Anesthetic considerations for the pediatric oncology patient - Part 2: Systems-based approach to anesthesia

Paediatric Anaesthesia

Volumn 20, Issue 5, 2010, Pages 396-420

  Latham, Gregory J ^a   Greenberg, Robert S ^b  

^a UNIVERSITY OF WASHINGTON SCHOOL OF MEDICINE   (United States)

^b JOHNS HOPKINS HOSPITAL   (United States)

Author keywords

Anesthesia; Chemotherapy; Oncology; Pediatric; Radiation therapy; Toxicity

Indexed keywords

ANTHRACYCLINE; BLEOMYCIN; BUSULFAN; CARMUSTINE; CHLORMETHINE; CISPLATIN; CYCLOPHOSPHAMIDE; CYTARABINE; DACTINOMYCIN; DAUNORUBICIN; DOCETAXEL; DOXORUBICIN; EPIRUBICIN; ETOPOSIDE; FLUOROURACIL; IDARUBICIN; IFOSFAMIDE; IRINOTECAN; MELPHALAN; MERCAPTOPURINE; METHOTREXATE; MITOMYCIN; MITOXANTRONE; PACLITAXEL; PROCARBAZINE; TENIPOSIDE; TIOGUANINE; TOPOTECAN; UNINDEXED DRUG; VINBLASTINE;

ACUTE GRANULOCYTIC LEUKEMIA; ACUTE LYMPHOBLASTIC LEUKEMIA; ANEMIA; ANESTHESIOLOGICAL TECHNIQUES; BONE MARROW SUPPRESSION; BRAIN TUMOR; CANCER CHEMOTHERAPY; CANCER RADIOTHERAPY; CANCER RISK; CARDIOMYOPATHY; CARDIOPULMONARY INSUFFICIENCY; CARDIOTOXICITY; CHILD CARE; CHILDHOOD CANCER; CONGESTIVE HEART FAILURE; DIARRHEA; DRUG MEGADOSE; ELECTROCARDIOGRAM; ENDOCRINE TUMOR; EXTRACORPOREAL OXYGENATION; GASTROINTESTINAL TOXICITY; GASTROINTESTINAL TUMOR; GLOMERULUS FILTRATION RATE; GRAFT VERSUS HOST REACTION; HEART ARRHYTHMIA; HEART FAILURE; HEART TUMOR; HEMATOLOGIC MALIGNANCY; HEMATOPOIETIC STEM CELL TRANSPLANTATION; HEMOSTASIS; HUMAN; HYPOMAGNESEMIA; HYPOTENSION; KIDNEY CANCER; KIDNEY FAILURE; LIVER TOXICITY; LIVER TUMOR; LUNG FIBROSIS; LUNG TOXICITY; LUNG TUMOR; MEDIASTINUM MASS; MEDICAL DECISION MAKING; MOUTH TUMOR; MUCOSA INFLAMMATION; MULTIMODALITY CANCER THERAPY; NEPHROTOXICITY; NEUROENDOCRINE TUMOR; NEUROTOXICITY; NEUTROPENIA; PERICARDIAL EFFUSION; PERIPHERAL NEUROPATHY; POSITIVE END EXPIRATORY PRESSURE; PRIORITY JOURNAL; RADIATION DOSE FRACTIONATION; RETINOIC ACID SYNDROME; REVIEW; RISK BENEFIT ANALYSIS; RISK FACTOR; SIDE EFFECT; SUPERIOR CAVA VEIN SYNDROME; THROMBOCYTE TRANSFUSION; THROMBOCYTOPENIA; TUMOR LYSIS SYNDROME; WHOLE BODY RADIATION;

ANESTHESIA; ANESTHETICS; CHILD; HUMANS; MEDIASTINAL NEOPLASMS; NEOPLASMS; SYSTEMS THEORY;

EID: 77950657493     PISSN: 11555645     EISSN: 14609592     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1111/j.1460-9592.2010.03260.x     Document Type: Review

References (276)

1. Meyer S, Reinhard H, Gottschling S et al. Pulmonary dysfunction in pediatric oncology patients. Pediatr Hematol Oncol 2004 21 : 175 195. (Pubitemid 38313734)
2. King DR, Patrick LE, Ginn-Pease ME et al. Pulmonary function is compromised in children with mediastinal lymphoma. J Pediatr Surg 1997 32 : 294 299. discussion 299-300.
3. Slinger P, Karsli C. Management of the patient with a large anterior mediastinal mass: recurring myths. Curr Opin Anaesthesiol 2007 20 : 1 3. (Pubitemid 46071974)
4. Wright CD. Mediastinal tumors and cysts in the pediatric population. Thorac Surg Clin 2009 19 : 47 61. vi.
5. Rheingold SR, Lange BJ. Oncologic Emergencies. In : Pizzo PA, Poplack DG, eds. Principles and Practice of Pediatric Oncology, 5th edn.
6. Anghelescu DL, Burgoyne LL, Liu T et al. Clinical and diagnostic imaging findings predict anesthetic complications in children presenting with malignant mediastinal masses. Paediatr Anaesth 2007 17 : 1090 1098. (Pubitemid 47481125)
7. Hammer GB. Anaesthetic management for the child with a mediastinal mass. Paediatr Anaesth 2004 14 : 95 97.
8. Pullerits J, Holzman R. Anaesthesia for patients with mediastinal masses. Can J Anaesth 1989 36 : 681 688. (Pubitemid 19286196)
9. Ferrari LR, Bedford RF. General anesthesia prior to treatment of anterior mediastinal masses in pediatric cancer patients. Anesthesiology 1990 72 : 991 995.
10. Ng A, Bennett J, Bromley P et al. Anaesthetic outcome and predictive risk factors in children with mediastinal tumours. Pediatr Blood Cancer 2007 48 : 160 164. (Pubitemid 44958272)
11. Hack HA, Wright NB, Wynn RF. The anaesthetic management of children with anterior mediastinal masses. Anaesthesia 2008 63 : 837 846. (Pubitemid 351951798)
12. Kaspers GJ, Pieters R, Klumper E et al. Glucocorticoid resistance in childhood leukemia. Leuk Lymphoma 1994 13 : 187 201. (Pubitemid 24141325)
13. Vas L, Naregal F, Naik V. Anaesthetic management of an infant with anterior mediastinal mass. Paediatr Anaesth 1999 9 : 439 443. (Pubitemid 29399641)
14. Johnson DH, Laskin J, Cmelak A et al. Superior vena cava syndrome. In : Abeloff MD, Armitage JO, Niederhuber JE et al., eds. Abeloff's Clinical Oncology, 4th edn.
15. Gregory JL, Robert SG. Anesthetic considerations for the pediatric oncology patient - part 3: pain, cognitive dysfunction, and preoperative evaluation. Pediatr Anesth 2010 (in press).
16. Trobs RB, Mader E, Friedrich T et al. Oral tumors and tumor-like lesions in infants and children. Pediatr Surg Int 2003 19 : 639 645. (Pubitemid 38081972)
17. Raber-Durlacher JE, Barasch A, Peterson DE et al. Oral complications and management considerations in patients treated with high-dose chemotherapy. Support Cancer Ther 2004 1 : 219 229.
