Failing our children: Lead in u.s. school drinking water

New Solutions

Volumn 20, Issue 1, 2010, Pages 25-47

  Lambrinidou, Yanna ^a   Triantafyllidou, Simoni ^b   Edwards, Marc ^b  

^a Parents for Nontoxic Alternatives   (United States)

^b VIRGINIA POLYTECHNIC INSTITUTE AND STATE UNIVERSITY   (United States)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

LEAD;

ARTICLE; ENVIRONMENTAL EXPOSURE; GOVERNMENT; HEALTH EDUCATION; HEALTH SERVICES RESEARCH; HUMAN; LEGAL ASPECT; ORGANIZATION AND MANAGEMENT; SCHOOL; UNITED STATES; WATER POLLUTANT; WATER POLLUTION; WATER SUPPLY;

ENVIRONMENTAL EXPOSURE; HEALTH EDUCATION; HUMANS; LEAD; LOCAL GOVERNMENT; ORGANIZATIONAL CASE STUDIES; SCHOOLS; STATE GOVERNMENT; UNITED STATES; WATER POLLUTANTS, CHEMICAL; WATER POLLUTION, CHEMICAL; WATER SUPPLY;

EID: 77952989706     PISSN: 10482911     EISSN: 15413772     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.2190/NS.022010eov     Document Type: Article

References (115)

