Migrants' competing commitments: Sexual partners in urban Africa and remittances to the rural origin

American Journal of Sociology

Volumn 115, Issue 5, 2010, Pages 1435-1479

  Luke, Nancy ^a  

^a BROWN UNIVERSITY   (United States)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

EID: 77951435310     PISSN: 00029602     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1086/651374     Document Type: Article

References (133)

1. Adepoju, Aderanti, and Wariara Mbugua. 1997. "The African Family: An Overview of Changing Forms." Pp. 42-57 in Family, Population and Development in Africa, edited by Aderanti Adepoju. London: Zed Books.
2. Adogame, Afe. 2007. "HIV/AIDS Support and African Pentecostalism." Journal of Health Psychology 12 (3): 475-484
3. Agadjanian, Victor, and Soma Sen. 2007. "Promises and Challenges of Faith-Based AIDS Care and Support in Mozambique." American Journal of Public Health 97 (2): 362-366
4. Appadurai, Arjun. 1989. "Introduction: Commodities and the Politics of Value." Pp. 3-63 in The Social Life of Things, edited by Arjun Appadurai. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
5. Arnfred, Signe. 2004. "Re-thinking Sexualities in Africa: Introduction." Pp. 7-29 in Re-thinking Sexualities in Africa, edited by Signe Arnfred. Uppsala: Almqvist & Wiksell Tryckeri AB.
6. Azam, Jean-Paul, and Flore Gubert. 2006. "Migrants' Remittances and the Household in Africa: A Review of Evidence. "Journal of African Economies 15 (suppl. 2): 426-462 (Pubitemid 44964161)
7. Barnes, Donelle M., and Rocio Aguilar. 2007. "Community Social Support for Cuban Refugees in Texas." Qualitative Health Research 17 (2): 225-237 (Pubitemid 46062969)
8. Bloch, Maurice. 1989. "The Symbolism of Money in Imerina." Pp. 16-190 in Money and the Morality of Exchange, edited by Jonathan Parry and Maurice Bloch. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
9. Bloch, Maurice, and Jonathan Parry. 1989. "Introduction: Money and the Morality of Exchange." Pp. 1-32 in Money and the Morality of Exchange, edited by Jonathan Parry and Maurice Bloch. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
10. Boyd, Monica. 1989. "Family and Personal Networks in International Migration: Recent Developments and New Agendas." International Migration Review 23 (3): 638-670
11. Brockerhoff, Martin, and Ann E. Biddlecom. 1999. "Migration, Sexual Behavior, and the Risk of HIV Infection in Kenya." International Migration Review 33 (4): 833-856 (Pubitemid 30172493)
12. Buvé, A., E. Lagarde, M. Carael, N. Rutenberg, B. Ferry, J. R. Glynn, M. Laourou, E. Akam, J. Chege, and T. Sukwa for the Study Group on Heterogeneity of HIV Epidemics in African Cities. 2001. "The Epidemiology of Gonorrhoea, Chlamydial Infection and Syphilis in Four African Cities." AIDS 15 (suppl. 4): S79-S88. (Pubitemid 32913007)
13. Caldwell, John C., John K. Anarfi, and Pat Caldwell. 1997. "Mobility, Migration, Sex, STDs, and AIDS: An Essay on Sub-Saharan Africa with Other Parallels." Pp. 41-54 in Sexual Cultures and Migration in the Era of AIDS, edited by Gilbert Herdt. Oxford: Clarendon.
14. Caldwell, John C., Pat Caldwell, and Pat Quiggen. 1989. "The Social Context of AIDS in Sub-Saharan Africa." Population and Development Review 15 (2): 185-234.
15. Carrier, James. 1991. "Gifts, Commodities, and Social Relations: A Maussian View of Exchange." Sociological Forum 6 (1): 119-136
16. Castle, Sarah, and Mamadou Kani Konate. 2003. "Economic Transactions Associated with Sexual Intercourse among Malian Adolescents: Implications for Sexual Health." Pp. 159-86 in Reproduction and Social Context in Sub-Saharan Africa, edited by Samuel Agyei-Mensah and John B. Casterline. Westport, Conn.: Greenwood.
