Unpacking settler colonialism's Urban strategies: Indigenous peoples in Victoria, British Columbia, and the transition to a Settler-Colonial City

Urban History Review

Volumn 38, Issue 2, 2010, Pages 4-20

  Edmonds, Penelope ^a  

^a NONE

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

COLONIALISM; COLONIZATION; IMMIGRATION; INDIGENOUS POPULATION; MODERNITY; NINETEENTH CENTURY; SOCIAL SEGREGATION; STRATEGIC APPROACH; URBAN HISTORY; URBAN POLITICS; URBANIZATION;

BRITISH COLUMBIA; CANADA; VANCOUVER ISLAND; VICTORIA [VANCOUVER ISLAND];

EID: 77952941915     PISSN: 07030428     EISSN: 19185138     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.7202/039671ar     Document Type: Article

References (195)

1. Scholars such a Nicholas Blomley, Evelyn J. Peters, and Jordan Stanger- Ross have moved some way towards an analysis of urban settler colonialism. Nicholas Blomley, Unsettling the City: Urban Land and the Politics of Property (New York: Routledge, 2005)
2. Evelyn J. Peters, "Conceptually Unclad: Feminist Geography and Aboriginal Peoples," Suzanne Mackenzie Memorial Lecture, Canadian Geographer 48, no.3 (2004): 251-265
3. Jordan Stanger-Ross, "Municipal Colonialism in Vancouver: City Planning and the Conflict over Indian Reserves, 1928-1950s," Canadian Historical Review 89, no.4 (December 2008): 541-580.
4. For more general works, see, for example, Michael Cross and Michael Keith, eds., Racism, the City and the State (London: Routledge, 1993)
5. Anthony D. King, "Colonial Cities: Global Pivots of Change," in Colonial Cities: Essays on Urbanism in a Colonial Context, ed. Ronald Ross and Gerard Telkamp, 7-18 (Boston: Martinus Nijhoff Publishers / Leiden University Press, 1985)
6. Anthony D. King, Colonial Urban Development (London: Routledge and Kegan Paul, 1973)
7. Ronald Ross and Gerard Telkamp, eds., Colonial Cities: Essays on Urbanism in a Colonial Context (Boston: Martinus Nijhoff Publishers / Leiden University Press, 1985)
8. Richard White and John M. Findley, eds., Power and Place in the North American West (Seattle: University of Washington Press, 1999).
9. For works that address settler society and spatial formation see Cole Harris, Making Native Space: Colonialism, Resistance, and Reserves in British Columbia (Vancouver: UBC Press, 2002)
10. Adele Perry, On the Edge of Empire: Gender, Race, and the Making of British Columbia, 1849-1871 (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 2001)
11. Sherene Razack, ed., Race, Space, and the Law: Unmapping a White Settler Society (Toronto: Between the Lines, 2003).
12. See also Penelope Edmonds, Urbanizing Frontiers: Indigenous Peoples and Settlers in 19th-Century Pacific Rim Cities (Vancouver: UBC Press, 2010), 54-56.
13. Peters, "Conceptually Unclad," 255.
14. See also Edmonds, Urbanizing Frontiers, 54-56.
15. Stanger-Ross, "Municipal Colonialism in Vancouver," 541-580. See n6.
16. Jay T. Johnson, Garth Cant, Richard Howitt, and Evelyn Peters, "Creating Indigenous Geographies: Embracing Indigenous Peoples' Knowledges and Rights," Geographical Research 45, no.2 (June 2007): 117-120;
17. Peters, "Conceptually Unclad," 252.
18. In Canada, government census data revealed in 2001 that almost half (494,095) of the 976,305 people identifying themselves as members of at least one of Canada's Aboriginal groups (North American Indian, Métis or Inuit) resided in urban areas. Of this urban Canadian Aboriginal population, almost 20% (175,760) lived in five cities: Winnipeg, Edmonton, Vancouver, Calgary and Toronto. Canada's Urban Aboriginal Population Fact Sheet, Indian and Northern Affairs Canada, http://www.ainc-inac.gc.ca/ai/ofi/uas/fs.