1. J. Grover and M. Goldberg, “School Water Investigation,” KNBC (Los Angeles), April 24, 2008, http://www.nbclosangeles.com/School_Water_Investigation.html accessed September 23, 2009.
2. J. Grover, “Contaminated Water?” KNBC (Los Angeles), April 24, 2008, http://publichealth.lacounty.gov/lead/news/Joel%20Grover%20-%20Contaminated%20 Water%20at%20Schools.pdf accessed September 23, 2009.
3. E. Woo, “Lead Level Unsafe in 400 L.A. School Water Fountains,” Los Angeles Times, November 22, 1988, http://articles.latimes.com/1988-11-22/local/me-424_1_ drinking-fountains accessed September 25, 2009.
4. P. Shenon, “Lead Going Unchecked in Schools,” Los Angeles Daily News, November 1, 1990.
5. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, “Lead in School’s Drinking Water,” pp. 20-21 (Report 570-9-89-001), January 1989.
6. Grover and Goldberg, “School Water Investigation.”
7. S. Abram, “High Levels of Lead are Discovered in Valley School Drinking Fountain,” Los Angeles Daily News, April 23, 2008.
8. S. Abram, “School Water Alarms Parents,” Los Angeles Daily News, April 27, 2008.
9. Ibid.
10. S. Thoma, interview by Chris Schauble, KNBC (Los Angeles), 2008, http://www. nbclosangeles.com/news/health/LAUSD-Schools-Shut-Down-Faucets-Due-to-Lead-Levels.html accessed September 25, 2009.
11. J. Grover and M. Goldberg, “School Water Investigation, Part 4: Is LAUSD Lying to Parents About Safety of Water in Schools?” KNBC (Los Angeles), May 14, 2008, http://www.nbclosangeles.com/news/Is_LAUSD_Lying_To_Parents_About_Safety _Of_Water_In_Schools_Los_Angeles.html accessed September 28, 2009.
12. Ibid.
13. G.B. Sanchez, “Faucets Shut Off at Schools Due to High Lead Levels,” Los Angeles Daily News, March 13, 2009.
14. Los Angeles Unified School District, “Lead in Water Mitigation Management,” presentation, LAUSD School Safety, Student Health & Human Services Committee and Human Relations Committee, March 12, 2009, http://notebook.lausd.net/pls/ptl/docs/PAGE/CA_LAUSD/FLDR_ORGANIZATIONS/COMMITTEE_MAIN/COMMITTEE_SSHHS/COMMITTEE_SSHHS_AGENDA/2.%20UPDATE%20 ON%20%20LEAD%20IN%20DRINKING%20WATER.PDF accessed September 25, 2009.
15. Los Angeles Unified School District, Office of Environmental Health and Safety, “School Drinking Water Testing Results” (10th Street Elementary School, January 9, 2009), http://www.lausd.oehs.org/drinkingwater_results.aspaccessed September 30, 2009.
16. J. Grover and M. Goldberg, “LAUSD Testing Reveals Widespread Lead Contamination in Water,” KNBC (Los Angeles), March 24, 2009, http://www. nbclosangeles.com/news/local-beat/LAUSD-Testing-Reveals-Widespread-Lead-Contamination-in-Water.html accessed September 30, 2009.
17. G. Burke, “School Drinking Water Contains Toxins,” Associated Press, September 25, 2009, http://news.yahoo.com/s/ap/20090925/ap_on_re_us/us_toxic_water_schools accessed September 27, 2009.
18. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, “Drinking Water in Schools & Child Care Facilities: Laws and Regulations,” http://www.epa.gov/OGWDW/schools/regulations.htmlaccessed September 15, 2009.
19. U.S. Government Accountability Office, “Drinking Water: EPA Should Strengthen Ongoing Efforts to Ensure that Consumers are Protected from Lead Contamination” (Report to Congressional Requesters, GAO 06-148), January 2006, http://www. gao.gov/new.items/d06148.pdf accessed September 23, 2009.
20. W.E. Cox, “Evolution of the Safe Drinking Water Act: A Search for Effective Quality Assurance Strategies and Workable Concepts of Federalism,” William and Mary Environmental Law and Policy Review 21 (1997): 69-164.
21. C.D. Larson, “Historical Development of the National Primary Drinking Water Regulations,” in Safe Drinking Water Act: Amendments, Regulations and Standards (Chelsea, MI: Lewis Publishers, Inc., 1989), 3-15.
22. H.R. 93-1185, Safe Drinking Water Act, (1974): 1.
23. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, “National Interim Primary Drinking Water Regulations” (EPA 570/9-76-003), 1976.
24. R.P. Maas, et al., “Reducing Lead Exposure from Drinking Water: Recent History and Current Status,” Public Health Reports 120 (2005): 316-321, http://www.publichealthreports.org/userfiles/120_3/120316.pdfaccessed September 15, 2009.