18. Lefor AT. Perioperative management of the patient with cancer. Chest 1999 115 : 165S 171S.
19. Tartaglino LM, Rao VM, Markiewicz DA. Imaging of radiation changes in the head and neck. Semin Roentgenol 1994 29 : 81 91. (Pubitemid 24036618)
20. Berde CB, Billett AL, Collins JJ. Symptom management in supportive care. In : Pizzo PA, Poplack DG, eds. Principles and Practice of Pediatric Oncology, 5th edn.
21. Majorana A, Schubert MM, Porta F et al. Oral complications of pediatric hematopoietic cell transplantation: diagnosis and management. Support Care Cancer 2000 8 : 353 365. (Pubitemid 30650519)
22. Delbridge L, Sutherland J, Somerville H et al. Thyroid surgery and anaesthesia following head and neck irradiation for childhood malignancy. Aust N Z J Surg 2000 70 : 490 492. (Pubitemid 30489441)
23. Chaimberg KH, Cravero JP. Mucositis and airway obstruction in a pediatric patient. Anesth Analg 2004 99 : 59 61. (Pubitemid 38808165)
24. Drew B, Peters C, Rimell F. Upper airway complications in children after bone marrow transplantation. Laryngoscope 2000 110 : 1446 1451.
25. Giraud O, Bourgain JL, Marandas P et al. Limits of laryngeal mask airway in patients after cervical or oral radiotherapy. Can J Anaesth 1997 44 : 1237 1241. (Pubitemid 28080685)
26. Kuhn B, Peters J, Marx GR et al. Etiology, management, and outcome of pediatric pericardial effusions. Pediatr Cardiol 2008 29 : 90 94.
27. Burke A, Virmani R. Pediatric heart tumors. Cardiovasc Pathol 2008 17 : 193 198.
28. Kussman BD, Devavaram P, Hansen DD et al. Anesthetic implications of primary cardiac tumors in infants and children. J Cardiothorac Vasc Anesth 2002 16 : 582 586. (Pubitemid 35155272)
29. Adamson PC, Balis FM, Berg S et al. General principles of chemotherapy. In : Pizzo PA, Poplack DG, eds. Principles and Practice of Pediatric Oncology, 5th edn.
30. Gewirtz DA. A critical evaluation of the mechanisms of action proposed for the antitumor effects of the anthracycline antibiotics adriamycin and daunorubicin. Biochem Pharmacol 1999 57 : 727 741.
31. Berry GJ, Jorden M. Pathology of radiation and anthracycline cardiotoxicity. Pediatr Blood Cancer 2005 44 : 630 637. (Pubitemid 40629213)
32. Creutzig U, Diekamp S, Zimmermann M et al. Longitudinal evaluation of early and late anthracycline cardiotoxicity in children with AML. Pediatr Blood Cancer 2007 48 : 651 662. (Pubitemid 46717611)
33. Shankar SM, Marina N, Hudson MM et al. Monitoring for cardiovascular disease in survivors of childhood cancer: report from the Cardiovascular Disease Task Force of the Children's Oncology Group. Pediatrics 2008 121 : e387 e396.
34. Simbre VC, Duffy SA, Dadlani GH et al. Cardiotoxicity of cancer chemotherapy: implications for children. Paediatr Drugs 2005 7 : 187 202.
35. O'Brien MM, Taub JW, Chang MN et al. Cardiomyopathy in children with Down syndrome treated for acute myeloid leukemia: a report from the Children's Oncology Group Study POG 9421. J Clin Oncol 2008 26 : 414 420.
36. Kremer LC, van der Pal HJ, Offringa M et al. Frequency and risk factors of subclinical cardiotoxicity after anthracycline therapy in children: a systematic review. Ann Oncol 2002 13 : 819 829. (Pubitemid 34752678)
37. Lipshultz SE, Lipsitz SR, Sallan SE et al. Chronic progressive cardiac dysfunction years after doxorubicin therapy for childhood acute lymphoblastic leukemia. J Clin Oncol 2005 23 : 2629 2636.
38. Sorensen K, Levitt G, Bull C et al. Anthracycline dose in childhood acute lymphoblastic leukemia: issues of early survival versus late cardiotoxicity. J Clin Oncol 1997 15 : 61 68. (Pubitemid 27020558)
39. Sorensen K, Levitt GA, Bull C et al. Late anthracycline cardiotoxicity after childhood cancer: a prospective longitudinal study. Cancer 2003 97 : 1991 1998. (Pubitemid 36397277)
40. Lipshultz SE, Colan SD, Gelber RD et al. Late cardiac effects of doxorubicin therapy for acute lymphoblastic leukemia in childhood. N Engl J Med 1991 324 : 808 815.
41. van Dalen EC, van der Pal HJ, Kok WE et al. Clinical heart failure in a cohort of children treated with anthracyclines: a long-term follow-up study. Eur J Cancer 2006 42 : 3191 3198.
42. Hudson MM, Rai SN, Nunez C et al. Noninvasive evaluation of late anthracycline cardiac toxicity in childhood cancer survivors. J Clin Oncol 2007 25 : 3635 3643. (Pubitemid 47372601)
43. van Dalen EC, van der Pal HJ, Bakker PJ et al. Cumulative incidence and risk factors of mitoxantrone-induced cardiotoxicity in children: a systematic review. Eur J Cancer 2004 40 : 643 652.
44. Huettemann E, Sakka SG. Anaesthesia and anti-cancer chemotherapeutic drugs. Curr Opin Anaesthesiol 2005 18 : 307 314. (Pubitemid 40806687)
45. Labianca R, Beretta G, Clerici M et al. Cardiac toxicity of 5-fluorouracil: a study on 1083 patients. Tumori 1982 68 : 505 510. (Pubitemid 13119443)
46. Late Effects of Treatment for Childhood Cancer (PDQ®), Health Professional Version. 2009. Available at : http://www.cancer.gov/cancertopics/ pdq/treatment/lateeffects/healthprofessional/allpages,2009.
47. Adams MJ, Lipshultz SE, Schwartz C et al. Radiation-associated cardiovascular disease: manifestations and management. Semin Radiat Oncol 2003 13 : 346 356. (Pubitemid 36962655)
48. Hancock SL, Tucker MA, Hoppe RT. Factors affecting late mortality from heart disease after treatment of Hodgkin's disease. JAMA 1993 270 : 1949 1955. (Pubitemid 23312611)
49. Adams MJ, Lipsitz SR, Colan SD et al. Cardiovascular status in long-term survivors of Hodgkin's disease treated with chest radiotherapy. J Clin Oncol 2004 22 : 3139 3148.
50. Hancock SL, Donaldson SS, Hoppe RT. Cardiac disease following treatment of Hodgkin's disease in children and adolescents. J Clin Oncol 1993 11 : 1208 1215. (Pubitemid 23199121)
51. Swerdlow AJ, Higgins CD, Smith P et al. Myocardial infarction mortality risk after treatment for Hodgkin disease: a collaborative British cohort study. J Natl Cancer Inst 2007 99 : 206 214.