19. Johnson et al., "Creating Indigenous Geographies," 117, 118.
20. Perry, Edge of Empire, 19.
21. Perry has drawn attention to the problem of a disjuncture between studies of immigration and colonization regarding the broader colonial history of British Columbia and Canada, the need for greater study of their constitutive forces and complex co-production, and possible limits in making settler polities. On similar issues in settler Australia, see Ann Curthoys, "An Uneasy Conversation? The Multicultural and the Indigenous," in Race, Colour and Identity in Australia and New Zealand, ed. John Docker and Gerhard Fisher, 21-36 (Sydney: University of New South Wales Press, 2000).
22. Renisa Mawani, Colonial Proximities: Crossracial Encounters and Juridicial Truths (Vancouver: University of British Columbia Press, 2009)
23. For an extended analysis of this, see Penelope Edmonds, "Settler-Colonial Cities: A Survey of Bodies and Spaces in Transition," Urbanizing Frontiers, 46-69.
24. See Jean Barman, "Aboriginal Women on the Streets of Victoria: Rethinking Transgressive Sexuality during the Colonial Encounter," in Contact Zones: Aboriginal and Settler Women in Canada's Past, 205-227 (Vancouver: University of British Columbia Press, 2005)
25. Patrick Dunae, "Geographies of Sexual Commerce and the Production of Prostitutional Space, 1860-1914," Journal of the Canadian Historical Association 19, no.1 (2008): 115-142
26. Penelope Edmonds, "From Bedlam to Incorporation: Whiteness and the Racialisation of Settler-Colonial Urban Space in Victoria, British Columbia, 1840s-1880s," in Exploring the British World: Identity-Cultural Production-Institutions, eds. Kate Darian-Smith, Patricia Grimshaw, Kiera Lindsey, and Stuart Mcintyre, 60-90 (Melbourne: RMIT Publishing, 2004)
27. Edmonds, Urbanizing Frontiers;
28. Cole Harris, The Resettlement of British Columbia: Essays on Colonialism and Geographical Change, (Vancouver: UBC Press, 1997)
29. Grant Keddie, Songhees Pictorial: A History of the Songhees People as Seen by Outsiders, 1790 - 1912 (Victoria: Royal British Columbia Museum, 2003)
30. John Sutton Lutz, "After the Fur Trade: The Aboriginal Labouring Class of British Columbia, 1849-1890," Journal of the Canadian Historical Association 3, no.1 (1992): 69-93
31. Lutz, Makúk: A New History of Aboriginal-White Relations (Vancouver: University of British Columbia Press, 2009)
32. Lutz, "Work, Wages and Welfare in Aboriginal-non-Aboriginal Relations, British Columbia, 1849-1970" (PhD diss., University of Ottawa, 1994)
33. Renisa Mawani, "Legal Geographies of Aboriginal Segregation in British Columbia, 1850-1911," in In Isolation: Places and Practices of Exclusion, ed. Carolyn Strange and Alison Bashford, 173-90 (New York: Routledge, 2003)
34. Perry, Edge of Empire.
35. Henri Lefebvre, The Production of Space, trans. Donald Nicholson-Smith (1974; Cambridge: Blackwell, 1991), 116.
36. Paul Rabinow, ed., Michel Foucault, interview in "Space, Knowledge and Power," The Foucault Reader (New York: Pantheon Books, 1984), 241, 242.
37. Judith Butler, Bodies That Matter: On the Discursive Limits of "Sex" (New York: Routledge, 1993), 33.
38. Tony Ballantyne and Antoinette Burton, "Introduction: Bodies, Empires, and World Histories," in Bodies in Contact: Rethinking Colonial Encounters in World History, ed. Ballantyne and Burton (Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 2005), 5.
39. On extraterritorialisation and gendered territorialism, see Patrick Wolfe, "Nation and Miscegenation: Discursive Continuity in the post-Mabo era," Social Analysis 36 (October 1994): 93-152.
40. Robert F. Harney, "Ethnicity and Neighbourhoods," in Gathering Place: Peoples and Neighbourhoods of Toronto, ed. Harney, 1-24 (Toronto: Multicultural History Society of Toronto, 1985).
41. James Anthony Froude promoted the empire of "Oceana," consisting of the British settler colonies spanning the Pacific Ocean. Froude likened his "Oceana" to a bountiful tree, and if the United States, its "first great branch," was "broken off" by revolution, the "parent stock was still prolific." Although the American provinces were lost to Britain, "new shoots sprang out again," he proclaimed. James Anthony Froude, Oceana: Or, England and Her Colonies (New York: Scribner's, 1886), 2.