25. R.H. Gnaedinger, “Lead in School Drinking Water,” Journal of Environmental Health 55, 6 (1993): 15-18.
26. National Academy of Sciences, Safe Drinking Water Committee, Drinking Water and Health, pp. 260-261 (Washington DC: National Academy of Sciences, 1977).
27. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Selecting and Renovating an Old House: A Complete Guide, p. 13 (Toronto, ON: General Publishing Company, Ltd., 2000).
28. M. Engel, “Fear of Lead in DC Water Spurs Requests for Tests,” Washington Post, December 6, 1986.
29. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, “The Lead Ban: Preventing the Use of Lead in Public Water Systems and Plumbing Used for Drinking Water” (EPA 57Q/9-89-BBB), August 1989.
30. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, “History: Lead Contamination Control and Asbestos Information Acts of 1988” [press release], November 1, 1988, http://www.epa.gov/history/topics/sdwa/06.htm accessed September 22, 2009.
31. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, “Lead in School’s Drinking Water.”
32. Ibid., 19.
33. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, “Report of Audit on the Lead in Drinking Water Program” (E1HWF9-03-0316-0100508), September 28, 1990.
34. Ibid., 15.
35. P. Shenon, “Despite Law, Study Finds, Water in US Schools May Contain Lead,” New York Times, November 1, 1990, http://www.nytimes.com/1990/11/01/us/despite-law-study-finds-water-in-us-schools-may-contain-lead.html accessed September 23, 2009.
36. U.S. Government Accountability Office, “Drinking Water.”
37. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, “3Ts for Reducing Lead in Drinking Water in Schools: Revised Technical Guidance” (EPA 816-E-05-008), October 2006, http://www.epa.gov/OGWDW/schools/pdfs/lead/toolkit_leadschools_guide_ 3ts_leadschools.pdf accessed on 9/29/09.
38. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, “25 Years of the Safe Drinking Water Act: History and Trends” (EPA 816-R-99-007), December 1999, http://permanent. access.gpo.gov/websites/epagov/www.epa.gov/safewater/consumer/trendcvr.pdf accessed September 14, 2009.
39. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, “Lead and Copper Rule: A Quick Reference Guide” (EPA-816-F-04-009), March 2004, http://www.epa.gov/safewater/1crmr/pdfs/qrg_1cmr_2004.pdf accessed September 29, 2009.
40. Ibid.
41. S. 2377, Lead-Free Drinking Water Act of 2004, http://www.govtrack.us/congress/bill.xpd?bill=s108-2377 accessed September 26, 2009.
42. H.R. 4268, Lead-Free Drinking Water Act of 2004, http://www.govtrack.us/congress/bill.xpd?bill=h108-4268 accessed September 26, 2009.
43. S. 1328, Lead-Free Drinking Water Act of 2004, http://www.govtrack.us/congress/bill.xpd?bill=s109-1328 accessed September 26, 2009.
44. H.R. 3178, Lead-Free Drinking Water Act of 2005, http://www.govtrack.us/congress/bill.xpd?bill=h109-3178 accessed September 26, 2009.
45. H.R. 2076, Lead-Free Drinking Water Act of 2007, http://www.govtrack.us/congress/bill.xpd?bill=h110-2076 accessed September 26, 2009.
46. P.J. Landrigan and A.C. Todd, “Lead Poisoning,” Western Journal of Medicine 161 (1994): 153-159.
47. E. Millstone, Lead and Public Health (Washington D.C: Taylor & Francis, Inc. 1997).
48. R.A. Goyer, “Lead Toxicity: Current Concerns,” Environmental Health Perspectives 100 (1993): 177-187.
49. R.L. Canfield, et al., “Intellectual Impairment in Children with Blood Lead Concentrations Below 10 μg per Deciliter,” New England Journal of Medicine 348 (2003): 1517-1526.
50. D.C. Bellinger and H.L. Needleman, “Intellectual Impairment and Blood Lead Levels,” New England Journal of Medicine 349 (2000): 502.
51. B.P. Lanphear, et al., “Cognitive Deficits Associated with Blood Lead Concentrations <10 microg/dL in US Children and Adolescents,” Public Health Reports 115, 6 (2000): 521-529.
52. T.A. Jusko, et al., “Blood Lead Concentrations < 10 µg/dL and Child Intelligence at 6 Years of Age,” Environmental Health Perspectives 116, 2 (2008): 243-248.
53. Canfield, et al., “Intellectual Impairment in Children with Blood Lead Concentrations Below 10 μg per Deciliter.”