52. Pihkala J, Saarinen UM, Lundstrom U et al. Myocardial function in children and adolescents after therapy with anthracyclines and chest irradiation. Eur J Cancer 1996 32A : 97 103. (Pubitemid 26086331)
53. Smibert E, Carlin JB, Vidmar S et al. Exercise echocardiography reflects cumulative anthracycline exposure during childhood. Pediatr Blood Cancer 2004 42 : 556 562. (Pubitemid 38669742)
54. Burrows FA, Hickey PR, Colan S. Perioperative complications in patients with anthracycline chemotherapeutic agents. Can Anaesth Soc J 1985 32 : 149 157. (Pubitemid 15133313)
55. Huettemann E, Junker T, Chatzinikolaou KP et al. The influence of anthracycline therapy on cardiac function during anesthesia. Anesth Analg 2004 98 : 941 947. table of contents. (Pubitemid 38405399)
56. Kipps AK, Ramamoorthy C, Rosenthal DN et al. Children with cardiomyopathy: complications after noncardiac procedures with general anesthesia. Paediatr Anaesth 2007 17 : 775 781. (Pubitemid 47000668)
57. Rivenes SM, Lewin MB, Stayer SA et al. Cardiovascular effects of sevoflurane, isoflurane, halothane, and fentanyl-midazolam in children with congenital heart disease: an echocardiographic study of myocardial contractility and hemodynamics. Anesthesiology 2001 94 : 223 229.
58. McCahon E. Lung tumours in children. Paediatr Respir Rev 2006 7 : 191 196.
59. Dishop MK, Kuruvilla S. Primary and metastatic lung tumors in the pediatric population: a review and 25-year experience at a large children's hospital. Arch Pathol Lab Med 2008 132 : 1079 1103.
60. Twohig KJ, Matthay RA. Pulmonary effects of cytotoxic agents other than bleomycin. Clin Chest Med 1990 11 : 31 54.
61. Mertens AC, Yasui Y, Liu Y et al. Pulmonary complications in survivors of childhood and adolescent cancer. A report from the Childhood Cancer Survivor Study. Cancer 2002 95 : 2431 2441.
62. Abid SH, Malhotra V, Perry MC. Radiation-induced and chemotherapy-induced pulmonary injury. Curr Opin Oncol 2001 13 : 242 248.
63. Kharasch VS, Lipsitz S, Santis W et al. Long-term pulmonary toxicity of multiagent chemotherapy including bleomycin and cyclophosphamide in osteosarcoma survivors. Med Pediatr Oncol 1996 27 : 85 91.
64. Fauroux B, Meyer-Milsztain A, Boccon-Gibod L et al. Cytotoxic drug-induced pulmonary disease in infants and children. Pediatr Pulmonol 1994 18 : 347 355.
65. Limper AH. Chemotherapy-induced lung disease. Clin Chest Med 2004 25 : 53 64.
66. Klein DS, Wilds PR. Pulmonary toxicity of antineoplastic agents: anaesthetic and postoperative implications. Can Anaesth Soc J 1983 30 : 399 405.
67. Sleijfer S. Bleomycin-induced pneumonitis. Chest 2001 120 : 617 624.
68. Eigen H, Wyszomierski D. Bleomycin lung injury in children. Pathophysiology and guidelines for management. Am J Pediatr Hematol Oncol 1985 7 : 71 78.
69. Carver JR, Shapiro CL, Ng A et al. American Society of Clinical Oncology clinical evidence review on the ongoing care of adult cancer survivors: cardiac and pulmonary late effects. J Clin Oncol 2007 25 : 3991 4008.
70. FitzGerald TJ, Aronowitz J, Giulia Cicchetti M et al. The effect of radiation therapy on normal tissue function. Hematol Oncol Clin North Am 2006 20 : 141 163.
71. Weiner DJ, Maity A, Carlson CA et al. Pulmonary function abnormalities in children treated with whole lung irradiation. Pediatr Blood Cancer 2006 46 : 222 227.
72. Cerveri I, Fulgoni P, Giorgiani G et al. Lung function abnormalities after bone marrow transplantation in children: has the trend recently changed? Chest 2001 120 : 1900 1906.
73. Savani BN, Montero A, Srinivasan R et al. Chronic GVHD and pretransplantation abnormalities in pulmonary function are the main determinants predicting worsening pulmonary function in long-term survivors after stem cell transplantation. Biol Blood Marrow Transplant 2006 12 : 1261 1269.
74. Marras TK, Szalai JP, Chan CK et al. Pulmonary function abnormalities after allogeneic marrow transplantation: a systematic review and assessment of an existing predictive instrument. Bone Marrow Transplant 2002 30 : 599 607.
75. Schultz KR, Green GJ, Wensley D et al. Obstructive lung disease in children after allogeneic bone marrow transplantation. Blood 1994 84 : 3212 3220.
76. Uderzo C, Pillon M, Corti P et al. Impact of cumulative anthracycline dose, preparative regimen and chronic graft-versus-host disease on pulmonary and cardiac function in children 5 years after allogeneic hematopoietic stem cell transplantation: a prospective evaluation on behalf of the EBMT Pediatric Diseases and Late Effects Working Parties. Bone Marrow Transplant 2007 39 : 667 675.
77. Ferry C, Gemayel G, Rocha V et al. Long-term outcomes after allogeneic stem cell transplantation for children with hematological malignancies. Bone Marrow Transplant 2007 40 : 219 224.
78. Frisk P, Arvidson J, Bratteby LE et al. Pulmonary function after autologous bone marrow transplantation in children: a long-term prospective study. Bone Marrow Transplant 2004 33 : 645 650.
79. Bruno B, Souillet G, Bertrand Y et al. Effects of allogeneic bone marrow transplantation on pulmonary function in 80 children in a single paediatric centre. Bone Marrow Transplant 2004 34 : 143 147.
80. Uderzo C, Pillon M, Tridello G et al. Cardiac and pulmonary late effects do not negatively influence performance status and non-relapse mortality of children surviving five yr after autologous hematopoietic cell transplantation: report from the EBMT Paediatric Diseases and Late Effects Working Parties. Pediatr Transplant 2009 13 : 719 724.
81. Ingrassia TS III., Ryu JH, Trastek VF et al. Oxygen-exacerbated bleomycin pulmonary toxicity. Mayo Clin Proc 1991 66 : 173 178.
82. Luis M, Ayuso A, Martinez G et al. Intraoperative respiratory failure in a patient after treatment with bleomycin: previous and current intraoperative exposure to 50% oxygen. Eur J Anaesthesiol 1999 16 : 66 68.
83. Mathes DD. Bleomycin and hyperoxia exposure in the operating room. Anesth Analg 1995 81 : 624 629.
84. Goldiner PL, Carlon GC, Cvitkovic E et al. Factors influencing postoperative morbidity and mortality in patients treated with bleomycin. Br Med J 1978 1 : 1664 1667.
85. Hay JG, Haslam PL, Dewar A et al. Development of acute lung injury after the combination of intravenous bleomycin and exposure to hyperoxia in rats. Thorax 1987 42 : 374 382.
86. Jules-Elysee K, White DA. Bleomycin-induced pulmonary toxicity. Clin Chest Med 1990 11 : 1 20.
87. Goldiner PL, Schweizer O. The hazards of anesthesia and surgery in bleomycin-treated patients. Semin Oncol 1979 6 : 121 124.
88. Armstrong GT, Liu Q, Yasui Y et al. Late mortality among 5-year survivors of childhood cancer: a summary from the Childhood Cancer Survivor Study. J Clin Oncol 2009 27 : 2328 2338.
