North african piracy, the Hanoverian carrying trade, and the British state, 1728-1828

Historical Journal

Volumn 43, Issue 1, 2000, Pages 25-47

  Harding, Nicholas B ^a  

^a Och Spine at New York Presbyterian Hospitals   (United States)

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EID: 77950032460     PISSN: 0018246X     EISSN: 14695103     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1017/S0018246X99008900     Document Type: Article

References (197)

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18. John Robertson, 'Union, state and empire: the Britain of 1707 in its European setting', in Lawrence Stone, ed., An imperial state at war: Britain from 1689 to 1815 (London, 1994), pp. 224-57.
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20. Günther Lange, 'Die Rolle Englands bei der Wiederherstellung und Vergrößerung Hannovers 1813-1815', Niedersächsisches Jahrbuch für Landesgeschichte, 28 (1956), pp. 73-178;
21. Gert Brauer, Die hannoversch-englischen Subsidienverträge, 1702-1748 (Aalen, 1962) ;
22. Sigisbert Conrady, 'Die Wirksamkeit König Georgs III. für die hannoverschen Kurlande', Niedersächsisches Jahrbuch für Landesgeschichte, 39 (1967), pp. 158-70;
23. John J. Murray, George I, the Baltic and the whig split 0f 1717 : a study in diplomacy and propaganda (London, 1969) ;
24. W. Mediger, 'Great Britain, Hanover and the rise of Prussia', in Ragnhild Hatton and M. S. Anderson, eds., Studies in diplomatic history: essays in memory of David Bayne Horn (London, 1970), pp. 199-213;
25. T. C. W. Blanning, '"That horrid electorate" or "ma patrie germanique"'? George III, Hanover, and the Fürstenbund of 1785', Historical Journal, 20 (1977), pp. 311-44;
26. Jeremy Black, British foreign policy in the age of Walpole (Edinburgh, 1985), pp. 27-48;
27. Wolf D. Gruner, 'England, Hannover und der deutsche Bund', Heinz Duchhardt, 'England-Hannover und der europäische Friede, 1714-1748'
28. and Hermann Wellenreuther, 'Die Bedeutung des siebenjährigen Krieges für die englisch-hannoveranischen Beziehung', all in AdolfM. Birke and Kurt Kluxen, eds., England und Hannover (Munich, 1986), pp. 81-175;
29. Jeremy Black, 'Parliament and foreign policy in the age of Walpole: the case of the Hessians', Jeremy Black, 'The crown, Hanover and the shift in British foreign policy in the 1760s'
30. and T. C. W. Blanning and Carl Haase, 'George III, Hanover and the regency crisis'
31. all in Jeremy Black, ed., Knights errant and true Englishmen: British foreign policy, 1660-1800 (Edinburgh, 1989), pp. 41-54, 113-50;
32. Uriel Dann, Hanover and Great Britain, 1740-1760: diplomacy and survival (Leicester, 1991) ;
33. Uta Richter-Uhlig, Hof und Politik unter den Bedingungen der Personalunion zwischen Hannover und England (Hanover, 1992), pp. 63-163;
34. Philip G. Dwyer, 'Prussia and the armed neutrality: the invasion of Hanover in 1801', International History Review, 15 (1993), pp. 661-87;
35. Philip Konigs, The Hanoverian kings and their homeland: a study of the personal union 1714-1837 (Lewes, 1993) ;
36. Brendan Simms, '"An odd question enough". Charles James Fox, the crown and British policy during the Hanoverian crisis of 1806', Historical Journal, 38 (1995), pp. 567-96;
37. Philip G. Dwyer, 'Two definitions of neutrality: Prussia, the European states-system, and the French invasion of Hanover in 1803', International History Review, 19 (1997), pp. 522-40;