42. See Ann Laura Stoler, Haunted by Empire: Geographies of Intimacy in North American History (Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 2006), 10.
43. For an exploration of Britishness and Canada, see Phillip Bruckner and R. Douglas, eds., Canada and the British World: Culture, Migration and Identity (Vancouver: University of British Columbia Press, 2006), introduction.
44. Anthony D. King, Colonial Urban Development (London: Routledge and Kegan Paul, 1973), xiii, 9.
45. Ross and Telkamp, eds., Colonial Cities.
46. For an exploration of the modalities and specificities of settler colonial spatial practices in Pacific Rim settler colonies, see Tracey Banivanua Mar and Penelope Edmonds, eds., Making Settler Colonial Space: Place, Race and Identity (Basingstoke, UK: Palgrave, 2010).
47. Distinctions between settler and franchise colonies have been made since as early as Francis Annesley's 1698 distinction between "colonies for trade" and "colonies for empire." See David Armitage, 'The Ideological Origins of the British Empire, in Ideas in Context, ed. Quentin Skinner and James Tully (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2000), 155-156
48. The literature on settler colonialism is extensive. Some defining studies are offered in Donald Denoon, "The Political Economy of Labour Migration to Settler Societies: Australasia, Southern Africa, and Southern South America between 1890 and 1914," in International Labour Migration: Historical Perspectives, ed. Shula Marks and Peter Richardson, 186-205 (Hounslow, UK: Institute of Commonwealth Studies, 1984)
49. Denoon, Settler Capitalism: The Dynamics of Dependent Development in the SouthernHemisphere (Oxford: Clarendon, 1983)
50. Patrick Wolfe, Settler Colonialism and the Transformation of Anthropology: The Politics and oetics of an Ethnographic Event (London: Cassell, 1999).
51. For more recent explorations, see the collection of articles in Caroline Elkins and Susan Pedersen, eds., Settler Colonialism in the Twentieth Century: Projects, Practices, Legacies (New York: Routledge, 2005)
52. Julie Evans, Patricia Grimshaw, and David Phillips, eds., Equal Subject, Unequal Rights: Indigenous Peoples in British Settler Colonies, 1830-1910 (Manchester, UK: Manchester University Press, 2003).
53. See, for example, Denoon, "Political Economy."
54. See also Lorenzo Veracini, "The Imagined Geographies of Settler Colonialism," in Making Settler Colonial Space, ed. Banivanua Mar and Edmonds, 179-197.
55. On Indigenous labour, see Lutz, "Work, Wages and Welfare."
56. See for example, Gwendolyn Wright, "Tradition in the Service of Modernity," in Tensions of Empire: Colonial Cultures in a Bourgeois World, ed. Frederick Cooper and Ann Laura Stoler, 322-345 (Los Angeles: University of California, 1997).
57. Robert Dixon, The Course of Empire: Neoclassical Culture in New South Wales 1788-1860 (Melbourne: Oxford University Press, 1986), 61.
58. Edmonds, "From Bedlam to Incorporation," 62.
59. Elizabeth Grosz, Space, Time, and Perversion: Essays on the Politics of Bodies (New York: Routledge, 1995), 107-108.
60. See, for example, Harris, Making Native Space.
61. Also Jean Barman, "Erasing Indigenous Indigeneity in Vancouver," BC Studies 155 (Autumn 2007): 3-31;
62. John McLaren, A.R. Buck, and Nancy E. Wright, eds., Despotic Dominion: Property Rights in British Settler Societies (Vancouver: University of British Columbia Press, 2005)
63. Edmonds, "From Bedlam to Incorporation"; Renisa Mawani, ""The Iniquitous Practice of Women': Prostitution and the Making of White Spaces in British Columbia, 1898-1905," in Working through Whiteness, ed. Cynthia Leine-Rasky, 43-68 (New York: SUNY Press, 2002)
64. Perry, Edge of Empire;
65. Stanger-Ross, "Municipal Colonialism in Vancouver"; White and Findley, eds., Power and Place.
66. Cole Harris, "How Did Colonialism Dispossess? Comments from an Edge of Empire," Annals of the Association of American Geographers 94, no.1 (2004): 165-182
67. Patrick Wolfe, "Land, Labour and Difference: Elementary Structures of Race," American Historical Review 106, no.3 (June 2001): 866-905.
