The abolition of the slave trade and the transformation of the south-central African interior during the nineteenth century

William and Mary Quarterly

Volumn 66, Issue 4, 2009, Pages 915-940

  Gordon, David M ^a  

^a BOWDOIN COLLEGE   (United States)

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[No Author keywords available]

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EID: 77949805487     PISSN: 00435597     EISSN: 1933-769     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: None     Document Type: Review

References (121)

1. Jan Vansina, Kingdoms of the Savanna (1966; repr., Madison, Wis., 1968)
2. For more detail on long-distance trade routes, see Vansina, "Long-Distance Trade-Routes in Central Africa," Journal of African History 3, no. 3 (1962): 375-90
3. For developments leading to the establishment of the Lunda confederacy, see Vansina, How Societies Are Born: Governance in West Central Africa before 1600 (Charlottesville, Va., 2004), 206-60
4. For the Lunda consolidation and expansion, see J. Jeffrey Hoover, "The Seduction of Ruwej: Reconstructing Ruund History (The Nuclear Lunda; Zaire; Angola; Zambia)," 2 vols. (Ph.D. diss., Yale University, 1978)
5. For commercial credit and the Lunda relationship with Atlantic trade, see Joseph C. Miller, Way of Death: Merchant Capitalism and the Angolan Slave Trade, 1730-1830 (Madison, Wis., 1988), esp. 71-169
6. For the north-south trading routes and the Luba, see Thomas Q. Reefe, The Rainbow and the Kings: A History of the Luba Empire to 1891 (Berkeley, Calif., 1981), 93-101
7. For long-distance trade and the Luba, see Anne Wilson, "Long Distance Trade and the Luba Lomami Empire," Journal of African History 13, no. 4 (1972): 575-89
8. For the relationship between outsiders and autochthones, see David M. Gordon, Nachituti's Gift: Economy, Society, and Environment in Central Africa (Madison, Wis., 2006), 27-61
9. Vansina, Kingdoms of the Savanna, 248 ("conditioned the developments"), 208 ("The genius")
10. For individual Central African polities to the nineteenth century, see Vansina, Kingdoms of the Savanna
11. Andrew D. Roberts, A History of the Bemba: Political Growth and Change in North-Eastern Zambia before 1900 (London, 1973)
12. Reefe, Rainbow and the Kings
13. Hugues Legros, Chasseurs d'ivoire: Une histoire du royaume Yéke du Shaba (Zaïre) (Brussels, Belgium, 1996)
14. Giacomo Macola, The Kingdom of Kazembe: History and Politics in North-Eastern Zambia and Katanga to 1950 (Hamburg, Germany, 2002)
15. For long-distance trade, see Vansina, Journal of African History 3
16. Richard Gray and David Birmingham, eds., Pre-Colonial African Trade: Essays on Trade in Central and Eastern Africa before 1900 (Oxford, 1970)
17. Roberts, "Pre-Colonial Trade in Zambia," African Social Research 10 (December 1970): 715-46
18. Edward A. Alpers, Ivory and Slaves: Changing Patterns of International Trade in East Central Africa to the Later Nineteenth Century (Berkeley, Calif, 1975)
19. Marcia Wright goes beyond particular political narratives and analyzes how broader changes affected individual lives in Strategies of Slaves and Women: Life-Stories from East/Central Africa (New York, 1993). I have discussed the transformations with the aid of a unique set of interviews recorded in the 1960s and 1970s with chiefs and elders across present-day Zambia, combined with travelers' accounts from the time. Transcripts of the interviews are deposited in boxes 2-4 of the Fergus Macpherson Collection at the Centre for the Study of Christianity in the Non-Western World, University of Edinburgh, Scotland
20. To my knowledge the interviews have not previously been used in published scholarship, with the exception of Fergus Macpherson, Anatomy of Conquest: The British Occupation of Zambia, 1884-1924 (Harlow, Eng., 1981). Macpherson did not employ the interview material to discuss the precolonial period
21. Miller, Way of Death, 505-9, 511-15
