y.J., Kim H.G., Yang J.M., Choi E.C., Na D.S. Inhibition of cytosolic phospholipase A2 by annexin I. Specific interaction model and mapping of the interaction site. J. Biol. Chem. 2001, 276:15712-15719.
30. Moreau J.M., Girgis D.O., Hume E.B., Dajcs J.J., Austin M.S., O'Callaghan R.J. Phospholipase A2 in rabbit tears: a host defense against Staphylococcus aureus. Invest. Ophthalmol. Vis. Sci. 2001, 42:2347-2354.
31. Sack R.A., Nunes I., Beaton A., Morris C. Host-defense mechanism of the ocular surfaces. Biosci. Rep. 2001, 21:463-480.
32. Sastry B.V., Hemontolor M.E. Influence of nicotine and cotinine on retinal phospholipase A2 and its significance to macular function. J. Ocul. Pharmacol. Ther. 1998, 14:447-458.
33. Barnett J.M., McCollum G., Penn J.S. The role of cytosolic phospholipase A2 in retinal neovascularization. Invest. Ophthalmol. Vis. Sci. 2009, [Epub ahead of print].
34. Nevalainen T.J., Graham G.G., Scott K.F. Antibacterial actions of secreted phospholipases A2. Review. Biochim. Biophys. Acta 2008, 1781:1-9.
35. Qu X.D., Lehrer R.I. Secretory phospholipase A2 is the principal bactericide for staphylococci and other gram-positive bacteria in human tears. Infect. Immun. 1998, 66:2791-2797.
36. Ueta M., Sotozono C., Takahashi J., Kojima K., Kinoshita S. Examination of Staphylococcus aureus on the ocular surface of patients with catarrhal ulcers. Cornea 2009, 28:780-782.
37. Nixdorff N.A., Tang J., Mourad R., Skalweit M.J. SAME is different: a case report and literature review of Staphylococcus aureus metastatic endophthalmitis. South Med. J. 2009, 102:952-956.
38. Girgis D.O., Dajcs J.J., O'Callaghan R.J. Phospholipase A2 activity in normal and Staphylococcus aureus-infected rabbit eyes. Invest. Ophthalmol. Vis. Sci. 2003, 44:197-202.
39. Spencer W.H. Pseudomonas aeruginosa infections of the eye. Calif. Med. 1953, 79:438-443.
40. Kirschnek S., Gulbins E. Phospholipase A2 functions in Pseudomonas aeruginosa-induced apoptosis. Infect. Immun. 2006, 74:850-860.
41. Akiba S., Sato T. Cellular function of calcium-independent phospholipase A2. Biol. Pharm. Bull. 2004, 27:1174-1178.
42. Cinque B., Fanini D., Di Marzio L., Palumbo P., La Torre C., Donato V., Velardi E., Bruscoli S., Riccardi C., Cifone M.G. Involvement of cPLA2 inhibition in dexamethasone-induced thymocyte apoptosis. Int. J. Immunopathol. Pharmacol. 2008, 21:539-551.
43. Sun G.Y., Hu Z.Y. Stimulation of phospholipase A2 expression in rat cultured astrocytes by LPS, TNF alpha and IL-1 beta. Prog. Brain Res. 1995, 105:231-238.
44. Saari K.M., Aho V., Paavilainen V., Nevalainen T.J. Group II PLA2 content of tears in normal subjects. Invest. Ophthalmol. Vis. Sci. 2001, 42:318-320.
45. Song C.H., Choi J.S., Kim D.K., Kim J.C. Enhanced secretory group II PLA2 activity in the tears of chronic blepharitis patients. Invest. Ophthalmol. Vis. Sci. 1999, 40:2744-2748.
46. Peuravuori H., Kari O., Peltonen S., Aho V.V., Saari J.M., Collan Y., Määttä M., Saari K.M. Group IIA phospholipase A2 content of tears in patients with atopic blepharoconjunctivitis. Graefes Arch. Clin. Exp. Ophthalmol. 2004, 242:986-989.