68. Harris, American Historical Review, ibid., 180.
69. Col Thrush, Native Seattle: Histories from the Crossing-Over Place (Seattle: University of Washington Press, 2008).
70. Blomley, Unsettling the City;
71. David Hamer, New Towns in the New World: Images and Perceptions of the Nineteenth Century Urban Frontier (New York: Columbia University Press, 1990)
72. R. L. Meek, in "Smith, Turgot and the 'Four Stages' Theory," in his Smith, Marx and After (London: Chapman and Hall, 1977), has charted the lineages of the four stages theory. While contending that several general streams of thought may have led to the emergence of the four stages model, the key point is that the stages came to be conceptualized as distinct "modes of production." Meek argues that such ideas were in fact a joint Scottish-French phenomenon. One of the greatest influences on Smith was the works of Montesquieu's and his Spirit of Laws (1748), particularly Book 18 where he developed his ideas on the notion that "difference, manner and social institutions are related to differences in the mode of subsistence" (23, 29).
73. Blomley, Unsettling the City, 117.
74. Alexander Morris, lecture delivered at the Mercantile Library Association, British Colonist, 13 July 1859.
75. Blomley, Unsettling the City, 116.
76. Blomley, Unsettling the City, 115, 116.
77. See also William Cronin, Changes in the Land: Indians, Colonists, and the Ecology of New England (New York: Hill and Wang, 1983).
78. John Fielder, "Sacred Sites and the City: Urban Aboriginality, Ambivalence and Modernity," Boundary 221 (1994): 67.
79. John William Reps, The Forgotten Frontier (Columbia, MO: University of Missouri Press, 1981), 1.
80. See also Frederick Jackson Turner, "The Significance of the Frontier in American History," paper presented to a special meeting of the American Historical Association World's Columbian Exposition, Chicago, 1893, Annual Report of the American Historical Association, Washington DC, 1894.
81. John William Reps, Forgotten Frontier, 2, 5. Italics mine.
82. "Commission and Instructions to Richard Blanshard, Governor of Vancouver Island," in Journals the Colonial Legislature of the Colonies of Vancouver Island and British Columbia, 1851-1871, Appendix B, 382.
83. One village had been at Swhaymalthelth (Esquimault Harbour) and the other main village at Sungayka (Cadboro Bay), even though this was itself a change, as each Songhees family group had previously occupied its own winter village. Derek Pethick, Victoria: The Fort (Vancouver: Mitchell, 1986), 53-55.
84. "Central Coast Salish" refers to the five linguistically related groups: Squamish, Halkomelem, Nootsack, Northern Straits, and Clallam. According to Suttles, this group possessed the "southern end of the Strait of Georgia, most of the Strait of Juan de Fuca, the Lower Fraser Valley," expanding over both British Columbia and Washington State, prior to the Europeanincursion. Suttles notes that while Squamish, Nootsack, and Clallam can be referred to as "tribes" in a non-political sense, Halkomelem, and Northern Straits refer primarily to language, although these groups have also become identifiable as "tribes." Handbook of North American Indians Northwest Coast, ed. Wayne Suttles (Washington, DC: Smithsonian Institution, 1990), 7:256, 7:453.
85. Harris, Making Native Space, xi.
86. The "colonial period," as it is traditionally known, began with the establishment of the colony of Vancouver Island by royal charter on 13 January 1849. Richard Blanshard was appointed as the first governor, arriving in 9 March 1850.
87. Robin Fisher, Contact and Conflict: Indian-European Relations in British Columbia, 1774 - 1890, 2nd ed. (Vancouver: University of British Columbia Press, 1992), 58.
88. Chinook, a trading language, was drawn from French, English, and Aboriginal languages.
89. Perry, Edge of Empire.
90. Van Kirk, "Tracing the Families of Five Founding families of Victoria," British Columbian Studies (Autumn/Winter 1997/1998): 149-177.