89. Rossi R, Kleta R, Ehrich JH. Renal involvement in children with malignancies. Pediatr Nephrol 1999 13 : 153 162.
90. Albregts AE, Cohen MD, Galliani CA. Neuroblastoma invading the kidney. J Pediatr Surg 1994 29 : 930 933.
91. Lameire NH, Flombaum CD, Moreau D et al. Acute renal failure in cancer patients. Ann Med 2005 37 : 13 25.
92. Mehta A, Gulati K, Jain M et al. Non-Hodgkins lymphoma in a child presenting as nephromegaly and acute renal failure. Indian Pediatr 2001 38 : 407 410.
93. Neuhauser TS, Lancaster K, Haws R et al. Rapidly progressive T cell lymphoma presenting as acute renal failure: case report and review of the literature. Pediatr Pathol Lab Med 1997 17 : 449 460.
94. Larsen G, Loghman-Adham M. Acute renal failure with hyperuricemia as initial presentation of leukemia in children. J Pediatr Hematol Oncol 1996 18 : 191 194.
95. Dome JS, Perlman EJ, Ritchey ML et al. Renal tumors. In : Pizzo PA, Poplack DG, eds. Principles and Practice of Pediatric Oncology, 5th edn.
96. Ahmed HU, Arya M, Levitt G et al. Part I: primary malignant non-Wilms' renal tumours in children. Lancet Oncol 2007 8 : 730 737. (Pubitemid 47177161)
97. Shamberger RC. Pediatric renal tumors. Semin Surg Oncol 1999 16 : 105 120.
98. Ko EY, Ritchey ML. Current management of Wilms' tumor in children. J Pediatr Urol 2009 5 : 56 65.
99. Michiels JJ, Budde U, van der Planken M et al. Acquired von Willebrand syndromes: clinical features, aetiology, pathophysiology, classification and management. Best Pract Res Clin Haematol 2001 14 : 401 436.
100. Chabner B, Longo DL. Cancer Chemotherapy and Biotherapy: Principles and Practice
101. Mitchell EP, Schein PS. Contributions of nitrosoureas to cancer treatment. Cancer Treat Rep 1986 70 : 31 41.
102. Skinner R. Chronic ifosfamide nephrotoxicity in children. Med Pediatr Oncol 2003 41 : 190 197.
103. Loebstein R, Koren G. Ifosfamide-induced nephrotoxicity in children: critical review of predictive risk factors. Pediatrics 1998 101 : E8.
104. Berrak SG, Pearson M, Berberoglu S et al. High-dose ifosfamide in relapsed pediatric osteosarcoma: therapeutic effects and renal toxicity. Pediatr Blood Cancer 2005 44 : 215 219.
105. Le Cesne A, Antoine E, Spielmann M et al. High-dose ifosfamide: circumvention of resistance to standard-dose ifosfamide in advanced soft tissue sarcomas. J Clin Oncol 1995 13 : 1600 1608.
106. Patel SR, Vadhan-Raj S, Papadopolous N et al. High-dose ifosfamide in bone and soft tissue sarcomas: results of phase II and pilot studies - dose-response and schedule dependence. J Clin Oncol 1997 15 : 2378 2384.
107. Stohr W, Paulides M, Bielack S et al. Nephrotoxicity of cisplatin and carboplatin in sarcoma patients: a report from the late effects surveillance system. Pediatr Blood Cancer 2007 48 : 140 147. (Pubitemid 44958269)
108. Widemann BC, Balis FM, Kempf-Bielack B et al. High-dose methotrexate-induced nephrotoxicity in patients with osteosarcoma. Cancer 2004 100 : 2222 2232.
109. Widemann BC, Adamson PC. Understanding and managing methotrexate nephrotoxicity. Oncologist 2006 11 : 694 703.
110. Smith GR, Thomas PR, Ritchey M et al. Long-term renal function in patients with irradiated bilateral Wilms tumor. National Wilms' Tumor Study Group. Am J Clin Oncol 1998 21 : 58 63.
111. Esiashvili N, Chiang KY, Hasselle MD et al. Renal toxicity in children undergoing total body irradiation for bone marrow transplant. Radiother Oncol 2009 90 : 242 246.
112. Dewit L, Anninga JK, Hoefnagel CA et al. Radiation injury in the human kidney: a prospective analysis using specific scintigraphic and biochemical endpoints. Int J Radiat Oncol Biol Phys 1990 19 : 977 983.
113. Cassady JR. Clinical radiation nephropathy. Int J Radiat Oncol Biol Phys 1995 31 : 1249 1256.
114. Patzer L, Hempel L, Ringelmann F et al. Renal function after conditioning therapy for bone marrow transplantation in childhood. Med Pediatr Oncol 1997 28 : 274 283.
115. Hazar V, Gungor O, Guven AG et al. Renal function after hematopoietic stem cell transplantation in children. Pediatr Blood Cancer 2009 53 : 197 202.
116. Frisk P, Bratteby LE, Carlson K et al. Renal function after autologous bone marrow transplantation in children: a long-term prospective study. Bone Marrow Transplant 2002 29 : 129 136.
117. Kist-van Holthe JE, van Zwet JM, Brand R et al. Bone marrow transplantation in children: consequences for renal function shortly after and 1 year post-BMT. Bone Marrow Transplant 1998 22 : 559 564.
118. Kist-van Holthe JE, Goedvolk CA, Brand R et al. Prospective study of renal insufficiency after bone marrow transplantation. Pediatr Nephrol 2002 17 : 1032 1037.
119. Gronroos MH, Bolme P, Winiarski J et al. Long-term renal function following bone marrow transplantation. Bone Marrow Transplant 2007 39 : 717 723.
120. Cheng JC, Schultheiss TE, Wong JY. Impact of drug therapy, radiation dose, and dose rate on renal toxicity following bone marrow transplantation. Int J Radiat Oncol Biol Phys 2008 71 : 1436 1443.
121. Wigfall D, Foreman J, Kinder Ross A. Essential of nephrology. In : Cote CJ, Lerman J, Todres ID, eds. A Practice of Anesthesia for Infants and Children, 4th edn.
122. Patzer L. Nephrotoxicity as a cause of acute kidney injury in children. Pediatr Nephrol 2008 23 : 2159 2173.
123. Finegold MJ, Egler RA, Goss JA et al. Liver tumors: pediatric population. Liver Transpl 2008 14 : 1545 1556.
124. Litten JB, Tomlinson GE. Liver tumors in children. Oncologist 2008 13 : 812 820.
125. Meyers RL. Tumors of the liver in children. Surg Oncol 2007 16 : 195 203.
126. Mueller BU, Lopez-Terrada D, Finegold MJ. Tumors of the liver. In : Pizzo PA, Poplack DG, eds. Principles and Practice of Pediatric Oncology, 5th edn.
127. King PD, Perry MC. Hepatotoxicity of chemotherapy. Oncologist 2001 6 : 162 176.
128. Cesaro S, Pillon M, Talenti E et al. A prospective survey on incidence, risk factors and therapy of hepatic veno-occlusive disease in children after hematopoietic stem cell transplantation. Haematologica 2005 90 : 1396 1404.