17. Chatterji, Minki, Nancy Murray, D. Longon, and Philip Anglewicz. 2005. "The Factors Influencing Transactional Sex among Young Men and Women in 12 Sub-Saharan African Countries." Social Biology 52 (1-2): 56-72.
18. Chimwaza, A. F., and S. C. Watkins. 2004. "Giving Care to People with Symptoms of AIDS in Rural Sub-Saharan Africa." AIDS Care 16 (7): 795-807.
19. Clark, Samuel J., Mark A. Collinson, Kathleen Kahn, Kyle Drullinger, and Stephen M. Tollman. 2007. "Returning Home to Die: Circular Labor Migration and Mortality in South Africa." Scandinavian Journal of Public Health 35 (suppl. 69): 35-44.
20. Cliggett, Lisa. 2003. "Gift Remitting and Alliance Building in Zambian Modernity: Old Answers to Modern Problems." American Anthropologist 105 (3): 1-10.
21. Cole, Jennifer. 2004. "Fresh Contact in Tamatave, Madagascar: Sex, Money, and Intergenerational Transformation." American Ethnologist 31 (4): 573-588
22. Cornwall, Andrea. 2002. "Spending Power: Love, Money, and the Reconfiguration of Gender Relations in Ado-Odo, Southwestern Nigeria." American Ethnologist 29 (4): 963-980
23. Côté, Anne-Marie, François Sobela, Agnes Dzukoto, Khonde Nzambi, Comfort Asamoah-Adu, Annie-Claude Labbé, Benoit Mâsse, Joyce Mensah, Eric Frost, and Jacques Pépin. 2004. "Transactional Sex Is the Driving Force in the Dynamics of HIV in Accra, Ghana." AIDS 18:917-925 (Pubitemid 38553712)
24. Dageid, Wenche, and Fanny Duckert. 2008. "Balancing between Normality and Social Death: Black, Rural, South African Women Coping with HIV/AIDS." Qualitative Health Research 18 (2): 182-195
25. de la Brière, Bénédicte, Elisabeth Sadoulet, Alain de Janvry, and Sylvie Lambert. 2002. "The Roles of Destination, Gender, and Household Composition in Explaining Remittances: An Analysis for the Dominican Sierra." Journal of Development Economics 68:309-328
26. Dinan, Carmel. 1983. "Sugar Daddies and Gold-Diggers: The White-Collar Single Women in Accra." Pp. 344-66 in Female and Male in West Africa, edited by Christine Oppong. London: Allen & Unwin.
27. Dodoo, F. Nii-Ammoo, and Ashley E. Frost. 2008. "Gender in African Population Research: The Fertility/Reproductive Health Example." Annual Review of Sociology 34:431-452
28. Dunkle, Kristin L., Rachel K. Jewkes, Heather C. Brown, Glenda E. Gray, James A. Mclntryre, and Sioban D. Harlow. 2004. "Transactional Sex among Women in Soweto, South Africa: Prevalence, Risk Factors and Association with HIV Infection." Social Science and Medicine 59:1581-1592
29. East, Patricia L., and Karen S. Rook. 1992. "Compensatory Patterns of Support among Children's Peer Relationships: A Test Using School Friends, Nonschool Friends, and Siblings." Developmental Psychology 28 (1): 163-172
30. Ek, Ellen, Markku Koiranen, Veli-Pekka Raatikka, Marjo-Riitta Jarvelin, and Anja Taanila. 2008. "Psychosocial Factors as Mediators between Migration and Subjective Weil-Being among Young Finnish Adults." Social Science and Medicine 66:1545-1556
31. Felmlee, Diana, Susan Sprecher, and Edward Bassin. 1990. "The Dissolution of Intimate Relationships: A Hazard Model." Social Psychology Quarterly 53 (1): 13-30.
32. Fennell, Julie, and Nancy Luke. 2007. "Wives and 'Jadiya' Lovers: Parallel Unions in Post-polygynous Kenya." Manuscript. Brown University.