91. Jean Barman, The West beyond the West: A History of British Columbia, rev. ed. (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 1996), 65;
92. Fisher, Contact and Conflict, 58.
93. Van Kirk, "Tracing the Families," 151.
94. Perry, Edge of Empire, 58.
95. Hamar Foster, "Letting Go the Bone: The Idea of Indian Title in British Columbia, 1849-1927," in Essays in the History of Canadian Law: British Columbia and the Yukon, ed. Hamar Foster and John McLaren (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 1995), 40.
96. A confidential memorandum noted that "in parting with the land of the Island, Her Majesty parts only with her own right therein, and that whatever measures she was bound to take in order to extinguish the Indian title are equally obligatory on the [Hudson's Bay] Company." Confidential Memorandum, Colonial Office 305, no.1 at 342-348, cited in Foster, 75n67.
97. Confidential Memorandum, Ibid., 40, 44.
98. Confidential Memorandum, Ibid., 42.
99. See Edmonds, "From Bedlam to Incorporation";
100. Stanger-Ross, "Municipal Colonialism in Vancouver."
101. City of Victoria Minutes, 2 August 1862, City of Victoria Archives.
102. Robert Burnaby, letter 33, 8 June 1860
103. Land of Promise: Robert Burnaby's Letters from Colonial British Columbia 1858-1863, ed. Anne Burnaby McLeod and Pixie McGeachie (Vancouver: City of Burnaby, 2002), 143.
104. Douglas to Newcastle, 7 July and 8 August 1860, regarding Indian affairs, James Douglas, Correspondence: Vancouver Island, University Of British Columbia Library, Colonial Office, CO 305/14.
105. "Won't Go!" British Colonist, 12 September 1859 (emphasis mine).
106. Mary Ellen Kelm, Colonizing Bodies: Aboriginal Health and Healing in British Columbia (Vancouver: University of British Columbia Press, 1998), 39.
107. W. C. Grant, "Remarks on Vancouver Island, Principally concerning Town Sites and Native Population," read 12 December 1859, Journal of the Royal Geographical Society 31 (1861): 201-213.
108. Mary Douglas, Purity and Danger: An Analysis of the Concepts of Pollution and Taboo (London: Routledge, Kegan and Paul, 1966), 2.
109. British Colonist, 29 May 1860.
110. Jean Barman, "Race, Greed and Something More: The Erasure of Urban Indigenous Space in Early Twentieth-Century British Columbia," ed. Tracey Banivanua Mar and Penelope Edmonds, 155-173
111. Making Settler Colonial Space: Place, Race and Identity (Basingstoke, UK: Palgrave, 2010)
112. Edmonds, "From Bedlam to Incorporation";
113. Mawani, "Legal Geographies";
114. Perry, Edge of Empire.
115. City of Victoria Town Council minutes, 26 May 1863.
116. Minutes of the Council of the Colony of Vancouver Island, 25 March 1859, Journals of the Colonial Legislatures of the Colonies of Vancouver Island and British Columbia,1851-1871, ed. James E. Hendrickson (Victoria: British Columbia Provincial Archives, 1980), 1:25.
117. Harris, Making Native Space, 28.
118. Minutes of the First Houses of Assembly of Vancouver Island, 8 February 1859, in Journals of the Colonial Legislatures, 2:72.
119. 18 and 25 January 1859, Journals of the Colonial Legislatures, 2:67.
120. Journals of the Colonial Legislatures, Ibid., 29 (emphasis mine).
121. Minutes of the Colonial Legislature, 15 February 1859, 2:75.
122. Minutes of the Colonial Legislature, Ibid., 3 March 1859, 2:74.
123. Minutes of the Colonial Legislature, Ibid.
124. Minutes of the Colonial Legislature, Ibid., 2:77.
125. Irene G. M. Zaffaroni, "The Great Chain of Being: Racism and Imperialism in Colonial Victoria, 1858-1871" (MA thesis, Department of History, University of Victoria, 1987), 76.
126. Mawani, "Legal Geographies,' 185.
127. Frederick Cooper and Ann Laura Stoler, eds., Tensions of Empire: Colonial Cultures in a Bourgeois World (Los Angeles: University of California, 1997), 31.
128. British Colonist, 29 July 1859.
129. British Colonist, 28 April 1860 (emphasis mine).
130. "Clearing the Streets," British Colonist, 10 May 1860.