22. For the growth of Benguela trade, which built on the increased trade of the late eighteenth century, see Roquinaldo Amaral Ferreira, "Transforming Atlantic Slaving: Trade, Warfare, and Territorial Control in Angola, 1650-1800" (Ph.D. diss., University of California, Los Angeles, 2003), 104-43
23. Norman Etherington claims that the Delagoa Bay region formed one of the most important of Portuguese ports in Etherington, The Great Treks: The Transformation of Southern Africa, 1815-1854 (London, 2001), 101-2 nn. 1, 15. Available statistics confirm the rapid growth of the Benguela trade from the late eighteenth century and Delagoa Bay trade from the late 1820s. See Voyages: The Trans-Atlantic Slave Trade Database, http://www.slavevoyages.org/tast/index. faces
24. For the Ovimbundu slave trade, see Linda M. Heywood, "Slavery and Forced Labor in the Changing Political Economy of Central Angola, 1850-1949," in End of Slavery in Africa, ed. Suzanne Miers and Richard Roberts (Madison, Wis., 1988), 415-36 ("contract workers," 419)
25. For Chokwe ivory and rubber trading, see Joseph C. Miller, "Cokwe Trade and Conquest in the Nineteenth Century," in Gray and Birmingham, Pre-Colonial African Trade, 175-201
26. Allen F. Isaacman and Barbara S. Isaacman, Slavery and Beyond: The Making of Men and Chikunda Ethnic Identities in the Unstable World of South-Central Africa, 1750-1920 (Portsmouth, N.H., 2004), 13 ("point men")
27. For African merchants, see Alpers, Ivory and Slaves, 209-63, esp. 210, 234-35, 243-47
28. For the prazo system, see A. Isaacman, Mozambique: The Africanization of a European Institution; The Zambesi Prazos, 1750-1902 (Madison, Wis., 1972)
29. For slavery in Imerina and the background to the Anglo-Merina treaty, see Pier M. Larson, History and Memory in the Age of Enslavement: Becoming Merina in Highland Madagascar, 1770-1822 (Portsmouth, N.H., 2000), esp. 222-30
30. For the Anglo-Merina alliance and its economic consequences, see Gwyn Campbell, An Economic History of Imperial Madagascar, 1750-1895: The Rise and Fall of an Island Empire (New York, 2005), 61-78
31. For Mascarene demand for slaves, see Richard B. Allen, "Licentious and Unbridled Proceedings: The Illegal Slave Trade to Mauritius and the Seychelles during the Early Nineteenth Century," Journal of African History 42, no. 1 (2001): 91-116
32. Allen, "Suppressing a Nefarious Traffic: Britain and the Abolition of Slave Trading in India and the Western Indian Ocean, 1770-1830," in "Abolishing the Slave Trades: Ironies and Reverberations," ed. Scott E. Casper, Christopher Grasso, and Jospeh C. Miller, special issue, William and Mary Quarterly, 3d ser., 66, no. 4 (October 2009): 873-94
33. For further growth, see Gwyn Campbell, "Madagascar and Mozambique in the Slave Trade of the Western Indian Ocean, 1800-1861," in The Economics of the Indian Ocean Slave Trade in the Nineteenth Century, ed. William Gervase Clarence-Smith (London, 1989), 166-93. Due to the illegal nature of most of these imports, scholars can only estimate the approximate number of slaves exported and their destinations
34. For estimates, see Campbell, "Introduction: Abolition and Its Aftermath in the Indian Ocean World," in Abolition and Its Aftermath in Indian Ocean Africa and Asia, ed. Campbell (London, 2005), 1-28, esp. 5
35. Campbell, Economic History, 236-41
36. In 1822 Sa'îd Sayyid ibn Sultan agreed to end the trade in slaves to European colonies in the Indian Ocean. By 1845 the Sultan agreed to restrict the slave trade south of Lamu, which was understood to mean all exports of slaves outside his African empire; the Central African interior was interpreted as part of this empire. See Abdul Sheriff, Slaves, Spices, and Ivory in Zanzibar: Integration of an East African Commercial Empire into the World Economy, 1770-1873 (London, 1987), 48-60