33. Findley, Sally E. 1997. "Migration and Family Interactions in Africa." Pp. 107-38 in Family, Population and Development in Africa, edited by Aderanti Adepoju. London: Zed Books.
34. Folbre, Nancy. 2001. The Invisible Heart. New York: New Press.
35. -. 2008. "When a Commodity Is Not Exactly a Commodity." Science 319:1769-1770
36. Francis, Elizabeth, and John Hoddinott. 1993. "Migration and Differentiation in Western Kenya: A Tale of Two Sub-locations." Journal of Development Studies 30 (1): 115-145
37. Furman, Wyndol, and Duane Buhrmester. 1985. "Children's Perceptions of the Personal Relationships in Their Social Networks." Developmental Psychology 21 (6): 1016-1024
38. Gauze, Cyma, William M. Bukowski, Jasmin Aquan-Assee, and Lorrie K. Sippola. 1996. "Interactions between Family Environment and Friendship and Associations with Self-Perceived Well-Being during Early Adolescence." Child Development 67: 2201-2216
39. Geschiere, Peter, and Joseph Gugler. 1998. "The Urban-Rural Connection: Changing Issues of Belonging and Identification." Africa 68 (3): 309-319
40. Glynn, J. R., M. Caraël, B. Auvert, M. Kahindo, J. Chege, R. Musonda, F Kaona, A. Buvé, and the Study Group on the Heterogeneity of HIV Epidemics in African Cities. 2001. "Why Do Young Women Have a Much Higher Prevalence of HIV than Young Men? A Study in Kisumu, Kenya and Ndola, Zambia." AIDS 15 (suppl. 4): S51-S60.
41. Gugler, Joseph. 1991. "Life in a Dual System Revisited: Urban-Rural Ties in Enugu, Nigeria, 1961-87." World Development 19 (5): 399-409.
42. Guilmoto, Christophe Z. 1998. "Institution and Migrations: Short-Term versus LongTerm Moves in Rural West Africa." Population Studies S2 (1): 85-103. (Pubitemid 28284326)
43. Haram, Liv. 2005. '"Prostitutes' or Modern Women? Negotiating Respectability in Northern Tanzania." Pp. 211-29 in Re-thinking Sexualities in Africa, edited by Signe Arnfred. Uppsala: Almqvist & Wiksell Tryckeri AB.
44. Harrison, Abigail, Nonhlanhla Xaba, and Pinky Kunene. 2002. "Understanding Safe Sex: Gender Narratives of HIV and Pregnancy Prevention by Rural South African School-Going Youth." Reproductive Health Matters 9 (17): 63-71.
45. Heald, Suzette. 1995. "The Power of Sex: Some Reflections on the Caldwells' 'African Sexuality' Thesis." Africa 65 (4): 489-505.
46. Healy, Kieran. 2006. Last Best Gifts. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
47. Helle-Valle, Jo. 2005. "Understanding Sexuality in Africa: Diversity and Contextualized Individuality." Pp. 195-207 in Re-thinking Sexualities in Africa, edited by Signe Arnfred. Uppsala: Almqvist & Wiksell Tryckeri AB.
48. Hochschild, Arlie Russell. 1979. "Emotion Work, Feeling Rules, and Social Structure." American Journal of Sociology 85 (3): 551-575
49. -. 2003. The Commercialization of Intimate Life: Notes from Home and Work. Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press.
50. Hoddinott, John. 1994. "A Model of Migration and Remittances Applied to Western Kenya." Oxford Economic Papers 46:459-476
51. Hosegood, Victoria, Eleanor Preston-Whyte, Joanna Busza, Sindile Moitse, and Ian M. Timaeus. 2007. "Revealing the Full Extent of Households' Experiences of HIV and AIDS in Rural South Africa." Social Science and Medicine 65:1249-1259
52. Hunter, Mark. 2002. "The Materiality of Everyday Sex: Thinking beyond 'Prostitution.'" African Studies 61 (1): 99-120.
53. -. 2007. "The Changing Political Economy of Sex in South Africa: The Significance of Unemployment and Inequalities to the Scale of the AIDS Pandemic." Social Science and Medicine 64:689-700.