129. Hasegawa S, Horibe K, Kawabe T et al. Veno-occlusive disease of the liver after allogeneic bone marrow transplantation in children with hematologic malignancies: incidence, onset time and risk factors. Bone Marrow Transplant 1998 22 : 1191 1197.
130. Bearman SI. The syndrome of hepatic veno-occlusive disease after marrow transplantation. Blood 1995 85 : 3005 3020.
131. Bisogno G, de Kraker J, Weirich A et al. Veno-occlusive disease of the liver in children treated for Wilms tumor. Med Pediatr Oncol 1997 29 : 245 251.
132. Lawrence TS, Robertson JM, Anscher MS et al. Hepatic toxicity resulting from cancer treatment. Int J Radiat Oncol Biol Phys 1995 31 : 1237 1248.
133. Rivera MR, Squires RH, Davis PJ. Essentials of hepatology. In : Cote CJ, Lerman J, Todres ID, eds. A Practice of Anesthesia for Infants and Children, 4th edn.
134. Kaste SC, Rodriguez-Galindo C, Furman WL. Imaging pediatric oncologic emergencies of the abdomen. AJR Am J Roentgenol 1999 173 : 729 736.
135. Kearney SL, Dahlberg SE, Levy DE et al. Clinical course and outcome in children with acute lymphoblastic leukemia and asparaginase-associated pancreatitis. Pediatr Blood Cancer 2009 53 : 162 167.
136. Pollack IF. Pediatric brain tumors. Semin Surg Oncol 1999 16 : 73 90.
137. Horner MJ, Ries LAG, Krapcho M. SEER Cancer Statistics Review, 1975-2006. Available at : http://seer.cancer.gov/csr/1975-2006/.
138. Ries LAG, Percy CL, Bunin GR. Introduction. In : Ries LAG, Smith MA, Gurney JG et al., eds. Cancer Incidence and Survival among Children and Adolescents: United States SEER Program 1975-1995. NIH Pub. No. 99-4649 edn.
139. Rossi A, Gandolfo C, Morana G et al. Tumors of the spine in children. Neuroimaging Clin N Am 2007 17 : 17 35.
140. Binning M, Klimo P Jr., Gluf W et al. Spinal tumors in children. Neurosurg Clin N Am 2007 18 : 631 658.
141. Garg S, Dormans JP. Tumors and tumor-like conditions of the spine in children. J Am Acad Orthop Surg 2005 13 : 372 381.
142. Lewis DW, Packer RJ, Raney B et al. Incidence, presentation, and outcome of spinal cord disease in children with systemic cancer. Pediatrics 1986 78 : 438 443.
143. Bouffet E, Marec-Berard P, Thiesse P et al. Spinal cord compression by secondary epi- and intradural metastases in childhood. Childs Nerv Syst 1997 13 : 383 387.
144. Klein SL, Sanford RA, Muhlbauer MS. Pediatric spinal epidural metastases. J Neurosurg 1991 74 : 70 75.
145. Reddy AT, Witek K. Neurologic complications of chemotherapy for children with cancer. Curr Neurol Neurosci Rep 2003 3 : 137 142.
146. Verstappen CC, Heimans JJ, Hoekman K et al. Neurotoxic complications of chemotherapy in patients with cancer: clinical signs and optimal management. Drugs 2003 63 : 1549 1563.
147. Hildebrand J. Neurological complications of cancer chemotherapy. Curr Opin Oncol 2006 18 : 321 324.
148. Di Cataldo A, Astuto M, Rizzo G et al. Neurotoxicity during ifosfamide treatment in children. Med Sci Monit 2009 15 : CS22 CS25.
149. Watterson J, Toogood I, Nieder M et al. Excessive spinal cord toxicity from intensive central nervous system-directed therapies. Cancer 1994 74 : 3034 3041.
150. Ochs JJ. Neurotoxicity due to central nervous system therapy for childhood leukemia. Am J Pediatr Hematol Oncol 1989 11 : 93 105.
151. Mahoney DH Jr., Shuster JJ, Nitschke R et al. Acute neurotoxicity in children with B-precursor acute lymphoid leukemia: an association with intermediate-dose intravenous methotrexate and intrathecal triple therapy - a Pediatric Oncology Group study. J Clin Oncol 1998 16 : 1712 1722.
152. Packer RJ, Gurney JG, Punyko JA et al. Long-term neurologic and neurosensory sequelae in adult survivors of a childhood brain tumor: childhood cancer survivor study. J Clin Oncol 2003 21 : 3255 3261.
153. Diller L, Chow EJ, Gurney JG et al. Chronic disease in the Childhood Cancer Survivor Study cohort: a review of published findings. J Clin Oncol 2009 27 : 2339 2355.
154. Szabo EZ, Luginbuehl I, Bissonnette B. Impact of anesthetic agents on cerebrovascular physiology in children. Paediatr Anaesth 2009 19 : 108 118.
155. Soriano SG, Eldredge EA, Rockoff MA. Pediatric neuroanesthesia. Neuroimaging Clin N Am 2007 17 : 259 267.
156. McClain CD, Soriano SG, Rockoff MA. Pediatric neurosurgical anesthesia. In : Cote CJ, Lerman J, Todres ID, eds. A Practice of Anesthesia for Infants and Children, 4th edn.
157. Koch CA, Pacak K, Chrousos GP. Endocrine tumors. In : Pizzo PA, Poplack DG, eds. Principles and Practice of Pediatric Oncology, 5th edn.
158. Horton Z, Schlatter M, Schultz S. Pediatric germ cell tumors. Surg Oncol 2007 16 : 205 213.
159. Dinauer CA, Breuer C, Rivkees SA. Differentiated thyroid cancer in children: diagnosis and management. Curr Opin Oncol 2008 20 : 59 65.
160. Ohmori K, Collins J, Fukushima T. Craniopharyngiomas in children. Pediatr Neurosurg 2007 43 : 265 278.
161. Schiff RL, Welsh GA. Perioperative evaluation and management of the patient with endocrine dysfunction. Med Clin North Am 2003 87 : 175 192.
162. Einaudi S, Bertorello N, Masera N et al. Adrenal axis function after high-dose steroid therapy for childhood acute lymphoblastic leukemia. Pediatr Blood Cancer 2008 50 : 537 541.
163. Heikens J, Michiels EM, Behrendt H et al. Long-term neuro-endocrine sequelae after treatment for childhood medulloblastoma. Eur J Cancer 1998 34 : 1592 1597.
164. Schmiegelow M, Feldt-Rasmussen U, Rasmussen AK et al. A population-based study of thyroid function after radiotherapy and chemotherapy for a childhood brain tumor. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 2003 88 : 136 140. (Pubitemid 36115155)
165. Spoudeas HA, Charmandari E, Brook CG. Hypothalamo-pituitary-adrenal axis integrity after cranial irradiation for childhood posterior fossa tumours. Med Pediatr Oncol 2003 40 : 224 229. (Pubitemid 36222827)
166. Hata M, Ogino I, Aida N et al. Prophylactic cranial irradiation of acute lymphoblastic leukemia in childhood: outcomes of late effects on pituitary function and growth in long-term survivors. Int J Cancer 2001 96 (Suppl. 117 124. (Pubitemid 33730573)
167. Oberfield SE, Chin D, Uli N et al. Endocrine late effects of childhood cancers. J Pediatr 1997 131 : S37 S41. (Pubitemid 27505696)
168. Sklar CA. Growth and neuroendocrine dysfunction following therapy for childhood cancer. Pediatr Clin North Am 1997 44 : 489 503.