54. Bellinger and Needleman, “Intellectual Impairment and Blood Lead Levels.”
55. Lanphear, et al., “Cognitive Deficits Associated with Blood Lead Concentrations <10 microg/dL in US Children and Adolescents.”
56. T.A. Jusko, et al., “Blood Lead Concentrations < 10 µg/dL and Child Intelligence at 6 Years of Age.”
57. J.G. Schwemberger, et al., “Blood Lead Levels—United States, 1999-2002,” Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report, 54, 20 (2005): 513-516, http://www.cdc.gov/mmwr/preview/mmwrhtml/mm5420a5.htm accessed September 28, 2009.
58. W. Troesken, The Great Lead Water Pipe Disaster (Cambridge: MIT Press, 2006).
59. C. Elfland and M. Edwards, “Managing and Resolving Lead Problems in Potable Water of New Construction” (Water Quality Technology Conference and Exhibition, American Water Works Association, Cincinnati, OH, November 16-20, 2008).
60. M.R. Hopkins, et al., “Variants in Iron Metabolism Genes Predict Higher Blood Lead Levels in Young Children,” Environmental Health Perspectives 116, 9 (2008): 1261-1266.
61. M. Shannon and J.W. Graef, “Lead Intoxication from Lead-Contaminated Water Used to Reconstitute Infant Formula,” Clinical Pediatrics 28 (2009): 380-382.
62. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, “Lead in Drinking Water: Basic Information,” http://www.epa.gov/OGWDW/lead/basicinformation.html accessed September 28, 2009.
63. S. Triantafyllidou, J. Parks, and M. Edwards, “Lead Particles in Potable Water,” Journal of the American Water Works Association, 99, 6 (2007): 107-117.
64. S. Triantafyllidou, “Addressing and Assessing Lead Threats in Drinking Water: Non-Leaded Brass, Product Testing, Particulate Lead Occurrence and Effects of the Chloride to Sulfate Mass Ratio on Corrosion” (master’s thesis, Virginia Tech, 2006).
65. Triantafyllidou et al., “Lead Particles in Potable Water.”
66. Triantafyllidou, “Addressing and Assessing Lead Threats in Drinking Water.”
67. Triantafyllidou et al., “Lead Particles in Potable Water.”
68. Triantafyllidou, “Addressing and Assessing Lead Threats in Drinking Water.”
69. M. Edwards, S. Triantafyllidou, and D. Best, “Elevated Blood Lead in Young Children Due to Lead-Contaminated Drinking Water: Washington, DC, 2001-2004,” Environmental Science and Technology 43, 5 (2009): 1618-1623.
70. U.S. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, “Brief Report: Lead Poisoning from Ingestion of a Toy Necklace-Oregon, 2003,” Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report, June 18, 2004, http://www.cdc.gov/mmwr/preview/mmwrhtml/mm5323a5. htm accessed September 28, 2009.
71. U.S. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, “Death of a Child After Ingestion of a Metallic Charm—Minnesota, 2006,” Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report, March 23, 2006, http://www.cdc.gov/mmwr/preview/mmwrhtml/mm55d323a1.htm accessed September 28, 2009.
72. Ibid.
73. U.S. Consumer Product Safety Commission, Office of Information and Public Affairs, “CPSC Announces New Policy Addressing Lead in Children’s Metal Jewelry,” February 3, 2005, http://www.cpsc.gov/cpscpub/prerel/prhtm105/05097. html accessed September 28, 2009.
74. Edwards et al., “Elevated Blood Lead in Young Children Due to Lead-Contaminated Drinking Water.”
75. Ibid.
76. R.M. Levin et al., “Lead Exposures in US Children, 2008: Implications for Prevention,” Environmental Health Perspectives 116, 10 (2008): 1285-1293.
77. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, “Control of Lead and Copper in Drinking Water” (EPA I 625/R-931001), May 1993. http://www.epa.gov/nrmrl/pubs/625r93001/625r93001.pdf accessed September 29, 2009.
78. S. Breese, “Factors Influencing the Rate of Lead Release in Domestic Plumbing Systems” (American Water Works Association Annual Conference and Exposition, Atlanta, GA, June 8-12, 2008).
79. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, “Control of Lead and Copper in Drinking Water.”
80. L.S. McNeill and M. Edwards, “Importance of Pb and Cu Particulate Species for Corrosion Control,” ASCE Journal of Environmental Engineering 130, 2 (2004): 136-144.
81. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, “3Ts for Reducing Lead in Drinking Water in Schools,” 30.
82. Triantafyllidou et al., “Lead Particles in Potable Water.”
83. Triantafyllidou, “Addressing and Assessing Lead Threats in Drinking Water.”
84. M. Edwards and A. Dudi, “Role of Chlorine and Chloramine in Corrosion of Lead-Bearing Plumbing Materials,” Journal of the American Water Works Association 96, 10 (2004): 69-81.
85. Triantafyllidou et al., “Lead Particles in Potable Water.”
86. Triantafyllidou, “Addressing and Assessing Lead Threats in Drinking Water.”
87. J. Allegood, “Pitt Probes Boy’s Lead Poisoning,” Raleigh News and Observer, May 6, 2005.
88. S.T. Bachelor, “Area Family Copes with Lead Poisoning,” The Greenville Daily Reflector, May 4, 2005.
89. L. Copeland, “Blood and Water: The Long Search for the Source of a Baby’s Lead Poisoning,” Washington Post, March 4, 2004.
90. R. Renner, “Mis-lead,” Environmental Science & Technology 40, 14 (2006): 4333-4334.
91. R. Gronberg, “City Water Lead Levels Alarming Regulators,” The Herald-Sun, June 26, 2006, http://www.herald-sun.com/durham/4-747728.htmlaccessed June 27, 2006.
92. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, “Controlling Lead in Drinking Water for Schools and Day Care Facilities: A Summary of State Programs” (EPA-810-R-04-001), July 2004, http://www.epa.gov/OGWDW/lcrmr/pdfs/report_1cmr_schools summary.pdf accessed October 1, 2009.
93. S. Fitzgerald, “District: Unsafe Lead Levels Found in 20 pct of Water Outlets,” Philadelphia Inquirer, November 21, 2000.
94. E. Woo, “Lead Level Unsafe in 400 L.A. School Water Fountains,” Los Angeles Times, November 22, 1988, http://articles.latimes.com/1988-11-22/local/me-424_1_ drinking-fountains accessed September 25, 2009.
95. E.A. Murphy, “Effectiveness of Flushing on Reducing Lead and Copper Levels in School Drinking Water,” August 1993, http://www.ehponline.org/members/1993/101-3/murphy-full.html accessed September 30, 2009.
96. M. Fisher, “Excessive Lead Levels Found in Water at 10 DC Schools,” Washington Post, December 24, 1987.
97. D. Cohn, “Leaded Water Still On in Some DC Schools,” Washington Post, March 3, 1994.
98. A. Goldstein and J. Blum, “Tests Find Lead High at 29 DC Schools,” Washington Post, April 30, 2004.
99. T. Labbe, “Tests Find Elevated Lead Levels at Five Schools, DC Council Told,” Washington Post, February 15, 2007.
100. C.D. Leonnig, “Parents Demand New Tests of School Water,” Washington Post, April 29, 2007.
101. Associated Press Newswires, “Fountains with Lead Remain in Schools,” February 7, 2003.
102. Associated Press Online, “Baltimore Schools Close Water Fountains,” February 7, 2003.
103. S. Neufeld, “All City Schools to Get Water Coolers,” Baltimore Sun, November 8, 2007.
104. City of Baltimore, “Baltimore City Public Schools’ CEO Announces System-Wide Shift to Bottled Drinking Water” [press release], November 7, 2007, http://www.bcps.k12.md.us/News/PDF/Lead_in_Water110707.pdf accessed September 29, 2009.
105. Burke, “School Drinking Water Contains Toxins.”
106. D. Bach, “Lead Dangers Stun Parents,” Seattle-Post Intelligencer, July 2, 2004.
107. D. Bach, “Schools Will Bring in Water,” Seattle Post-Intelligencer, December 18, 2004.
108. D. Bach, “From Concerned Parent to Crusader for Safe Water,” Seattle Post-Intelligencer, August 18, 2004.
109. D. Bach, “Schools’ Water Fails Lead Testing,” Seattle Post-Intelligencer, April 30, 2004.
110. M.S. Cooper, “Get the Lead Out of Schools’ Water,” Seattle Post-Intelligencer, July 2, 2004.
111. D. Bach, “Lead Dangers Stun Parents,” Seattle Post-Intelligencer, July 2, 2004.
112. Associated Press, “Tests Find High Lead Levels in Many School Water Fountains,” July 2, 2004.
113. D. Bach, “Schools Can Cut Lead for Less, Expert Says,” Seattle Post-Intelligencer, November 1, 2004.
114. S. Bhatt, “Report Says Lead Levels in Schools’ Water Not Dire,” Seattle Times, March 25, 2005.
115. Seattle Public Schools, “Attachment A—Board Adopted Policy E10.00 and Procedures E10.01,” http://www.seattleschools.org/area/ehs/drinkingwater/HDR/AttachmentA.pdfaccessed October 1, 2009.