47. Aho V.V., Nevalainen T.J., Paavilainen V., Saari K.M. Group II phospholipase A2 content of tears in patients with senile cataract and primary open-angle glaucoma. Eur. J. Ophthalmol. 2002, 12:40-43.
48. Schaumberg D.A., Dana R., Buring J.E., Sullivan D.A. Prevalence of dry eye disease among US men: estimates from the Physicians' Health Studies. Arch. Ophthalmol. 2009, 127:763-768.
49. Aho V.V., Paavilainen V., Nevalainen T.J., Peuravuori H., Saari K.M. Diurnal variation in group IIa phospholipase A2 content in tears of contact lens wearers and normal controls. Graefes Arch. Clin. Exp. Ophthalmol. 2003, 241:85-88.
50. Canaan S., Nielsen R., Ghomashchi F., Robinson B.H., Gelb M.H. Unusual mode of binding of human group IIA secreted phospholipase A2 to anionic interfaces as studied by continuous wave and time domain electron paramagnetic resonance spectroscopy. J. Biol. Chem. 2002, 277:30984-30990.
51. Soltys-Robitaille C.E., Ammon D.M., Valint P.L., Grobe G.L. The relationship between contact lens surface charge and in-vitro protein deposition levels. Biomaterials 2001, 22:3257-3260.
52. Mochizuki H., Yamada M., Hatou S., Kawashima M., Hata S. Deposition of lipid, protein, and secretory phospholipase A2 on hydrophilic contact lenses. Eye Contact Lens 2008, 34:46-49.
53. Hume E.B., Cole N., Parmar A., Tan M.E., Aliwarga Y., Schubert T., Holden B.A., Willcox M.D. Secretory phospholipase A2 deposition on contact lenses and its effect on bacterial adhesion. Invest. Ophthalmol. Vis. Sci. 2004, 45:3161-3164.
54. Yamada M., Mochizuki H., Kawashima M., Hata S. Phospholipids and their degrading enzyme in the tears of soft contact lens wearers. Cornea 2006, 25:S68-S72.
55. Glasson M., Stapleton F., Willcox M. Lipid, lipase and lipocalin differences between tolerant and intolerant contact lens wearers. Curr. Eye Res. 2002, 25:227-235.
56. Hamann S. Molecular mechanisms of water transport in the eye. Int. Rev. Cytol. 2002, 215:395-431.
57. Gupta N., Yucel Y.H. Glaucoma as a neurodegenerative disease. Curr. Opin. Ophthalmol. 2007, 18:110-114.
58. Harada T., Harada C., Nakamura K., Quah H.M., Okumura A., Namekata K., Saeki T., Aihara M., Yoshida H., Mitani A., Tanaka K. The potential role of glutamate transporters in the pathogenesis of normal tension glaucoma. J. Clin. Invest. 2007, 117:1763-1770.
59. Kolko M., Rodriguez de Turco E.B., Diemer N.H., Bazan N.G. Neuronal damage by secretory phospholipase A2: modulation by cytosolic phospholipase A2, platelet-activating factor, and cyclooxygenase-2 in neuronal cells in culture. Neurosci. Lett. 2003, 338:164-168.
60. Yagami T., Ueda K., Asakura K., Hata S., Kuroda T., Sakaeda T., Takasu N., Tanaka K., Gemba T., Hori Y. Human group IIA secretory phospholipase A2 induces neuronal cell death via apoptosis. Mol. Pharmacol. 2002, 61:114-126.
61. DeCoster M.A. Group III secreted phospholipase A2 causes apoptosis in rat primary cortical neuronal cultures. Brain Res. 2003, 988:20-28.
62. Kriem B., Sponne I., Fifre A., Malaplate-Armand C., Lozac'h-Pillot K., Koziel V., Yen-Potin F.T., Bihain B., Oster T., Olivier J.L., Pillot T. Cytosolic phospholipase A2 mediates neuronal apoptosis induced by soluble oligomers of the amyloid-beta peptide. FASEB J. 2005, 19:85-87.