169. Gleeson HK, Shalet SM. The impact of cancer therapy on the endocrine system in survivors of childhood brain tumours. Endocr Relat Cancer 2004 11 : 589 602.
170. Bhandare N, Kennedy L, Malyapa RS et al. Hypopituitarism after radiotherapy for extracranial head and neck cancers in pediatric patients. Am J Clin Oncol 2008 31 : 567 572.
171. Sklar C, Whitton J, Mertens A et al. Abnormalities of the thyroid in survivors of Hodgkin's disease: data from the Childhood Cancer Survivor Study. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 2000 85 : 3227 3232.
172. Acharya S, Sarafoglou K, LaQuaglia M et al. Thyroid neoplasms after therapeutic radiation for malignancies during childhood or adolescence. Cancer 2003 97 : 2397 2403. (Pubitemid 36542477)
173. Madanat LM, Lahteenmaki PM, Hurme S et al. Hypothyroidism among pediatric cancer patients: a nationwide, registry-based study. Int J Cancer 2008 122 : 1868 1872. (Pubitemid 351413436)
174. Hancock SL, Cox RS, McDougall IR. Thyroid diseases after treatment of Hodgkin's disease. N Engl J Med 1991 325 : 599 605.
175. Bonato C, Severino RF, Elnecave RH. Reduced thyroid volume and hypothyroidism in survivors of childhood cancer treated with radiotherapy. J Pediatr Endocrinol Metab 2008 21 : 943 949.
176. Lando A, Holm K, Nysom K et al. Thyroid function in survivors of childhood acute lymphoblastic leukaemia: the significance of prophylactic cranial irradiation. Clin Endocrinol (Oxf) 2001 55 : 21 25. (Pubitemid 34204295)
177. Laughton SJ, Merchant TE, Sklar CA et al. Endocrine outcomes for children with embryonal brain tumors after risk-adapted craniospinal and conformal primary-site irradiation and high-dose chemotherapy with stem-cell rescue on the SJMB-96 trial. J Clin Oncol 2008 26 : 1112 1118.
178. Ascoli P, Cavagnini F. Hypopituitarism. Pituitary 2006 9 : 335 342. (Pubitemid 44823903)
179. Jabbour SA. Steroids and the surgical patient. Med Clin North Am 2001 85 : 1311 1317.
180. Brown CJ, Buie WD. Perioperative stress dose steroids: do they make a difference? J Am Coll Surg 2001 193 : 678 686.
181. Stam H, Grootenhuis MA, Last BF. Social and emotional adjustment in young survivors of childhood cancer. Support Care Cancer 2001 9 : 489 513. (Pubitemid 32927881)
182. Tasch MD. Corticosteroids and anesthesia. Curr Opin Anaesthesiol 2002 15 : 377 381.
183. Marik PE, Varon J. Requirement of perioperative stress doses of corticosteroids: a systematic review of the literature. Arch Surg 2008 143 : 1222 1226.
184. Kuperman H, Damiani D, Chrousos GP et al. Evaluation of the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis in children with leukemia before and after 6 weeks of high-dose glucocorticoid therapy. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 2001 86 : 2993 2996. (Pubitemid 32673454)
185. Felner EI, Thompson MT, Ratliff AF et al. Time course of recovery of adrenal function in children treated for leukemia. J Pediatr 2000 137 : 21 24.
186. Rix M, Birkebaek NH, Rosthoj S et al. Clinical impact of corticosteroid-induced adrenal suppression during treatment for acute lymphoblastic leukemia in children: a prospective observational study using the low-dose adrenocorticotropin test. J Pediatr 2005 147 : 645 650. (Pubitemid 41598338)
187. Mahachoklertwattana P, Vilaiyuk S, Hongeng S et al. Suppression of adrenal function in children with acute lymphoblastic leukemia following induction therapy with corticosteroid and other cytotoxic agents. J Pediatr 2004 144 : 736 740. (Pubitemid 38858089)
188. Petersen KB, Muller J, Rasmussen M et al. Impaired adrenal function after glucocorticoid therapy in children with acute lymphoblastic leukemia. Med Pediatr Oncol 2003 41 : 110 114. (Pubitemid 36858328)
189. Cunha Cde F, Silva IN, Finch FL. Early adrenocortical recovery after glucocorticoid therapy in children with leukemia. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 2004 89 : 2797 2802.
190. Ghazal EA, Mason LJ, Cote CJ. Preoperative evaluation, premedication, and induction of anesthesia. In : Cote CJ, Lerman J, Todres ID, eds. A Practice of Anesthesia for Infants and Children, 4th edn.
191. Havekes B, Romijn JA, Eisenhofer G et al. Update on pediatric
192. Hack HA. The perioperative management of children with phaeochromocytoma. Paediatr Anaesth 2000 10 : 463 476.
193. Prys-Roberts C. Phaeochromocytoma - recent progress in its management. Br J Anaesth 2000 85 : 44 57. (Pubitemid 30417221)
194. O'Riordan JA. Pheochromocytomas and anesthesia. Int Anesthesiol Clin 1997 35 : 99 127.
195. Seefelder C, Sparks JW, Chirnomas D et al. Perioperative management of a child with severe hypertension from a catecholamine secreting neuroblastoma. Paediatr Anaesth 2005 15 : 606 610. (Pubitemid 40917373)
196. Steinbrecher HA, Malone PS. Wilms' tumour and hypertension: incidence and outcome. Br J Urol 1995 76 : 241 243.
197. Madre C, Orbach D, Baudouin V et al. Hypertension in childhood cancer: a frequent complication of certain tumor sites. J Pediatr Hematol Oncol 2006 28 : 659 664. (Pubitemid 44536046)
198. Hastings CA, Lubin BH, Feusner J. Hematologic supportive care for children with cancer. In : Pizzo PA, Poplack DG, eds. Principles and Practice of Pediatric Oncology, 5th edn.
199. Hockenberry MJ, Hinds PS, Barrera P et al. Incidence of anemia in children with solid tumors or Hodgkin disease. J Pediatr Hematol Oncol 2002 24 : 35 37. (Pubitemid 34094327)
200. Margolin JF, Steuber CP, Poplack DG. Acute lymphoblastic leukemia. In : Pizzo PA, Poplack DG, eds. Principles and Practice of Pediatric Oncology, 5th edn.
201. Ruggiero A, Riccardi R. Interventions for anemia in pediatric cancer patients. Med Pediatr Oncol 2002 39 : 451 454. (Pubitemid 34976947)
202. Malogolowkin MH, Quinn JJ, Steuber CP et al. Clinical assessment and differential diagnosis of the child with suspected cancer. In : Pizzo PA, Poplack DG, eds. Principles and Practice of Pediatric Oncology, 5th edn.
203. Golub TR, Arceci RJ. Acute myelogenous leukemia. In : Pizzo PA, Poplack DG, eds. Principles and Practice of Pediatric Oncology, 5th edn.
204. Creutzig U, Ritter J, Budde M et al. Early deaths due to hemorrhage and leukostasis in childhood acute myelogenous leukemia. Associations with hyperleukocytosis and acute monocytic leukemia. Cancer 1987 60 : 3071 3079.
