Nonsurgical options for hepatocellular carcinoma: Evolving role of external beam radiotherapy

Cancer Control

Volumn 17, Issue 2, 2010, Pages 100-110

  Hoffe, Sarah E ^a   Finkelstein, Steven E ^a   Russell, Mark S ^a   Shridhar, Ravi ^a  

^a H LEE MOFFITT CANCER CENTER AND RESEARCH INSTITUTE   (United States)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

CISPLATIN; DOXORUBICIN; FLOXURIDINE; GELFOAM; IODINATED POPPYSEED OIL; MISONIDAZOLE; MITOMYCIN C; POLYVINYL ALCOHOL SPONGE; SORAFENIB;

CANCER CONTROL; CANCER IMMUNOTHERAPY; CANCER RADIOTHERAPY; CANCER STAGING; CANCER SURVIVAL; CHEMOEMBOLIZATION; CLINICAL TRIAL; COMPUTER ASSISTED RADIOTHERAPY; COMPUTER ASSISTED TOMOGRAPHY; DENDRITIC CELL; DRUG DOSE REDUCTION; DRUG MECHANISM; EXTERNAL BEAM RADIOTHERAPY; HUMAN; IMAGE GUIDED RADIATION THERAPY; LIVER CELL CARCINOMA; LIVER METASTASIS; PHOTON THERAPY; PROGNOSIS; RADIATION DOSE; RADIATION INDUCED LIVER DISEASE; RADIATION SICKNESS; RADIOTHERAPY; REVIEW; SKIN MANIFESTATION; STEREOTACTIC BODY RADIATION THERAPY;

EID: 77952407659     PISSN: 10732748     EISSN: 15262359     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1177/107327481001700205     Document Type: Review

References (84)