38. Jeremy Black, America or Europe? British foreign policy, 1739-63 (London, 1998), pp. 87-103.
39. Johann Stefan Pütter, Beyträge zum teutschen Staats-und Fürsten-Rechte (Göttingen, 1777), p. 22;
40. Henry Wheaton, Elements of international law (London, 1836), p. 65;
41. Christian Friedrich Theodor von Ompteda, Die Ueberwältigung Hannovers durch die Franzosen: eine historisch-politische Studie (Hanover, 1862), p. 5;
42. Ernst von Meier, Hannoversche Verfassungs-und Verwaltungsgeschichte 1680-1866 (2 vols., Leipzig, 1898), 1, pp. 122-3;
43. Ward, Great Britain and Hanover, pp. 1-2;
44. Ford, Hanover and Prussia, p. 3 7;
45. Karl Bingmann, Das rechtliche Verhältnis zwischen Groß;britannien und Hannover von 1714 bis 1837 (Celle, 1925), pp. 51-2;
46. Sigisbert Conrady, 'Die Wirksamkeit König Georgs III. für die hannoverschen Kurlande', in Niedersächsisches Jahrbuch für Landesgeschichte, 39 (1967), pp. 155-6;
47. Kenneth L. Ellis, 'The administrative connections between Britain and Hanover', Journal of the Society of Archivists, 3 (October 1969), p. 548;
48. Georg Schnath, 'Die Personalunion zwischen Großbritannien und Hannover, 1714-1837'
49. Lüneburger Blätter, 20 (1969), pp. 7-8;
50. Waldemar Röhrbein and Alheidis von Rohr, Hannover im Glanz und Schatten des britischen Weltreiches: die Auswirkungen der Personalunion auf Hannover von 1714-1837 (Hanover, 1977), p. 20;
51. Ragnhild Hatton, 'The Anglo-Hanoverian connection 1714-1760' (The Creighton Trust Lecture, London, 1982), pp. 2-3;
52. Sabine Haselau, ' Die Organisation der Personalunion - ihr verfassungsmäßiger Charakter und das rechtliche Verhältnis zwischen Hannover und GroGbritannien', in Heide N. Rohloff, ed., Großbritannien und Hannover: Die Zeit der Personalunion, 1714-1837 (Frankfurt am Main, 1989), p. 236;
53. Dann, Hanover and Great Britain, p. 137;
54. Konigs, Hanoverian kings, p. 172.
55. I. B. Campbell, 'The international and legal relations between Great Britain and Hanover, 1714-1837' (D. Phil, thesis, Cambridge, 1965).
56. Konigs, Hanoverian kings, p. 142;
57. A photograph of one such flag is to be found in Röhrbein and von Rohr, Hannover im Glanz und Schatten, p. 73.
58. For the Anglo-Scottish example, see Brian Levack, The formation of the British stale: England, Scotland, and the union, 1603-I707 (Oxford, 1987), p. 148.
59. Bingmann, Das rechtliche Verhältnis, p. 46.
60. For the Navigation Acts, see [Stafford Henry Northcote], A short review of the history of the navigation laws of England (London, 1849) ;
61. Lawrence A. Harper, The English navigation laws: a seventeenth-century experiment in social engineering (New York, 1939).
62. Klaus Piister, ' Möglichkeiten und Verfehlungen merkantiler Politik im Kurfürstentum Hannover unter Berücksichtigung des Einflusses der Personalunion mit dem Königreich Großbritannien' (Ph. D. dissertation, Hamburg, 1966), p. 98;
63. Dann, Hanover and Great Britain, p. 127;
64. Konigs, Hanoverian kings, p. 141.
65. See the cursory treatment of Püster, 'Möglichkeiten und Verfehlungen', p. 245;
66. Dann, Hanover and Great Britain, p. 142;
67. Konigs, The Hanoverian kings, p. 142.
68. Gottlieb Samuel Treuer, 'Chur-braunschweig-lüneburgisches Staats-recht', E. von Lenthe, ed., Zeitschrift des historischen Vereins für Niedersachsen (1853), p. 340;
69. Christian Ludwig Albrecht Patje, Kurzer Abriß des Fabriken-, Gewerbe-, und HandlungsZstandes in den ChurBraunschweig-Lüneburgischen Landen (Göttingen, 1796), p. 7;
70. Brandes to Burke, 29 Oct. 1796, Hanover, in Stephan Skalweit, 'Edmund Burke, Ernst Brandes und Hannover', Niedersächsisches Jahrbuch für Landesgeschichte, 28 (1956), p. 46.
71. Brandes to Burke, 29 Oct. 1796, Hanover, in Skalweit, 'Edmund Burke, Ernst Brandes und Hannover', p. 46.
72. Patje, Kurzer Abriß, p. 424.
73. Reinhard Oberschelp, Niedersachsen, 1760-1820: Wirtschaft, Gesellschaft, Kultur im Land Hannover und Nachbargebieten (2 vols., Hildesheim, 1982), 1, p. 212;
74. see also Georg Schnath, Geschichte Hannovers im Zeitalter der neunten Kur und der englischen Sukztssion, 1674-1714 (4 vols., Hildesheim, 1978), III, p. 305.