37. For the role of coastal produce, see Jonathon Glassman, Feasts and Riot: Revelry, Rebellion, and Popular Consciousness on the Swahili Coast, 1856-1888 (Portsmouth, N.H., 1995)
38. For the vagaries of East African demand for British, American, and South Asian cloth, see Jeremy Prestholdt, "On the Global Repercussions of East African Consumerism," American Historical Review 109, no. 3 (June 2004): 755-81. David Livingstone met Zanzibari Swahili in Barotseland in 1853
39. See I. Schapera, ed., Livingstone's Private Journals, 1851-1853 (Berkeley, Calif., 1960), 227-30
40. For Swahili and the eastern Lunda, see Macola, Kingdom of Kazembe, 129-30, 141-44
41. Ian Cunnison, "Kazembe and the Arabs to 1870," in The Zambesian Past: Studies in Central African History, ed. Eric Stokes and Richard Brown (Manchester, Eng., 1966)
42. For the Bemba, see Roberts, History of the Bemba, 155-60, 193-97
43. In general, see Marcia Wright and Peter Lary, "Swahili Settlements in Northern Zambia and Malawi," African Historical Studies 4, no. 3 (1971): 547-73
44. For the clove industry and Omani-British treaties, see Sheriff, Slaves, Spices, and Ivory, 223-38
45. Vansina, Kingdoms of the Savanna, 208 ("Kololo," "genius of Shaka"), 209 ("Ngoni")
46. The revisionist historiography begins with Julian Cobbing, "The Mfecane as Alibi: Thoughts on Dithakong and Mbolompo," Journal of African History 29, no. 3 (1988): 487-519. Elizabeth A. Eldredge disputes the role of Delagoa Bay slaving prior to 1820 but confirms Cobbing's other findings, esp. Griqua raiding
47. See Eldredge, "Sources of Conflict in Southern Africa, c. 1800-30: The 'Mfecane' Reconsidered," Journal of African History 33, no. 1 (1992): 1-35
48. For the southern African origins of Sebitwane, I have followed Etherington, Great Treks, 136, 166-68
49. Mutumba Mainga, Bulozi under Luyana Kings: Political Evolution and State Formation in Pre-Colonial Zambia (London, 1973), 65-87
50. For a complete contemporary version of migrations and settlement, see Schapera, Livingstone's Private Journals, 16-23
51. For the early Ngoni migrations, see Etherington, Great Treks, 27, 114-22
52. For the segmentary system of the Ngoni and their detailed history, see J. A. Barnes, Politics in a Changing Society: A Political History of the Fort Jameson Ngoni (Manchester, Eng., 1967), 1-106
53. For a discussion regarding social and economic forms of slavery, see Suzanne Miers and Igor Kopytoff, "African 'Slavery' as an Institution of Marginality," in Slavery in Africa: Historical and Anthropological Perspectives, ed. Miers and Kopytoff (Madison, Wis., 1977), 3-78. Paul E. Lovejoy's analysis of south-central and even southern Africa alongside the forest societies of the Zaire River basin, where evasion of aspects of the slave trade may have been more successful, might underestimate the specific extent of the transformation in south-central Africa
54. See Lovejoy, Transformations in Slavery: A History of Slavery in Africa, 2d ed. (New York, 2000), 234-45
55. For the Kazembe title, see Francisco José de Lacerda e Almeida, Lands of Cazembe: Lacerda's Journey to Cazembe in 1798, trans, and ed. R. F. Burton (1873; repr., New York, 1969), 90 ("Mocazembo")
56. Isaacman and Isaacman, Slavery and Beyond, 53 ("Kazembe")
57. I refer to the English translation of Francisco José de Lacerda e Almeida's journal in Lacerda e Almeida, Lands of Cazembe, esp. 60-78
58. The original Portuguese was published as Lacerda e Almeida, "Explorações dos Portuguezes no sertão d'Africa meridional," Annaes marítimos e coloniaes 4-5, nos. 7-11, 1-3 (1844-45)
59. For the pombeiros, see Pedro João Baptista, La première traversée du Katanga en 1806: Voyage des "pombeiros" d'Angola aux Rios de Sena, trans. and ed. Auguste Verbeken and M. Walraet (Brussels, Belgium, 1953), 17 ("slaves"), 117
60. the original Portuguese of Baptista's voyages is [Baptista], "Explorações dos Portuguezes no interior d'África meridional," Annaes marítimos e coloniaes 3, nos. 5-7, 9-10 (1843)