1. El-Serag HB, Mason AC. Rising incidence of hepatocellular carcinoma in the United States. N Engl J Med. 1999;340(10):745-750.
2. Jemal A, Siegel R, Ward E, et al. Cancer statistics, 2009. CA Cancer J Clin. 2009;59:225-249.
3. Bosch FX, Ribes J, Borràs J. Epidemiology of primary liver cancer. Semin Liver Dis. 1999;19(3):271-285.
4. Bruix J, Llovet JM. Hepatocellular carcinoma: is surveillance cost effective? Gut. 2001;48(2):149-150.
5. Centers for Disease Control. National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey. www.cdc.gov/nchs/data/nhanes/databriefs/viralhep.pdf. Accessed November 9, 2009.
6. Bruix J, Sherman M. Management of hepatocellular carcinoma. Hepatology. 2005;42(5):1208-1236.
7. Lavanchy D. Worldwide epidemiology of HBV infection, disease burden, and vaccine prevention. J Clin Virol. 2005;34(suppl 1):S1-S3.
8. Fattovich G, Stroffolini T, Zagni I, et al. Hepatocellular carcinoma in cirrhosis: incidence and risk factors. Gastroenterology. 2004;127(5 suppl 1): S35-S50.
9. Takamatsu S, Noguchi N, Kudoh A, et al. Influence of risk factors for metabolic syndrome and non-alcoholic fatty liver disease on the progression and prognosis of hepatocellular carcinoma. Hepatogastroenterology. 2008; 55(82-83):609-614.
10. Bartlett DL, DiBisceglie AM, Dawson LA. Cancer of the liver. In: DeVita VT, Lawrence TS, Rosenberg SA, eds. DeVita, Hellman, and Rosen berg's Cancer: Principles and Practice of Oncology. 8th ed. Philadelphia, Pa: Lippincott Williams & Wilkins; 2008:1129-1156.
11. Lau WY, Lai EC. Salvage surgery following downstaging of unre sectable hepatocellular carcinoma: a strategy to increase resectability. Ann Surg Oncol. 2007;14(12):3301-3309.
12. Chok KS, Ng KK, Poon RT, et al. Impact of postoperative complications on long-term outcome of curative resection for hepatocellular carcino ma. Br J Surg. 2009;96(1):81-87.
13. Kianmanesh R, Regimbeau JM, Belghiti J. Selective approach to major hepatic resection for hepatocellular carcinoma in chronic liver disease. Surg Oncol Clin N Am. 2003;12(1):51-63.
14. Llovet JM, Bustamante J, Castells A, et al. Natural history of untreated nonsurgical hepatocellular carcinoma: rationale for the design and eval uation of therapeutic trials. Hepatology. 1999;29(1):62-67.
15. Tan KC. Liver transplantation for hepatocellular carcinoma: how far can we push the envelope? Singapore Med J. 2003;44(6):309-311.
16. Iwatsuki S, Gordon RD, Shaw BW Jr, et al. Role of liver transplantation in cancer therapy. Ann Surg. 1985;202(4):401-407.
17. Mazzaferro V, Regalia E, Doci R, et al. Liver transplantation for the treatment of small hepatocellular carcinomas in patients with cirrhosis. N Engl J Med. 1996;334(11):693-699.
18. Yao FY, Ferrell L, Bass NM, et al. Liver transplantation for hepatocellular carcinoma: expansion of the tumor size limits does not adversely impact survival. Hepatology. 2001;33(6):1394-1403.
19. The NCCN Clinical Practice Guidelines in Oncology™. v.2.2009. www.nccn.org.
20. Vitale A, Boccagni P, Brolese A, et al. Progression of hepatocellular carcinoma before liver transplantation: dropout or liver transplantation? Transplant Proc. 2009;41(4):1264-1267.
21. Cholongitas E, Papatheodoridis GV, Vangeli M, et al. Systematic review: the model for end-stage liver disease: should it replace Child Pugh's classification for assessing prognosis in cirrhosis? Aliment Pharmacol Ther. 2005;22(11-12):1079-1089.
22. Pugh RN, Murray-Lyon IM, Dawson JL, et al. Transection of the oesophagus for bleeding oesophageal varices. Br J Surg. 1973;60(8):646-649.
23. Malinchoc M, Kamath PS, Gordon FD, et al. A model to predict poor survival in patients undergoing transjugular intrahepatic portosystemic shunts. Hepatology. 2000;31(4):864-871.
24. Sala M, Forner A, Varela M, Bruix J. Prognostic prediction in patients with hepatocellular carcinoma. Semin Liver Dis. 2005;25(2):171-180.
25. Limquiaco JL, Wong GL, Wong VW, et al. Evaluation of model for end stage liver disease (MELD)-based systems as prognostic index for hepatocellular carcinoma. J Gastroenterol Hepatol. 2009;24(1):63-69.