63. Kolko M., DeCoster M.A., de Turco E.B., Bazan N.G. Synergy by secretory phospholipase A2 and glutamate on inducing cell death and sustained arachidonic acid metabolic changes in primary cortical neuronal cultures. J. Biol. Chem. 1996, 271:32722-32728.
64. Mathisen G.H., Thorkildsen I.H., Paulsen R.E. Secretory PLA2-IIA and ROS generation in peripheral mitochondria are critical for neuronal death. Brain Res. 2007, 1153:43-51.
65. Fatma N., Kubo E., Sen M., Agarwal N., Thoreson W.B., Camras C.B., Singh D.P. Peroxiredoxin 6 delivery attenuates TNF-alpha-and glutamate-induced retinal ganglion cell death by limiting ROS levels and maintaining Ca2+ homeostasis. Brain Res. 2008, 1233:63-78.
66. Kawasaki A., Han M.H., Wei J.Y., Hirata K., Otori Y., Barnstable C.J. Protective effect of arachidonic acid on glutamate neurotoxicity in rat retinal ganglion cells. Invest. Ophthalmol. Vis. Sci. 2002, 43:1835-1842.
67. Bazan N.G. Neuroprotectin D1 (NPD1): a DHA-derived mediator that protects brain and retina against cell injury-induced oxidative stress. Brain Pathol. 2005, 15:159-166.
68. Tezel G. Oxidative stress in glaucomatous neurodegeneration: mechanisms and consequences. Prog. Retin. Eye Res. 2006, 25:490-513.
69. German O.L., Insua M.F., Gentili C., Rotstein N.P., Politi L.E. Docosahexaenoic acid prevents apoptosis of retina photoreceptors by activating the ERK/MAPK pathway. J. Neurochem. 2006, 98:1507-1520.
70. Tietge U.J., Pratico D., Ding T., Funk C.D., Hildebrand R.B., Van Berkel T., Van Eck M. Macrophage-specific expression of group IIA sPLA2 results in accelerated atherogenesis by increasing oxidative stress. J. Lipid. Res. 2005, 46:1604-1614.
71. Moore D., Harris A., Wudunn D., Kheradiya N., Siesky B. Dysfunctional regulation of ocular blood flow: a risk factor for glaucoma?. Clin. Ophthalmol. 2008, 2:849-861.
72. Nicolela M.T. Clinical clues of vascular dysregulation and its association with glaucoma. Can. J. Ophthalmol. 2008, 43:337-341.
73. Wilensky R.L., Macphee C.H. Lipoprotein-associated phospholipase A2 and atherosclerosis. Curr. Opin. Lipidol. 2009, 20:415-420.
74. Tappia P.S., Singal T. Phospholipid-mediated signaling and heart disease. Subcell. Biochem. 2008, 49:299-324.
75. Lauritzen I., Heurteaux C., Lazdunski M. Expression of group II phospholipase A2 in rat brain after severe forebrain ischemia and in endotoxic shock. Brain Res. 1994, 651:353-356.
76. Su W.W., Cheng S.T., Ho W.J., Tsay P.K., Wu S.C., Chang S.H. Glaucoma is associated with peripheral vascular endothelial dysfunction. Ophthalmology 2008, 115:1173-1178. e1171.
77. Tschernutter M., Schlichtenbrede F.C., Howe S., Balaggan K.S., Munro P.M., Bainbridge J.W., Thrasher A.J., Smith A.J., Ali R.R. Long-term preservation of retinal function in the RCS rat model of retinitis pigmentosa following lentivirus-mediated gene therapy. Gene Ther. 2005, 12:694-701.
78. Rakoczy P.E., Zhang D., Robertson T., Barnett N.L., Papadimitriou J., Constable I.J., Lai C.M. Progressive age-related changes similar to age-related macular degeneration in a transgenic mouse model. Am. J. Pathol. 2002, 161:1515-1524.