75. Patje, Kurzer Abriß, p. 8.
76. Püster, 'Möglichkeiten und Verfehlungen', pp. 156-61.
77. Townshend to Walpole, 3/14 Sept. 1723, Hanover, PRO, SP 43/4, p. 317.
78. Püster, 'Möglichkeiten und Verfehlungen', pp. 123-4.
79. Ibid., pp. 149-50.
80. Ibid., pp. 177-92.
81. Ibid., p. 98.
82. Ibid., p. 134.
83. Ibid., p. 244.
84. M. S. Anderson, 'Great Britain and the Barbary states in the eighteenth century', Bulletin of the Institute of Historical Research, 29 (1956), p. 89.
85. Ibid., p. 90. For an exception to the rule, see Grenville to Matra, 14 Nov. 1790, London, British Library, Add. MSS 59051.
86. Lewis Hertslet, ed., A complete collection of the treaties and conventions, and reciprocal regulations, at present subsisting between Great Britain and foreign powers (2 vols., London, 1840), I. Britain obtained treaty rights for Gibraltar and Minorca in successive treaties of 1716: with Tunis on 19 July (p. 142) ;
87. with Tripoli on 30 Aug. (p. 161) ;
88. and with Algiers on 29 Oct. (pp. 76-7). They also obtained a similar recognition for Malta from Algiers on 19 Mar. 1801 (p. 84).
89. Newcastle to Russell, 29 Aug. 1728, Hampton Court, PRO, SP 71/17, p. 103.
90. Ibid.; former consul William Lattonjcited the duke of Bedford's 15 Apr. 1748 instructions to him in his undated memorial in PRO, SP 71/19, p. 1;
91. George III to Matra, 7 Dec. 1790, London, PRO, FO 52/8, p. 306.
92. Fog's Weekly Journal, no. 98 (8 Aug. 1730), p. 2.
93. PRO, CO 91/9, passim; Consul William Pettigrew's receipt for reimbursements issued by General Bland, 12 Apr. 1751, Tetuan, PRO, CO 91/11.
94. Bland to Bedford, 10 Apr. 1750, Gibraltar, PRO, CO 91/11.
95. PRO, SP 71/18;
96. SP 71/19; CO 91/8;
97. CO 91/11, passim.
98. George II to Milbanke, 25 Oct. 1758, Kensington, PRO, SP 71/20, p. 214.
99. Article 3 of the additional articles of 10 July 1729, in Hertslet, Treaties and conventions, p. 94.
100. Articles I and 2 of the additional articles of 1 Feb. 1751, in Hertslet, Treaties and conventions, pp. 98-9.
101. Pettigrew to Bedford, 30 Mar. 1751, Tetuan, PRO, SP 71/19, p. 28.
102. Matra to Grenville, 27 Apr. 1791, Tangiers, PRO, FO 52/10, p. 79.
103. Article 1 of the additional articles of 1 Feb. 1751, in Hertslet, Treaties and conventions, p. 98.
104. See, for example, Pettigrew to emperor of Morocco, 25 Feb. 1751, New Fez, PRO, C091/11.
105. Bland to Bedford, 4 Feb. 1751, Gibraltar, PRO, CO 91/11.
106. Newcastle to Russell, 29 Aug. 1728, Hampton Court, PRO, SP 71/17, p. 103.
107. Bland to Bedford, 16 Nov. 1750, Gibraltar, PRO, CO 91/11.
108. Article 15 of the treaty of 28 July 1760, in Hertslet, Treaties and conventions, p. 106.
109. Article 14 of the treaty of 8 Apr. 1791, in Hertslet, Treaties and conventions, P. 116.
110. For Calvin's Case, see Bruce Galloway, The union of England and Scotland, 1603-1608 (Edinburgh, 1986), pp. 148-57.
111. Lange, 'Die Rolle Englands', passim, especially pp. 159-61.
112. Münster to Fox, i6July 1806, London, PRO, FO 97/243;
113. Münster to Castlereagh, 25 May 1813, London, PRO, FO 34/6.
114. Münster to Fox, iGJuly 1806, London, PRO, FO 97/243;
115. Fridrich Arends, Ostfrieslandund fever in geographischer, statistischer und besondsrs landwirthsckaftlicher Hinskht (Hanover, 1822), 1, p. 122.
116. Annemarie Müller, 'Emdens Seeschiffahrt und Seehandel von der Besitzergreifung Ostfrieslands durch Preußen bis zur Eröffnung des Dortmund-Ems-Kanals, 1744-1899', Hansische Geschichlsblätter, 55 (1930), p. 142.