26. Okuda K, Ohtsuki T, Obata H, et al. Natural history of hepatocellular carcinoma and prognosis in relation to treatment. Study of 850 patients. Cancer. 1985;56(4):918-928.
27. Pons F, Varela M, Llovet JM. Staging systems in hepatocellular carcinoma. HPB (Oxford). 2005;7(1):35-41.
28. The Cancer of the Liver Italian Program (CLIP) Investigators. A new prognostic system for hepatocellular carcinoma: a retrospective study of 435 patients. Hepatology. 1998;28(3):751-755.
29. Kudo M, Chung H, Osaki Y. Prognostic staging system for hepatocellular carcinoma (CLIP score): its value and limitations, and a proposal for a new staging system, the Japan Integrated Staging Score (JIS score). J Gastroenterol. 2003;38(3):207-215.
30. Leung TW, Tang AM, Zee B, et al. Construction of the Chinese University Prognostic Index for hepatocellular carcinoma and comparison with the TNM staging system, the Okuda staging system, and the Cancer of the Liver Italian Program staging system: a study based on 926 patients. Cancer. 2002;94(6):1760-1769.
31. Seong J, Shim SJ, Lee IJ, et al. Evaluation of the prognostic value of Okuda, Cancer of the Liver Italian Program, and Japan Integrated Staging systems for hepatocellular carcinoma patients undergoing radiotherapy. Int J Radiat Oncol Biol Phys. 2007;67(4):1037-1042.
32. Dawson LA. Protons or photons for hepatocellular carcinoma? Let's move forward together. Int J Radiat Oncol Biol Phys. 2009;74(3):661-663.
33. Salem R, Hunter RD. Yttrium-90 microspheres for the treatment of hepatocellular carcinoma: a review. Int J Radiat Oncol Biol Phys. 2006;66(2 suppl):S83-S88.
34. Leibel S, Bauer M, Wasserman T, et al. Radiotherapy with or without misonidazole for patients with stage IIIB or stage IVA squamous cell carcinoma of the uterine cervix: preliminary report of a Radiation Therapy Oncology Group randomized trial. Int J Radiat Oncol Biol Phys. 1987;13(4):541-549.
35. Mohiuddin M, Chen E, Ahmad N. Combined liver radiation and chemotherapy for palliation of hepatic metastases from colorectal cancer. J Clin Oncol. 1996;14(3):722-728.
36. Dawson LA, Normolle D, Balter JM, et al. Analysis of radiation-induced liver disease using the Lyman NTCP model. Int J Radiat Oncol Biol Phys. 2002;53(4):810-821.
37. Lawrence TS, Tesser RJ, ten Haken RK. An application of dose volume histograms to the treatment of intrahepatic malignancies with radiation therapy. Int J Radiat Oncol Biol Phys. 1990;19(4):1041-1047.
38. Dawson LA, Ten Haken RK, Lawrence TS. Partial irradiation of the liver. Semin Radiat Oncol. 2001;11(3):240-246.
39. Dawson LA, Ten Haken RK. Partial volume tolerance of the liver to radiation. Semin Radiat Oncol. 2005;15(4):279-283.
40. Hawkins MA, Dawson LA. Radiation therapy for hepatocellular carcinoma: from palliation to cure. Cancer. 2006;106(8):1653-1663.
41. Mornex F, Girard N, Beziat C, et al. Feasibility and efficacy of highdose three-dimensional-conformal radiotherapy in cirrhotic patients with small-size hepatocellular carcinoma non-eligible for curative therapies: mature results of the French Phase II RTF-1 trial. Int J Radiat Oncol Biol Phys. 2006;66(4):1152-1158.
42. Kim JH, Park JW, Kim TH, et al. Hepatitis B virus reactivation after three-dimensional conformal radiotherapy in patients with hepatitis B virus-related hep atocellular carcinoma. Int J Radiat Oncol Biol Phys. 2007;69(3): 813-819.
43. Chou CH, Chen PJ, Lee PH, et al. Radiation-induced hepatitis B virus reactivation in liver mediated by the bystander effect from irradiated endothelial cells. Clin Cancer Res. 2007;13(3):851-857.
44. Chung YL, Jian JJ, Cheng SH, et al. Sublethal irradiation induces vascular endothelial growth factor and promotes growth of hepatoma cells: implications for radiotherapy of hepatocellular carcinoma. Clin Cancer Res. 2006;12(9):2706-2715.
45. Chia-Hsien Cheng J, Chuang VP, Cheng SH, et al. Unresectable hepatocellular carcinoma treated with radiotherapy and/or chemoembolization. Int J Cancer. 2001;96(4):243-252.