54. Itzigsohn, Jose. 1995. "Migrant Remittances, Labor Markets, and Household Strategies: A Comparative Analysis of Low-Income Household Strategies in the Caribbean Basin." Social Forces 74 (2): 633-655
55. Johnson, G. E., and W. E. Whitelaw. 1974. "Urban-Rural Income Transfers in Kenya: An Estimated-Remittances Function." Economic Development and Cultural Change 22:473-479
56. Karanja, Wambui Wa. 1994. "The Phenomenon of 'Outside Wives': Some Reflections on Its Possible Influence on Fertility." Pp. 194-214 in Nuptiality in Sub-Saharan Africa, edited by C. Bledsoe and G. Pison. Oxford: Clarendon.
57. Kaufman, Carol E., and Stavros E. Stavrou. 2004. '"Bus Fare Please': The Economics of Sex and Gifts among Young People in Urban South Africa." Cultural, Health and Sexuality 6 (5): 377-391
58. Khamasi, Jennifer Wanjiku, and Susan Nyambura Maina-Chinkuyu, eds. 2005. Sexuality: An African Perspective. Eloret, Kenya: Moi University Press.
59. Knowles, James C., and Richard Anker. 1981. "An Analysis of Income Transfers in a Developing Country: The Case of Kenya." Journal of Development Economics 8: 205-226
60. Kopytoff, Igor. 1989. "The Cultural Biography of Things: Commoditization as Process." Pp. 64-91 in The Social Life of Things, edited by Arjun Appadurai. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
61. Korinek, Kim, Barbara Entwisle, and Aree Jampaklay. 2005. "Through Thick and Thin: Layers of Social Ties and Urban Settlement among Thai Migrants." American Sociological Review 70:779-800.
62. Kuo, Wen H., and Yung-Mei Tsai. 1986. "Social Networking, Hardiness and Immigrant's Mental Health." Journal of Health and Social Behavior 27:133-149 (Pubitemid 16041319)
63. Landale, Nancy S., and R. S. Oropesa. 2001. "Migration, Social Support and Perinatal Health: An Origin-Destination Analysis of Puerto Rican Women." Journal of Health and Social Behavior 42:166-183
64. Lawler, Edward J., and Shane R. Thye. 1999. "Bringing Emotions into Social Exchange Theory." Annual Review of Sociology 25:217-244
65. Lawler, Edward J., and Jeongkoo Yoon. 1996. "Commitment in Exchange Relations: Test of a Theory of Relational Cohesion." American Sociological Review 61:89-108.
66. Lesthaeghe, R. J., G. Kaufmann, and D. Meekers. 1989. "The Nuptiality Regimes in Sub-Saharan Africa." Pp. 238-333 in Reproduction and Social Organisation in SubSaharan Africa, edited by R. J. Lesthaeghe. Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press.
67. Livingston, Gretchen. 2006. "Gender, Job Searching, and Employment Outcomes among Mexican Immigrants." Population Research and Policy Review 25:43-66.
68. Longfield, Kim, Anne Click, Margaret Waithaka, and John Berman. 2004. "Relationships between Older Men and Younger Women: Implications for STIs/HIV in Kenya." Studies in Family Planning 35 (2): 125-134 (Pubitemid 38927345)
69. Lucas, Robert E. B., and Oded Stark. 1985. "Motivations to Remit: Evidence from Botswana." Journal of Political Economy 93 (5): 901-918
70. Luke, Nancy. 2003. "Age and Economic Asymmetries in the Sexual Relationships of Adolescent Girls in Sub-Saharan Africa." Studies in Family Planning 34 (2): 67-86. (Pubitemid 36947043)
71. -. 2005a. "Confronting the 'Sugar Daddy' Stereotype: Age and Economic Asymmetries and Risky Sexual Behavior in Urban Kenya." International Family Planning Perspectives 31 (1): 6-14.