117. Arends, Ostfriesland, 1, pp. 130-1;
118. Lübbert Eiken Lübbers, Die Schiffahrt Ostfrieslands (Tubingen, 1903), p. 57;
119. Helene Borkenhagen, Ostfriesland unter der hannoverschen Herrschaft, 1815-1866 (Aurich, 1924), p. 76;
120. Müller, 'Emdens Seeschiffahrt', pp. 127-8.
121. Müller, 'Emdens Seeschiflahrt', p. 135.
122. Castlereagh to Bathurst, 29 Jan. 1816, London, PRO, FO 8/2, p. 21.
123. Ibid., p. 19.
124. Castlereagh to Bathurst, 29 Jan. 1816, London, PRO, FO 8/2, pp. 25-6.
125. For Münster, see Reinhard Oberschelp, 'Graf Münster in der hannoverschen Politik, 1805-1831', in Ernst Friedrich Herbert Graf zu Münster, Staatsmann und Kunstfreund (Hildesheim, 1991), pp. 12-22.
126. Munster to Castlereagh, 22 Feb. 1816, London, PRO, FO 34/10.
127. Castlereagh to Bathurst London, 19 Feb. 1816, London, PRO, FO 34/10.
128. Hall to Münster, 21 Feb. 1816, London, PRO, FO 34/10.
129. Extract of the log book of the Johan Hermann, 12 Nov. 1816, Tripoli, PRO, FO 34/11.
130. Extract of a letter from Mr John Simpson, 26 June 1816, Tangier, PRO, FO 52/17.
131. Richards to Grote, 13 Dec. 1816, Nantes, Niedersächsisches Hauptstaatsarchiv (NHStA), Hann. 92 xli Nr. 127b, 3, p. 11.
132. 64Münster to Planta, 12 Jan. 1817, London, PRO, FO 34/11.
133. D. C. M. Platt, The Cinderella service: British consuls since 1823 (London, 1971), pp. 11-13.
134. Read to Castlereagh, 31 Jan. 1818, St Michaels, PRO, FO 63/215.
135. Robinson to Castlereagh, 15 Mar. 1818, London, PRO, FO 83/2321.
136. Münster to Castlereagh, 21 Feb. 1821, London, PRO, FO 34/15.
137. Parliament had only just raised the percentage from 1/3 to 1/2 in 1814. Parliamentary Papers 1822 20, 'Table or rate of fees charged by consuls' (464), p. 10;
138. 'Correspondence relating to consulate in the Brazils' (604), passim.
139. Platt, The Cinderella service, p. 12 (note).
140. Castlereagh to Münster, 30 Mar. 1821, London, PRO, FO 34/15.
141. Münster to Castlereagh, 25 Oct. 1817, London, PRO, FO 34/11.
142. Castlereagh to Münster, 13 Nov. 1817, London, PRO, FO 34/11.
143. Münster to Planta, 6 Feb. 1818, London, PRO, FO 34/12, p. 1;
144. Planta to Münster, 17 Feb. 1818, PRO, FO 34/12, pp. 7-8.
145. 75Canning to Münster, 15 Nov. 1826, London, PRO, FO 34/19.
146. '5 Campbell, 'International and legal relations', p. 283.
147. " See for example Münster to McDonell, 26 May 1819, London, NHStA, Hann. 92 xxx, iv Nr. 4.2, p. 39;
148. Munster to Amyot, 17 Mar. 1821, London, NHStA, Hann. 92 xxx.iv Nr. 4, 2, p. 17.
149. Münster to Warrington, 3 July 1818, London, NHStA, Hann. 92 xxx.iv Nr. 4, 2, p. 61.
150. See also Münster to McDonell, 26 May 1819, NHStA, Hann. 92 xxx, iv Nr. 4, 2, p. 38.
151. Warrington to Münster, 25 Dec. 1819, Tripoli, NHStA, Hann. 92 xxx, iv Nr. 4, 2, p. 19;
152. Warrington to Hanoverian ministry, 16 Jan. 1822, Tripoli, NHStA, Hann. 92 xxx, iv Nr. 4, 2, p. 16.
153. See for example German chancery to. Planta, 21 Nov. 1817, London, NHStA, Hann. 92 xxx, iv Nr. 4, 3, p. 86;
154. Münster to Murray, 29 June 1830, London, NHStA, Hann. 92 xxx, iv Nr. 4.3. P-48.
155. The 'Reglement für alle königliche Großbritannische- hannöversche General-Consuln, Consuln, Agenten und Vice-Consuln in fremden Handelsplätzen und Seehäfen' of 11 Apr. 1817, NHStA, xxx, iv, Nr. 4, 3, pp. 5-11.