205. Mauch P, Constine L, Greenberger J et al. Hematopoietic stem cell compartment: acute and late effects of radiation therapy and chemotherapy. Int J Radiat Oncol Biol Phys 1995 31 : 1319 1339.
206. Glaspy J. Disorders of blood cell production in clinical oncology. In : Abeloff MD, Armitage JO, Niederhuber JE et al., eds. Abeloff's Clinical Oncology, 4th edn.
207. Kaushansky K. The thrombocytopenia of cancer. Prospects for effective cytokine therapy. Hematol Oncol Clin North Am 1996 10 : 431 455.
208. Kim SK, Demetri GD. Chemotherapy and neutropenia. Hematol Oncol Clin North Am 1996 10 : 377 395.
209. Lehrnbecher T, Varwig D, Kaiser J et al. Infectious complications in pediatric acute myeloid leukemia: analysis of the prospective multi-institutional clinical trial AML-BFM 93. Leukemia 2004 18 : 72 77.
210. Babatunde AS, Tan DC, Heng KK et al. Characterization of hemopoietic engraftment kinetics and development of secondary cytopenia in AML post Auto-SCT and its correlation with survival outcome. Bone Marrow Transplant 2009 44 : 175 183.
211. Capo G, Waltzman R. Managing hematologic toxicities. J Support Oncol 2004 2 : 65 79.
212. Castagnola E, Fontana V, Caviglia I et al. A prospective study on the epidemiology of febrile episodes during chemotherapy-induced neutropenia in children with cancer or after hemopoietic stem cell transplantation. Clin Infect Dis 2007 45 : 1296 1304.
213. Liang DC. The role of colony-stimulating factors and granulocyte transfusion in treatment options for neutropenia in children with cancer. Paediatr Drugs 2003 5 : 673 684.
214. van de Wetering MD, Weggelaar N, Offringa M et al. Granulocyte transfusions in neutropaenic children: a systematic review of the literature. Eur J Cancer 2007 43 : 2082 2092. (Pubitemid 47380369)
215. Hughes WT, Armstrong D, Bodey GP et al. 2002 Guidelines for the use of Antimicrobial Agents in Neutropenic Patients with Cancer. Clin Infect Dis 2002 34 : 730 751. (Pubitemid 34194843)
216. Michon J. Incidence of anemia in pediatric cancer patients in Europe: results of a large, international survey. Med Pediatr Oncol 2002 39 : 448 450. (Pubitemid 34976946)
217. Mystakidou K, Potamianou A, Tsilika E. Erythropoietic growth factors for children with cancer: a systematic review of the literature. Curr Med Res Opin 2007 23 : 2841 2847. (Pubitemid 350146422)
218. Vadhan-Raj S. Management of chemotherapy-induced thrombocytopenia: current status of thrombopoietic agents. Semin Hematol 2009 46 : S26 S32.
219. Athale UH, Chan AK. Hemorrhagic complications in pediatric hematologic malignancies. Semin Thromb Hemost 2007 33 : 408 415. (Pubitemid 46878113)
220. Webert K, Cook RJ, Sigouin CS et al. The risk of bleeding in thrombocytopenic patients with acute myeloid leukemia. Haematologica 2006 91 : 1530 1537. (Pubitemid 44736120)
221. Segal BH. The NCCN Clinical Practice Guidelines in Oncology™ Prevention and Treatment of Cancer-Related Infections (Version 1.2009). Available at : http://www.nccn.org/professionals/physician0-gls/PDF/infections. pdf. Accessed 1 August, 2009.
222. Fischer SP, Bader AM, Sweitzer B. Preoperative evaluation. In : Miller RD, eds. Miller's Anesthesia, 7th edn.
223. Kostler WJ, Hejna M, Wenzel C et al. Oral mucositis complicating chemotherapy and/or radiotherapy: options for prevention and treatment. CA Cancer J Clin 2001 51 : 290 315. (Pubitemid 34232774)
224. Kurosawa S, Kato M. Anesthetics, immune cells, and immune responses. J Anesth 2008 22 : 263 277.
225. Rodgers GM. The NCCN Clinical Practice Guidelines in Oncology™- Cancer- and Chemotherapy-Induced Anemia (Version 1.2010). Available at : http://www.nccn.org/professionals/physician-gls/PDF/anemia.pdf. Accessed 1 August, 2009.
226. Roseff SD, Luban NL, Manno CS. Guidelines for assessing appropriateness of pediatric transfusion. Transfusion 2002 42 : 1398 1413.
227. Dzik WH. Leukoreduction of blood components. Curr Opin Hematol 2002 9 : 521 526.
228. Fergusson D, Khanna MP, Tinmouth A et al. Transfusion of leukoreduced red blood cells may decrease postoperative infections: two meta-analyses of randomized controlled trials. Can J Anaesth 2004 51 : 417 424.
229. Rios JA, Korones DN, Heal JM et al. WBC-reduced blood transfusions and clinical outcome in children with acute lymphoid leukemia. Transfusion 2001 41 : 873 877.
230. Webb DK. Preventative policies in transfusion associated graft versus host disease in the treatment of cancer. Arch Dis Child 1994 71 : 532 533.
231. Parshuram C, Doyle J, Lau W et al. Transfusion-associated graft versus host disease. Pediatr Crit Care Med 2002 3 : 57 62.
232. Fasano R, Luban NL. Blood component therapy. Pediatr Clin North Am 2008 55 : 421 445. ix. (Pubitemid 351442781)
233. Harris AL. Leukostasis associated with blood transfusion in acute myeloid leukaemia. Br Med J 1978 1 : 1169 1171.
234. Lapierre V, Kuentz M, Tiberghien P. Allogeneic peripheral blood hematopoietic stem cell transplantation: guidelines for red blood cell immuno-hematological assessment and transfusion practice.Societe Francaise de Greffe de Moelle. Bone Marrow Transplant 2000 25 : 507 512. (Pubitemid 30137865)
235. Loh AH, Chui CH. Port-A-Cath insertions in acute leukemia: does thrombocytopenia affect morbidity? J Pediatr Surg 2007 42 : 1180 1184.
236. Schiffer CA, Anderson KC, Bennett CL et al. Platelet transfusion for patients with cancer: clinical practice guidelines of the American Society of Clinical Oncology. J Clin Oncol 2001 19 : 1519 1538.
237. Stroncek DF, Rebulla P. Platelet transfusions. Lancet 2007 370 : 427 438. (Pubitemid 47189674)
238. Howard SC, Gajjar A, Ribeiro RC et al. Safety of lumbar puncture for children with acute lymphoblastic leukemia and thrombocytopenia. JAMA 2000 284 : 2222 2224.
239. Lee AC, Lau Y, Li CH et al. Intraspinal and intracranial hemorrhage after lumbar puncture. Pediatr Blood Cancer 2007 48 : 233 237. (Pubitemid 44958285)
240. Leukocyte reduction and ultraviolet B irradiation of platelets to prevent alloimmunization and refractoriness to platelet transfusions. The Trial to Reduce Alloimmunization to Platelets Study Group. N Engl J Med 1997 337 : 1861 1869.