72. -. 2005b. "Investigating Exchange in Sexual Relationships in Sub-Saharan Africa Using Survey Data." Pp. 105-24 in Sex without Consent: Young People in Developing Countries, edited by Shireen J. Jejeebhoy, Iqbal Shah, and Shyam Thapa. London: Zed Books.
73. -. 2006. "Exchange and Condom Use in Informal Sexual Relationships in Urban Kenya." Economic Development and Cultural Change 54 (2): 319-348
74. Luke, Nancy, Rachel Goldberg, Blessing Mberu, and Eliya Zulu. 2009. "Employment, Transactional Sex, and Bargaining within Premarital Relationships in Urban Kenya." Manuscript. Brown University.
75. Luke, Nancy, and Kaivan Munshi. 2006. "New Roles for Marriage in Urban Africa: Kinship Networks and the Labor Market in Kenya." Review of Economics and Statistics 88 (2): 264-282
76. Lurie, Mark N., Brian G. Williams, Khangelani Zuma, David Mkaya-Mwamburi, Geoff P. Garnett, Adriaan W. Sturm, Michael D. Sweat, Joel Gittelsohn, and Salim S. Abdool Karim. 2003. "The Impact of Migration on HIV-1 Transmission in South Africa: A Study of Migrant and Non-migrant Men and Their Partners." Sexually Transmitted Diseases 30 (2): 149-156 (Pubitemid 36184364)
77. Lyons, Maryinez. 2003. "Mobile Populations and HIV/AIDS in East Africa." Pp. 175-82 in HIV and AIDS in Africa: Beyond Epidemiology, edited by Ezekiel Kalipeni, Susan Craddock, Joseph R. Oppong, and Jayati Ghosh. Malden, Mass.: Blackwell.
78. Maganja, R. K., S. Maman, A. Groues, and J. K. Mbwambo. 2007. "Skinning the Goat and Pulling the Load: Transactional Sex among Youth in Dar es Salaam, Tanzania." AIDS Care 19 (8): 974-981
79. Magdol, Lynn, and Diane R. Bessel. 2003. "Social Capital, Social Currency, and Portable Assets: The Impact of Residential Mobility on Exchanges of Social Support." Personal Relationships 10:149-169
80. Mann, Kristin. 1994. "The Historical Roots and Cultural Logic of Outside Marriage in Colonial Lagos." Pp. 167-93 in Nuptiality in Sub-Saharan Africa: Contemporary Anthropological and Demographic Perspectives, edited by C. Bledsoe and G. Pison. Oxford: Clarendon.
81. Matasha, E., T. Ntembelea, P. Payaud, W. Saidi, J. Todd, B. Mujaya, and L. TendoWambua. 1998. "Sexual and Reproductive Health among Primary and Secondary School Pupils in Mwanza, Tanzania: Need for Intervention." AIDS Care 10 (5): 571-582 (Pubitemid 28461401)
82. Mauss, Marcel. 1990. The Gift. New York: Norton.
83. McDonald, Gerald W. 1981. "Structural Exchange and Marital Interaction." Journal of Marriage and the Family 43 (4): 825-839
84. Meekers, Dominique, and Anne-Emmanuele Calves. 1997a. "Gender Differentials in Adolescent Sexual Activity and Reproductive Health Risks in Cameroon." Working Paper no. 4. Washington, D.C: PSI Research Division.
85. -. 1997b. "'Main' Girlfriends, Girlfriends, Marriage, and Money: The Social Context of HIV Risk Behavior in Sub-Saharan Africa." Health Transition Review 7 (suppl.): 361-375
86. Menjivar, Cecilia, Julie DaVanzo, Lisa Greenwell, and R. Burciaga Valdez. 1998. "Remittance Behavior among Salvadoran and Filipino Immigrants in Los Angeles." International Migration Review 32 (1): 97-126. (Pubitemid 128467949)
87. Moffitt, Robert. 2005. "Remarks on the Analysis of Causal Relationships in Population Research." Demography 42 (1): 91-108.
88. Molm, Linda D. 1991. "Affect and Social Exchange: Satisfaction in Power-Dependence Relations." American Sociological Review 56 (4): 475-493
89. Molm, Linda D., David R. Schaefer, and Jessica L. Collett. 2007. "The Value of Reciprocity." Social Psychology Quarterly 70 (2): 199-217.