46. Cheng JC, Chou CH, Kuo ML, et al. Radiation-enhanced hepatocellular carcinoma cell invasion with MMP-9 expression through PI3K/Akt/NF-kappaB signal transduction pathway. Oncogene. 2006;25(53):7009-7018.
47. Llovet JM, Ricci S, Mazzaferro V, et al. Sorafenib in advanced hepa tocellular carcinoma. N Engl J Med. 2008;359(4):378-390.
48. Keating GM, Santoro A. Sorafenib: a review of its use in advanced hepatocellular carcinoma. Drugs. 2009;69(2):223-240.
49. Hsieh CH, Jeng KS, Lin CC, et al. Combination of sorafenib and intensity modulated radiotherapy for unresectable hepatocellular carcinoma. Clin Drug Investig. 2009;29(1):65-71.
50. Finkelstein SE, Heimann DM, Klebanoff CA, et al. Bedside to bench and back again: how animal models are guiding the development of new immunotherapies for cancer. J Leukoc Biol. 2004;76(2):333-337.
51. Restifo NP, Antony PA, Finkelstein SE, et al. Assumptions of the tumor 'escape' hypothesis. Semin Cancer Biol. 2002;12(1):81-86.
52. Peters NA, Richel DJ, Verhoeff JJ, et al. Bowel perforation after radiotherapy in a patient receiving sorafenib. J Clin Oncol. 2008;26(14): 2405-2406.
53. Giglia JL, Antonia SJ, Berk LB, et al. Systemic Therapy for Advanced Hepatocellular Carcinoma: Past, Present, and Future. Cancer Control. 2010; 17(2): 120-129.
54. Chi KH, Liu SJ, Li CP, et al. Combination of conformal radiotherapy and intratumoral injection of adoptive dendritic cell immunotherapy in refractory hepatoma. J Immunother. 2005;28(2):129-135.
55. Ishikura S, Ogino T, Furuse J, et al. Radiotherapy after transcatheter arterial chemoembolization for patients with hepatocellular carcinoma and portal vein tumor thrombus. Am J Clin Oncol. 2002;25(2):189-193.
56. Lee HS, Kim JS, Choi IJ, et al. The safety and efficacy of transcatheter arterial chemoembolization in the treatment of patients with hepa-tocellular carcinoma and main portal vein obstruction. A prospective controlled study. Cancer. 1997;79(11):2087-2094.
57. Tazawa J, Maeda M, Sakai Y, et al. Radiation therapy in combination with transcatheter arterial chemoembolization for hepatocellular carcinoma with extensive portal vein involvement. J Gastroenterol Hepatol. 2001; 16(6): 660-665.
58. Zeng ZC, Fan J, Tang ZY, et al. A comparison of treatment combinations with and without radiotherapy for hepatocellular carcinoma with portal vein and/or inferior vena cava tumor thrombus. Int J Radiat Oncol Biol Phys. 2005;61(2):432-443.
59. Llovet JM, Bruix J. Systematic review of randomized trials for unresectable hepatocellular carcinoma: chemoembolization improves survival. Hepatology. 2003;37(2):429-442.
60. Zeng ZC, Fan J, Tang ZY, et al. Prognostic factors for patients with hepatocellular carcinoma with macroscopic portal vein or inferior vena cava tumor thrombi receiving externalbeam radiation therapy. Cancer Sci. 2008;99(12):2510-2517.
61. Seong J, Keum KC, Han KH, et al. Combined transcatheter arterial chemoembolization and local radiotherapy of unresectable hepatocellular carcinoma. Int J Radiat Oncol Biol Phys. 1999;43(2):393-397.
62. Liu MT, Li SH, Chu TC, et al. Three-dimensional conformal radiation therapy for unresectable hepatocellular carcinoma patients who had failed with or were unsuited for transcatheter arterial chemoembolization. Jpn J Clin Oncol. 2004;34(9):532-539.
63. Seong J, Park HC, Han KH, et al. Local radiotherapy for unresectable hepatocellular carcinoma patients who failed with transcatheter arterial chemoembolization. Int J Radiat Oncol Biol Phys. 2000;47(5):1331-1335.
64. Wu DH, Liu L, Chen LH. Therapeutic effects and prognostic factors in three-dimensional conformal radiotherapy combined with transcatheter arterial chemoembolization for hepatocellular carcinoma. World J Gastroenterol. 2004;10(15):2184-2189.
65. Li B, Yu J, Wang L, et al. Study of local three-dimensional conformal radiotherapy combined with transcatheter arterial chemoembolization for patients with stage III hepatocellular carcinoma. Am J Clin Oncol. 2003; 26(4):e92-e99.