241. Coppes MJ, Zandvoort SW, Sparling CR et al. Acquired von Willebrand disease in Wilms' tumor patients. J Clin Oncol 1992 10 : 422 427.
242. Falanga A, Rickles FR. Management of thrombohemorrhagic syndromes (THS) in hematologic malignancies. Hematology Am Soc Hematol Educ Program 2007 2007 : 165 171.
243. Abshire TC, Gold SH, Odom LF et al. The coagulopathy of childhood leukemia. Thrombin activation or primary fibrinolysis? Cancer 1990 66 : 716 721.
244. Ribeiro RC, Pui CH. The clinical and biological correlates of coagulopathy in children with acute leukemia. J Clin Oncol 1986 4 : 1212 1218. (Pubitemid 16043872)
245. Slats AM, Egeler RM, van der Does-van den Berg A et al. Causes of death - other than progressive leukemia - in childhood acute lymphoblastic (ALL) and myeloid leukemia (AML): the Dutch Childhood Oncology Group experience. Leukemia 2005 19 : 537 544.
246. Green D. Management of bleeding complications of hematologic malignancies. Semin Thromb Hemost 2007 33 : 427 434. (Pubitemid 46878115)
247. Ott N, Ramsay NK, Priest JR et al. Sequelae of thrombotic or hemorrhagic complications following L-asparaginase therapy for childhood lymphoblastic leukemia. Am J Pediatr Hematol Oncol 1988 10 : 191 195.
248. Kieslich M, Porto L, Lanfermann H et al. Cerebrovascular complications of L-asparaginase in the therapy of acute lymphoblastic leukemia. J Pediatr Hematol Oncol 2003 25 : 484 487. (Pubitemid 36682755)
249. Homans AC, Rybak ME, Baglini RL et al. Effect of L-asparaginase administration on coagulation and platelet function in children with leukemia. J Clin Oncol 1987 5 : 811 817. (Pubitemid 17120260)
250. Goldenberg NA, Bernard TJ. Venous thromboembolism in children. Pediatr Clin North Am 2008 55 : 305 322. vii.
251. Athale UH, Chan AK. Thromboembolic complications in pediatric hematologic malignancies. Semin Thromb Hemost 2007 33 : 416 426. (Pubitemid 46878114)
252. Athale U, Siciliano S, Thabane L et al. Epidemiology and clinical risk factors predisposing to thromboembolism in children with cancer. Pediatr Blood Cancer 2008 51 : 792 797.
253. Practice Guidelines for blood component therapy: a report by the American Society of Anesthesiologists Task Force on Blood Component Therapy. Anesthesiology 1996 84 : 732 747.
254. Nowak-Gottl U, Rath B, Binder M et al. Inefficacy of fresh frozen plasma in the treatment of L-asparaginase-induced coagulation factor deficiencies during ALL induction therapy. Haematologica 1995 80 : 451 453.
255. Halton JM, Mitchell LG, Vegh P et al. Fresh frozen plasma has no beneficial effect on the hemostatic system in children receiving L-asparaginase. Am J Hematol 1994 47 : 157 161. (Pubitemid 24333440)
256. Hongo T, Okada S, Ohzeki T et al. Low plasma levels of hemostatic proteins during the induction phase in children with acute lymphoblastic leukemia: a retrospective study by the JACLS. Japan Association of Childhood Leukemia Study. Pediatr Int 2002 44 : 293 299.
257. Goad KE, Gralnick HR. Coagulation disorders in cancer. Hematol Oncol Clin North Am 1996 10 : 457 484.
258. Coiffier B, Altman A, Pui CH et al. Guidelines for the management of pediatric and adult tumor lysis syndrome: an evidence-based review. J Clin Oncol 2008 26 : 2767 2778.
259. Del Toro G, Morris E, Cairo MS. Tumor lysis syndrome: pathophysiology, definition, and alternative treatment approaches. Clin Adv Hematol Oncol 2005 3 : 54 61. (Pubitemid 40277560)
260. Sinha R, Bose S, Subramaniam R. Tumor lysis under anesthesia in a child. Acta Anaesthesiol Scand 2009 53 : 131 133.
261. Farley-Hills E, Byrne AJ, Brennan L et al. Tumour lysis syndrome during anaesthesia. Paediatr Anaesth 2001 11 : 233 236. (Pubitemid 32195202)
262. Lee MH, Cheng KI, Jang RC et al. Tumour lysis syndrome developing during an operation. Anaesthesia 2007 62 : 85 87.
263. Osthaus WA, Linderkamp C, Bunte C et al. Tumor lysis associated with dexamethasone use in a child with leukemia. Paediatr Anaesth 2008 18 : 268 270. (Pubitemid 351159910)
264. McDonnell C, Barlow R, Campisi P et al. Fatal peri-operative acute tumour lysis syndrome precipitated by dexamethasone. Anaesthesia 2008 63 : 652 655. (Pubitemid 351677318)
265. Patatanian E, Thompson DF. Retinoic acid syndrome: a review. J Clin Pharm Ther 2008 33 : 331 338.
266. Tallman MS, Andersen JW, Schiffer CA et al. Clinical description of 44 patients with acute promyelocytic leukemia who developed the retinoic acid syndrome. Blood 2000 95 : 90 95. (Pubitemid 30017230)
267. De Botton S, Dombret H, Sanz M et al. Incidence, clinical features, and outcome of all trans-retinoic acid syndrome in 413 cases of newly diagnosed acute promyelocytic leukemia. The European APL Group. Blood 1998 92 : 2712 2718.
268. Lam JC, Chui CH, Jacobsen AS et al. When is a mediastinal mass critical in a child? An analysis of 29 patients. Pediatr Surg Int 2004 20 : 180 184.
269. Davies SM, Ramsay NK, Klein JP et al. Comparison of preparative regimens in transplants for children with acute lymphoblastic leukemia. J Clin Oncol 2000 18 : 340 347.
270. O'Driscoll BR, Kalra S, Gattamaneni HR et al. Late carmustine lung fibrosis. Age at treatment may influence severity and survival. Chest 1995 107 : 1355 1357.
271. Lohani S, O'Driscoll BR, Woodcock AA. 25-year study of lung fibrosis following carmustine therapy for brain tumor in childhood. Chest 2004 126 : 1007.
272. Wheeler C, Antin JH, Churchill WH et al. Cyclophosphamide, carmustine, and etoposide with autologous bone marrow transplantation in refractory Hodgkin's disease and non-Hodgkin's lymphoma: a dose-finding study. J Clin Oncol 1990 8 : 648 656.
273. Stuart MJ, Chao NS, Horning SJ et al. Efficacy and toxicity of a CCNU-containing high-dose chemotherapy regimen followed by autologous hematopoietic cell transplantation in relapsed or refractory Hodgkin's disease. Biol Blood Marrow Transplant 2001 7 : 552 560.
274. Lateef O, Shakoor N, Balk RA. Methotrexate pulmonary toxicity. Expert Opin Drug Saf 2005 4 : 723 730.
275. Okuno SH, Frytak S. Mitomycin lung toxicity. Acute and chronic phases. Am J Clin Oncol 1997 20 : 282 284.
276. Rivera MP, Kris MG, Gralla RJ et al. Syndrome of acute dyspnea related to combined mitomycin plus vinca alkaloid chemotherapy. Am J Clin Oncol 1995 18 : 245 250.