156. Münster to Green, 31 Oct. 1817, London, NHStA, xxx.iv, Nr. 4, 3, p. 91.
157. See also Münster to Drummond, 29 June 1830, London, NHStA, xxx, iv, Nr. 4, 3, p. 46;
158. Münster to St John, 29 June 1830, NHStA, xxx.lv, Nr. 4, 3, p. 47.
159. Dann, Hanover and Great Britain, p. 142.
160. Münster to Canning, 3 Apr. 1824, London, PRO, FO 34/17.
161. Münster to Planta, 12 Dec. 1825, London, PRO, FO 34/18.
162. Münster to Dudley, 22 Oct. 1827, London, PRO, FO 34/19;
163. Dudley to Münster, 15 Feb. 1828, London, PRO, FO 34/20;
164. Münster to Dudley, 12 Apr. 1828, London, PRO, FO 34/20.
165. Palmerston to Ompteda, 15 July 1834, London, PRO, FO 34/24;
166. Lichtenberg to Palmerston, 18 July 1834, London, PRO, FO 34/24.
167. Arends, Ostfriesland, I, p. 131.
168. Müller, 'Emdens Seeschiffahrt', pp. 131-2;
169. Max Peters, Die Entwicklung der deutschen Rhederei seit Beginn dieses Jahrhunderts (2 vols., Jena, 1899), I, p. 28.
170. Ernst Baasch, Die Hanscstädten und die Barbaresken (Kassel, 1897), pp. 130-80.
171. Bland to Bedford, 14 Mar. 1751, Gibraltar, PRO, CO 91/11.
172. The actual figure was 3, 500 oz, at an exchange rate of 7.5 oz to the dollar. Consul Pettigrew's expense report, 10 Mar. 1751, Tetuan, PRO, CO 91/11.
173. Bland to Bedford, 14 Mar. 1751, Gibraltar, PRO, CO 91/11.
174. Anonymous [J. S. Macnamara] to the chairman of the committee of ship owners of London, 17 Mar. 1818, Brake on the Weser, PRO, FO 34/12, p. 168.
175. Extract of a letter from the Weser to John Bennett (of Lloyd's), 31 Dec. 1817, PRO, FO 34/12, p. 123. The reference to 'blood' is inaccurate. Admiral Exmouth negotiated the treaties respecting Hanover without bloodshed. When he did attack Algiers later in 1816, it was over the issue of'Christian slavery'.
176. Anonymous [J. S. Macnamara] to the chairman of the committee of ship owners of London, 17 Mar. 1818, Brake on the Weser, PRO, FO 34/12, p. 168.
177. Macnamara to Canning, 18 Aug. 1823, Brake on the Weser, PRO, FO 34/16.
178. Ibid..
179. Ibid..
180. Castlereagh to Münster, 11 June 1818, London, PRO, FO 34/12, p. 47.
181. Münster to Castlereagh, 15 June 1818, London, PRO, FO 34/12, p. 49.
182. Anonymous [J. S. Macnamara] to the chairman of the committee of ship owners of London, 17 Mar. 1818, Brake on the Weser, PRO, FO 34/12, p. 168.
183. Macnamara to Canning, 18 Aug. 1823, Brake on the Weser, PRO, FO 34/16.
184. Anderson, 'Great Britain and the Barbary states', pp. 99-100.
185. Croker to Hamilton, 28 Oct. 1817 London, PRO, FO 34/11.
186. Münster to Dudley, 31 Dec. 1827, London, PRO, FO 34/19.
187. Barrow to Backhouse, 5 Jan. 1828, London, PRO, FO 34/20.
188. John Wilson Croker, diary entry for 18 Mar. 1828, in Louis J. Jennings, ed., The Croker papers (3 vols., London, 1884), I, p. 412.
189. Ragnhild Hatton, George I: elector and king (London, 1978), p. 199.
190. Blanning, '"That horrid electorate"', p. 338.
191. Robinson to Dudley, 17 Jan. 1828, London, PRO, FO 83/2289.
192. Münster to Dudley, 8 Feb. 1828, London, PRO, FO 34/20.
193. Jenner to Dudley, 12 Mar. 1828, London, PRO, FO 83/2289.
194. Foreign office memorandum to admiralty, 22 Mar. 1828, London, PRO, FO 34/20.
195. Campbell, 'International and legal relations', p. 283.
196. J. Mervyn Jones, British nationality law and practice (Oxford, 1947), p. 63 (note).
197. QBD 54.