131. Perry, Edge of Empire, 113.
132. City of Victoria Town Council Minutes, 15 June 1863.
133. City of Victoria Town Council Minutes, 20 October 1862
134. British Colonist, 18 April 1861, and 7 September 1861.
135. Barman, "Aboriginal Women," 205.
136. Syliva Van Kirk, "Tracing the Fortunes of Five Founding Families in Victoria," 150, 176.
137. Jean Barman, "Taming Aboriginal Sexuality: Gender, Power, and Race in British Columbia, 1850-1900," BC Studies 115 and 116 (Autumn/Winter 1997/1998): 239, 242.
138. Journals of Legislative Council (27 June 1862, vol. 2): 286.
139. City of Victoria Town Council Minutes, 22 December 1862.
140. Ibid. (emphasis mine).
141. Ibid..
142. British Colonist, 18 April and 7 September 1861.
143. Barman, "Aboriginal Women."
144. Perry, Edge of Empire, 110.
145. Edge of Empire, Ibid., 119 (emphasis mine).
146. Ann Laura Stoler, "Tense and Tender Ties: The Politics of Comparison in North American History and (Post) Colonial Studies," Journal of American History 88, no.3 (2001): 832.
147. Journal of American History, Ibid., 829.
148. Burnaby, letter 10, 22 February 1859; letter 14, June 23 1859, Land of Promise
149. Dunae, "Geographies of Sexual Commerce," 122.
150. Miles Ogborn, Spaces of Modernity: London's Geographies, 1680 - 1880 (New York: Guilford, 1998), 47.
151. Butler, Bodies That Matter, 33.
152. Mawani, "Iniquitous Practice of Women," 63.
153. Iniquitous Practice of Women, Ibid., 118.
154. Perry cites "Compulsory Departure of the Indians," Victoria Press, 28 May 1862
155. Edge of Empire, 230.
156. City of Victoria Town Council Minutes, 11 May 1863.
157. Henri Lefebvre, The Production of Space, trans. Donald Nicholson-Smith (Cambridge: Blackwell, 1991), 73.
158. Perry, Edge of Empire, 111. As Adele Perry has noted, this is not to suggest that smallpox was an imperial "ruse," to move Indigenous people. It was a "material reality." In 1862-1863 alone, at least twenty thousand Aboriginal people died of this disease.
159. Perry, Edge of Empire, ibid., 114
160. cites "The Smallpox among the Indians," British Colonist, 28 April 1962.
161. Perry, British Colonist, ibid.
162. Cheryl Harris, "Whiteness as Property," Harvard Law Review 106 (1993): 1709-1791.
163. Renisa Mawani, Colonial Proximities: Crossracial Encounters and Juridicial Truths (Vancouver: University of British Columbia Press, 2009), 4.
164. British Colonist, 6 March 1860.
165. Dunae, "Geographies of Sexual Commerce," 121.
166. See Charge Books, Victoria, 11 July 1858 to 26 January 1859, Police and Prisons Department, Vancouver Island, GR 0848, BC Archives (BCA). Thanks to historian Chris Hannah who conducted the second survey from 1866 to 1868, in May 1999. Conclusions drawn are my own.
167. Charge Book, Esquimalt, Vancouver Island, 1862-1865, Police and Prisons Department, GR 0428, BCA.
168. British Columbian, 10 July 1860.
169. Charge Book, Esquimalt, 21 May 1864.
170. Charge Book, Ibid., 5 May 1865.
171. Edmonds, Urbanizing Frontiers, 136, 137.
172. Urbanizing Frontiers, Ibid.
173. See United Kingdom, House of Commons, British House of Commons Report of the Parliamentary Select Committee on the Aboriginal Tribes (British Settlements), Reprinted with Comments by the Aborigines Protection Society (London: William Ball, 1837), 118.