66. Guo WJ, Yu EX, Liu LM, et al. Comparison between chemoembolization combined with radiotherapy and chemoembolization alone for large hepatocellular carcinoma. World J Gastroenterol. 2003;9(8):1697-1701.
67. Yamada K, Izaki K, Sugimoto K, et al. Prospective trial of combined transcatheter arterial chemoembolization and three-dimensional conformal radiotherapy for portal vein tumor thrombus in patients with unresectable hepatocellular carcinoma. Int J Radiat Oncol Biol Phys. 2003;57(1):113-119.
68. Gironda VM, Zhang G, Russell M, et al. Temporal stability of percutaneously implanted coiled wire fiducial markers for liver IGRT. Presented at the International Society of Gastrointestinal Oncology 2009 Gastrointestinal Oncology Conference, October 1-3, 2009. Abstract 0938.
69. Cho JS, Kwag JG, Oh YR, et al. Detection and characterization of hepatocellular carcinoma: value of dynamic CT during the arterial dominant phase with uniphasic contrast medium injection. J Comput Assist Tomogr. 1996;20(1):128-134.
70. Leksell L. The stereotaxic method and radiosurgery of the brain. Acta Chir Scand. 1951;102(4):316-319.
71. Herfarth KK, Debus J, Lohr F, et al. Stereotactic single-dose radiation therapy of liver tumors: results of a phase I/II trial. J Clin Oncol. 2001; 19(1):164-170.
72. Herfarth KK, Debus J. Stereotactic radiation therapy for liver metastases [German]. Chirurg. 2005;76(6):564-569.
73. Rusthoven KE, Kavanagh BD, Cardenes H, et al. Multiinstitutional phase I/II trial of stereotactic body radiation therapy for liver metastases. J Clin Oncol. 2009;27(10):1572-1578.
74. Tse RV, Hawkins M, Lockwood G, et al. Phase I study of individualized stereotactic body radiotherapy for hepatocellular carcinoma and intrahepatic cholangiocarcinoma. J Clin Oncol. 2008;26(4):657-664.
75. Henderson MA, Azzouz F, Breen T, et al. Preliminary toxicity analysis of a phase I/II trial evaluating stereotactic body radiotherapy for the treatment of hepatocellular carcinoma. Int J Radiat Oncol Biol Phys. 2007;69(3 suppl 1):S297. Abstract 2172.
76. O'Connor JK, Goldstein RM, Berger BD, et al. Stereotactic body radiation therapy as a bridge to transplant in hepatocellular carcinoma: acute toxicity and explant pathology. Int J Radiat Oncol Biol Phys. 2008; 72(1 suppl 1):S128. Abstract 1034.
77. Takeda A, Takahashi M, Kunieda E, et al Hypofractionated stereotactic radiotherapy with and without transarterial chemoembolization for small hepatocellular carcinoma not eligible for other ablation therapies: preliminary results for efficacy and toxicity. Hepatol Res. 2008;38(1):60-69.
78. Choi BO, Choi IB, Jang HS, et al. Stereotactic body radiation therapy with or without transarterial chemoembolization for patients with primary hepatocellular carcinoma: preliminary analysis. BMC Cancer. 2008;8:351.
79. Jang JW, Kay CS, You CR, et al. Simultaneous multitarget irradiation using helical tomotherapy for advanced hepatocellular carcinoma with multiple extrahepatic metastases. Int J Radiat Oncol Biol Phys. 2009;74(2):412-418.
80. Kato H, Tsujii H, Miyamoto T, et al. Results of the first prospective study of carbon ion radiotherapy for hepatocellular carcinoma with liver cirrhosis. Int J Radiat Oncol Biol Phys. 2004;59(5):1468-1476.
81. Fukumitsu N, Sugahara S, Nakayama H, et al. A prospective study of hypofractionated proton beam therapy for patients with hepatocellular carcinoma. Int J Radiat Oncol Biol Phys. 2009;74(3):831-836.
82. Aoki K, Okazaki N, Okada S, et al. Radiotherapy for hepatocellular carcinoma: clinicopathological study of seven autopsy cases. Hepatogastroenterology. 1994;41(5):427-431.
83. Salem R, Lewandowski RJ, Atassi B, et al. Treatment of unresectable hepatocellular carcinoma with use of 90Y microspheres (Thera-Sphere): safety, tumor response, and survival. J Vasc Interv Radiol. 2005; 16(12):1627-1639.
84. Finkelstein SE, Fernandez FG, Dehdashti F, et al. Unique site- and time-specific patterns of recurrence following resection of colorectal carcinoma hepatic metastases in patients staged by FDG-PET. J Hepatobiliary Pancreat Surg. 2008;15(5):483-487.