79. Delori F.C., Goger D.G., Dorey C.K. Age-related accumulation and spatial distribution of lipofuscin in RPE of normal subjects. Invest. Ophthalmol. Vis. Sci. 2001, 42:1855-1866.
80. Finnemann S.C., Leung L.W., Rodriguez-Boulan E. The lipofuscin component A2E selectively inhibits phagolysosomal degradation of photoreceptor phospholipid by the retinal pigment epithelium. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U S A 2002, 99:3842-3847.
81. Yu T.Y., Acosta M.L., Ready S., Cheong Y.L., Kalloniatis M. Light exposure causes functional changes in the retina: increased photoreceptor cation channel permeability, photoreceptor apoptosis, and altered retinal metabolic function. J. Neurochem. 2007, 103:714-724.
82. Kashiwagi T., Meyer-Rochow V.B., Nishimura K., Eguchi E. Light activation of phospholipase A2 in the photoreceptor of the crayfish (Procambarus clarkii). Acta Neurobiol. Exp. (Wars) 2000, 60:9-16.
83. Jung H., Reme C. Light-evoked arachidonic acid release in the retina: illuminance/duration dependence and the effects of quinacrine, mellitin and lithium. Light-evoked arachidonic acid release. Graefes Arch. Clin. Exp. Ophthalmol. 1994, 232:167-175.
84. Joussen A.M., Smyth N., Niessen C. Pathophysiology of diabetic macular edema. Dev. Ophthalmol. 2007, 39:1-12.
85. Pannicke T., Iandiev I., Uckermann O., Biedermann B., Kutzera F., Wiedemann P., Wolburg H., Reichenbach A., Bringmann A. A potassium channel-linked mechanism of glial cell swelling in the postischemic retina. Mol. Cell. Neurosci. 2004, 26:493-502.
86. Pannicke T., Iandiev I., Wurm A., Uckermann O., vom Hagen F., Reichenbach A., Wiedemann P., Hammes H.P., Bringmann A. Diabetes alters osmotic swelling characteristics and membrane conductance of glial cells in rat retina. Diabetes 2006, 55:633-639.
87. Smith W.L. Prostanoid biosynthesis and mechanisms of action. Am. J. Phys. 1992, 263:F181-F191.
88. Bazan H.E. Cellular and molecular events in corneal wound healing: significance of lipid signalling. Exp. Eye Res. 2005, 80:453-463.
89. Taylor L., Menconi M., Leibowitz M.H., Polgar P. The effect of ascorbate, hydroperoxides, and bradykinin on prostaglandin production by corneal and lens cells. Invest. Ophthalmol. Vis. Sci. 1982, 23:378-382.
90. Eakins K.E., Whitelocke R.A., Perkins E.S., Bennett A., Unger W.G. Release of prostaglandins in ocular inflammation in the rabbit. Nature New Biol. 1972, 239:248-249.
91. Kulkarni P.S., Fleisher L., Srinivasan B.D. The synthesis of cyclooxygenase products in ocular tissues of various species. Curr. Eye Res. 1984, 3:447-452.
92. Ueta M., Matsuoka T., Narumiya S., Kinoshita S. Prostaglandin E receptor subtype EP3 in conjunctival epithelium regulates late-phase reaction of experimental allergic conjunctivitis. J. Allergy. Clin. Immunol. 2009, 123:466-471.
93. Hashimoto T., Igarashi A., Hoshina F., Yamada M., Toyoda Y., Notsu Y., Kohno S. Effects of nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs on experimental allergic conjunctivitis in Guinea pigs. J. Ocul. Pharmacol. Ther. 2003, 19:569-577.
94. Sachdev M.S., Sood N.N., Verma L.K., Gupta S.K., Jaffery N.F. Pathogenesis of epidemic dropsy glaucoma. Arch. Ophthalmol. 1988, 106:1221-1223.