174. In 1839 the Port Phillip Gazette called on the protectors to remove Aborigines from Melbourne because "their vagrant and pilfering habits" were rapidly becoming "a perfect nuisance." Port Phillip Gazette, 17 April 1839. Around Melbourne, Aboriginal people were described repeatedly as vagrant, but the law at that time could not constitute them as such. Instead, legislation to prevent vagrancy in the Colony of New South Wales was aimed specifically at non-Indigenous people. Every person not being a black native or the child of any black native found lodging or wandering in company with any of the black natives of this Colony shall.. give a good account to the satisfaction of such Justice that he or she hath a lawful fixed place of residence in the Colony and lawful means of support and that such lodging or wandering hath been for some temporary and lawful occasion only and hath not continued beyond such occasion.. shall be deemed an idle and disorderly person.. and it shall be lawful for any Justice of the Peace to commit such.. to His Majesty's nearest gaol or house of correction there to be kept to hard labour for any time not exceeding three calendar months. An Act for the Prevention of Vagrancy and for the Punishment of Idle and Disorderly Persons, Rogues and Vagabonds and Incorrigible Rogues in the Colony of New South Wales, 25 August 1835, Public General Statues of New South Wales, 6 Wm. IV, no.6.
175. John Phillip, superintendent of the London Missionary Society, was opposed to vagrancy laws, "the most demoralizing, the most degrading, the most cruel and pitiless of all systems of slavery." Philip lobbied metropolitan humanitarians on this issue. In the Cape there was much agitation against the 1834 vagrancy law, and Khois asserted that they were being returned to a state of slavery. See Timothy Keegan, South Africa and the Origins of the Racial Order (London: Leicester University Press, 1996), 73, 104, 112, 120.
176. Perry, Edge of Empire, 122.
177. Edge of Empire, ibid.
178. Perry, ibid., 119, cites A. F. Pemberton to acting colonial secretary, 27 July 1869, reel B-1357, "Colonial Correspondence," GR 1372, BCA. A. F. Pemberton to colonial secretary, 2 March 1870, reel B-1357, "Colonial Correspondence," GR 1372, BCA.
179. Minutes of the Colonial Legislature, 8 February 1859, 75.
180. In 1972, Faye Gale described Aboriginal people in the Australian cityscape as virtual newcomers, as "urban immigrants." Faye Gale, Urban Aborigines (Canberra: Australian National University Press, 1972).
181. Tracey Banivanua Mar, "Carving Wilderness: Queensland's National Parks and the Unsettling of Emptied Lands, 1890-1910,"
182. Tracey Banivanua Mar and Penelope Edmonds, Making Settler Colonial Spaces.
183. For more information on the Signs of Lekwungen walkway, see http://www. victoria.ca/cityhall/comdev-ccc-wlkwy.shtml.
184. See, for example, Melinda Hinkson, "Exploring 'Aboriginal' sites in Sydney: A Shifting Politics of Place?" Aboriginal History 26 (2002): 62-77.
185. British Colonist, 22 August 1860.
186. R. P. Rohner, The Ethnography of Franz Boas
187. cited in John Lutz, "After the Fur Trade: The Aboriginal Labouring Class of British Columbia, 1849-1890," Journal of the Canadian Historical Association 3 (1992): 82.
188. Robert Rotenburg, "Metropolitanism and the Transformation of Urban Space in Nineteenth-Century Metropoles," American Anthropologist 103, no.1 (2001): 9.
189. Barman, "Race, Greed and Something More," 155-173.
190. Ministry of Aboriginal Relations and Reconciliation Indian and Northern Affairs Canada, "Proposed Settlement Resolves Victoria Land Claim," news release, 18 November 2006, http://www2.news.gov.bc.ca/news-releases-2005- 2009/2006ARR0022-001394.htm;
191. and Ministry of Aboriginal Relations and Reconciliation Indian and Northern Affairs Canada, "Thomas Litigation: Proposed Settlement Agreement," news release, 18 November 2006, http://www2.news.gov.bc.ca/ news-releases-2005-2009/2006ARR0022-001394-Attachment1.htm. "
192. Canadian Indian Group Settles Land Claim for $28m," Richard Reynolds in Toronto, 19 November 2006, ABC news online, http://www.abc.net.au/ news/newsitems/200611/s1792128.htm.
193. News and Comment by Tehaliwaskenhas Bob Kennedy, Oneida, "One Hundred and Fifty Year Grievance Resolved," 19 November 2006, Turtle Island Native Network, http://www.turtleisland.org/discussion/viewtopic.php?p=7738.
194. Ministry of Aboriginal Relations and Reconciliation Indian and Northern Affairs Canada, "Proposed Settlement."
195. Proposed Settlement, Ibid. The settlement agreement was concluded outside the context of the British Columbia Treaty Commission process, which is designed to conclude treaties that will clarify the rights and title of Aboriginal groups.