90. Mooney, Margarita. 2003. "Migrants' Social Ties in the U.S. and Investment in Mexico." Social Forces 81 (3): 1147-1170
91. Moore, Ann M., Ann E. Biddlecom, and Eliya M. Zulu. 2007. "Prevalence and Meanings of Exchange of Money and Gifts for Sex in Unmarried Adolescent Sexual Relationships in Sub-Saharan Africa." African Journal of Reproductive Health 11 (3): 44-61.
92. NASCOP (National AIDS and STI Control Programme). 2005. AIDS in Kenya: Trends, Interventions, Impact, 7th ed. Nairobi: Ministry of Health.
93. Ndisi, John W. 1974. A Study in the Economic and Social Life of the Luo of Kenya. Lund: Berlingska Boktryckeriet.
94. Nyambedha, Erick Otieno, Simiyu Wandibba, and Jens Aagaard-Hansen. 2003. "Changing Patterns of Orphan Care Due to the HIV Epidemic in Western Kenya." Social Science and Medicine 57:301-311
95. Ocholla-Ayayo, A. B. C. 1976. Traditional Ideology and Ethics among the Southern Luo. Uppsala: Scandinavian Institute of African Studies.
96. Orubuloye, I. O., John C. Caldwell, and Pat Caldwell. 1992. "Diffusion and Focus in Sexual Networking: Identifying Partners and Partners' Partners." Studies in Family Planning 23 (6): 343-351
97. Parker, Erin M., and Susan E. Short. 2009. "Grandmother Co-residence, Maternal Orphans, and School Enrollment in Sub-Saharan Africa." Journal of Family Issues 30 (6): 813-836
98. Parkin, David. 1978. The Cultural Definition of Political Response: Lineal Destiny among the Luo. London: Academic Press.
99. Piotrowski, Martin. 2006. "The Effect of Social Networks at Origin Communities on Migrant Remittances: Evidence from Nang Rong District." European Journal of Population 22:67-94.
100. Portes, Alejandro. 1998. "Social Capital: Its Origins and Applications in Modern Sociology." Annual Review of Sociology 24:1-24. (Pubitemid 128138409)
101. Poulin, Michelle. 2007. "Sex, Money, and Premarital Partnerships in Southern Malawi." Social Science and Medicine 65:2383-2393
102. Radin, Margaret Jane. 2001. Contested Commodities: The Trouble with Trade in Sex, Children, Body Parts, and Other Things. Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press.
103. Rempel, Henry, and Richard A. Lobdell. 1978. "The Role of Urban-to-Rural Remittance in Rural Development." Journal of Development Studies 14:324-341
104. Sana, Mariano. 2005. "Buying Membership in the Transnational Community: Migrant Remittances, Social Status, and Assimilation." Population Research and Policy Review 24:231-261
105. Schatz, Enid, and Catherine Ogunmefun. 2007. "Caring and Contributing: The Role of Older Women in Rural South African Multi-generational Households in the HIV/ AIDS Era." World Development 35 (8): 1390-1403.
106. Setel, Philip W. 1999. A Plague of Paradoxes. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
107. Sherman, Aurora M., Jennifer E. Lansford, and Brenda L. Volling. 2006. "Sibling Relationships and Best Friendships in Young Adulthood: Warmth, Conflict, and Well-Being." Personal Relationships 13:151-165
108. Shipton, Parker. 1989. Bitter Money: Cultural Economy and Some African Meanings of Forbidden Commodities. American Ethnological Society Monograph Series no. 1. Washington, D.C: American Anthropological Association.
109. -. 2007. The Nature of Entrustment. New Haven, Conn.: Yale University Press.