95. Bar-Ilan A., Naveh N., Weissman C., Belkin M., Schwartz M. Prostaglandin E2 changes in the retina and optic nerve of an eye with injured optic nerve. Neuroscience 1991, 45:221-225.
96. Rassnick K.M., Njaa B.L. Cyclooxygenase-2 immunoreactivity in equine ocular squamous-cell carcinoma. J. Vet. Diagn. Invest. 2007, 19:436-439.
97. Venza I., Ruggeri P., Valenti A., Denaro L., Severino A., Teti D. Modified responses to PGE2 in polyamine biosynthesis by T lymphocytes of gastric- and conjunctiva basal cell-carcinoma patients. Immunopharmacol. Immunotoxicol. 2001, 23:541-554.
98. Reichenbach A., Wurm A., Pannicke T., Iandiev I., Wiedemann P., Bringmann A. Muller cells as players in retinal degeneration and edema. Graefes Arch. Clin. Exp. Ophthalmol. 2007, 245:627-636.
99. Gately S., Li W.W. Multiple roles of COX-2 in tumor angiogenesis: a target for antiangiogenic therapy. Semin. Oncol. 2004, 31:2-11.
100. Hardy P., Beauchamp M., Sennlaub F., Gobeil F., Tremblay L., Mwaikambo B., Lachapelle P., Chemtob S. New insights into the retinal circulation: inflammatory lipid mediators in ischemic retinopathy. Prostaglandins Leukot. Essent. Fatty Acids 2005, 72:301-325.
101. Hardy P., Beauchamp M., Sennlaub F., Gobeil F., Mwaikambo B., Lachapelle P., Chemtob S. Inflammatory lipid mediators in ischemic retinopathy. Pharmacol. Rep. 2005, (57 Suppl):169-190.
102. Rola-Pleszczynski M., Thivierge M., Gagnon N., Lacasse C., Stankova J. Differential regulation of cytokine and cytokine receptor genes by PAF, LTB4 and PGE2. J. Lipid Mediat. 1993, 6:175-181.
103. Vane J.R. Inhibition of prostaglandin synthesis as a mechanism of action for aspirin-like drugs. Nature New Biol. 1971, 231:232-235.
104. Pavesio C.E., Decory H.H. Treatment of ocular inflammatory conditions with loteprednol etabonate. Br. J. Ophthalmol. 2008, 92:455-459.
105. Martenet A.C. [Classical immunosuppressive agents]. Bull. Soc. Belge Ophtalmol. 1989, 230:135-141.
106. Schatz C.S., Uzel J.L., Leininger L., Danner S., Terzic J., Fischbach M. Immunosuppressants used in a steroid-sparing strategy for childhood uveitis. J. Pediatr. Ophthalmol. Strabismus 2007, 44:28-34.
107. Ishaq M., Feroze A.H., Shahid M., Baig M.A., Ameen S.S., Feroze S.H., Chishti R.A. Intravitreal steroids may facilitate treatment of Eales' disease (idiopathic retinal vasculitis): an interventional case series. Eye (Lond) 2007, 21:1403-1405.
108. Henderson H.W., Mitchell S.M. Treatment of immune recovery vitritis with local steroids. Br. J. Ophthalmol. 1999, 83:540-545.
109. Lee H.M., Weinstein J.N., Meller S.T., Hayashi N., Spratt K.F., Gebhart G.F. The role of steroids and their effects on phospholipase A2. An animal model of radiculopathy. Spine (Phila Pa 1976) 1998, 23:1191-1196.
110. Balsinde J., Balboa M.A., Insel P.A., Dennis E.A. Regulation and inhibition of phospholipase A2. Annu. Rev. Pharmacol. Toxicol. 1999, 39:175-189.
111. V. Magrioti, G. Kokotos, Phospholipase A2 inhibitors as potential therapeutic agents for the treatment of inflammatory diseases, Expert. Opin. Ther. Pat. 20 (2010) 1-18.
112. Reid R.C. Inhibitors of secretory phospholipase A2 group IIA. Curr. Med. Chem. 2005, 12:3011-3026.