110. Silberschmidt, Margrethe, and Vibeke Rasch. 2001. "Adolescent Girls, Illegal Abortions and 'Sugar Daddies' in Dar es Salaam: Vulnerable Victim and Active Social Agents." Social Science and Medicine 52:1815-1826
111. Smith, Daniel Jordan. 2001. "Romance, Parenthood, and Gender in a Modern African Society." Ethnology 40 (2): 129-151
112. -. 2003. "Patronage, Per Diems, and the 'Workshop Mentality': The Practice of Family Planning Programs in Southeastern Nigeria." World Development 31 (4): 703-715
113. -. 2007. "Modern Marriage, Men's Extramarital Sex, and HIV Risk in Southeastern Nigeria." American Journal of Public Health 97 (6): 997-1005.
114. Southall, Aidan W. 1973. "The Luo of South Nyanza, Western Kenya." In Cultural Source M aterials for Population Planning in East Africa, vol.3. Edited by A. Molnos. Nairobi: East African Publishing House.
115. Sprecher, Susan. 1992. "How Men and Women Expect to Feel and Behave in Response to Inequity in Close Relationships." Social Psychology Quarterly 55 (1): 57-69.
116. -. 1998. "Social Exchange Theories and Sexuality." Journal of Sex Research 35: 32-43.
117. Stark, Oded, and Robert E. B. Lucas. 1988. "Migration, Remittances, and the Family." Economic Development and Cultural Change 36 (3): 465-481
118. Swidler, Ann, and Susan Cotts Watkins. 2007. "Ties of Dependence: AIDS and Transactional Sex in Rural Malawi." Studies in Family Planning 38 (3): 147-162
119. Tavory, Iddo, and Ann Swidler. 2009. "Condom Semiotics: Meaning and Condom Use in Rural Malawi." American Sociological Review 74:171-189
120. Tienda, Marta. 1980. "Familialism and Structural Assimilation of Mexican Immigrants in the United States." International Migration Review 14 (3): 383-408.
121. Timaeus, Ian M., and Angela Reynar. 1998. "Polygynists and Their Wives in SubSaharan Africa: An Analysis of Five Demographic and Health Surveys." Population Studies 52:145-162
122. Uehara, Edwina. 1990. "Dual Exchange Theory, Social Networks, and Informal Social Support." American Journal of Sociology 96 (3): 521-557
123. van de Rijt, Arnout, and Michael W. Macy. 2006. "Power and Dependence in Intimate Exchange." Social Forces 84 (3): 1455-1470
124. VanWey, Leah K. 2004. "Altruistic and Contractual Remittances between Male and Female Migrants and Households in Rural Thailand." Demography 41 (4): 739-756
125. Voeten, H. A. C. M., O. B. Egesha, C. M. Varkevisser, and J. D. F. Habbema. 2007. "Female Sex Workers and Unsafe Sex in Urban and Rural Nyanza, Kenya: Regular Partners May Contribute More to HIV Transmission than Clients." Tropical Medicine and International Health 12 (2): 174-182 (Pubitemid 46244160)
126. Voorpostel, Marieke, and Tanja van der Lippe. 2007. "Support between Siblings and between Friends: Two Worlds Apart?" Journal of Marriage and Family 69:1271-1282
127. Weigers, Margaret E., and Marget S. Sherraden. 2001. "A Critical Examination of Acculturation: The Impact of Health Behaviors, Social Support and Economic Resources on Birth Weight among Women of Mexican Descent." International Migration Review 35 (3): 804-839
128. Wellman, Barry, and Scot Wortley. 1990. "Different Strokes from Different Folks: Community Ties and Social Support." American Journal of Sociology 96 (3): 558-588
129. White, Louise. 1990. The Comforts of Home: Prostitution in Colonial Nairobi. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
130. White, Michael J., and David P. Lindstrom. 2005. "Internal Migration." Pp. 311-46 in Handbook of Population, edited by Dudley L. Poston and Michael Micklin. New York: Kluwer.
131. Wojcicki, Janet M. 2002. "Commercial Sex Work or Ukuphanda? Sex-for-Money Exchange in Soweto and Hammanskraal Area, South Africa." Culture, Medicine, and Psychiatry 26 (3): 339-370
132. Zelizer, Viviana A. 1994. Pricing the Priceless Child. Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press.
133. -. 2005. The Purchase of Intimacy. Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press.