61. For slaves as personal gifts, see Verbeken and Walraet, La première traversée, 97
62. For personal slaves sent as tribute to Mwaant Yav, see Burton, Lands of Cazembe, 41
63. A. C. P. Gamitto, King Kazembe and the Marave, Cheva, Bisa, Bemba, Lunda, and Other Peoples of Southern Africa, trans. Ian Cunnison (Lisbon, Portugal, 1960), 2: 145 ("break a Mitete")
64. See also Allen Isaacman, "The Origin, Formation, and Early History of the Chikunda of South Central Africa," Journal of African History 13, no. 3 (1972): 443-61, esp. 451
65. For breaking a "Mitete," see the account of Chibanti, in David Livingstone and Charles Livingstone, Narrative of an Expedition to the Zambesi and Its Tributaries and of the Discovery of the Lakes Shirwa and Nyassa, 1858-1864 (1865; repr., London, 2001), 45
66. Gamitto, King Kazembe, 1: 112-13 ("surrounded by"), 112 ("Musambashe"), 35, 40-42, 50-58, 111
67. For Chewa and Tumbuka, King Kazembe, ibid., 1: 143-47
68. Livingstone and Livingstone, Narrative of an Expedition, 285. David Livingstone was somewhat indebted to his Kololo guides and partial toward the Kololo polity. He was seldom critical of them, which may have prejudiced his descriptions of slavery
69. The dependence of militarized bands is described in David Livingstone, The Last Journals of David Livingstone in Central Africa, from Eighteen Hundred and Sixty-Five to His Death (New York, 1875)
70. For Ovimbundu and Chokwe in west-central Africa, see Miller, "Cokwe Trade and Conquest," 175-201
71. For Ovimbundu, see Heywood, "Slavery and Forced Labor," 415-36. According to one interviewee from western Zambia, the Ovimbundu bought one slave for three baskets of salt or eight slaves for one cow. Mwanampwaya Nkali, interview by Fergus Macpherson, Baambwe Court, Namwala, Zambia, May 30, 1973, in Fergus Macpherson Collection, box 2, transcript
72. For Ovimbundu caravans at Msiri's capital, see Legros, Chasseurs d'ivoire, 120-22
73. See, for example, descriptions of the Chikunda warlords, Mendonça and Canyemba, and raiding of Batonga in Frederick Courteney Selous, A Hunter's Wanderings in Africa (1881; repr., New York, 1907), 311-17
74. See also D. W. Phillipson, "Kasoko, a Portuguese Entrepot in the Middle Zambezi Valley," Zambia Museums Journal 3 (1972): 35-48
75. For Chikunda raids on the Zambezi River, see Isaacman and Isaacman, Slavery and Beyond, 233-68
76. For greater detail on the topic, see Selous, Hunter's Wanderings in Africa, 302-16
77. For an account of Ngoni raids and incorporation of captives, see Carl Wiese, Expedition in East-Central Africa, 1888-1891: A Report, ed. Harry W. Langworthy, trans. Donald Ramos (Norman, Okla., 1983), 155. For interview testimony on Ngoni raids, see Albino Ngulube, Albezyo Ntawa, and Michael Kanguma, interview by Fergus Macpherson, Zarupango, Katondwe, Zambia, Sept. 4, 1974, in Fergus Macpherson Collection, box 2, transcript
78. Simon Ngulube, interview by Macpherson, Mbuluma, Zambia, September 1974, Expedition in East-Central Africa, 1888-1891: A Report, ibid
79. Chisenga, interview by Macpherson, Chingombe Mission, Old Mkushi, Zambia, Aug. 13, 1974, Expedition in East-Central Africa, 1888-1891: A Report, ibid
80. Headman Nythande Chirwa, interview by Fergus Macpherson, Petauke Boma, Zambia, Mar. 17, 1975, in Fergus Macpherson Collection, box 2, transcript ("You see"). For the history of Ngoni, see Barnes, Politics in a Changing Society
81. See C. P. Muluka and Emmanuel Bwembya, interview by Fergus Macpherson, Bwembya Village, Zambia, May 1963, in Fergus Macpherson Collection, box 2, transcript; elders, interview by Macpherson, Old Mukushi, Zambia, Aug. 12, 1964, History of the Bemba, ibid
82. Mbilima and elders, interview by Macpherson, Chilubi Island, Zambia, Nov. 20, 1974, History of the Bemba, ibid
83. Yokoba Mutenta Lusuma and elders, interview by Macpherson, Serenje, Zambia, Oct. 16, 1973, History of the Bemba, ibid
84. For the nearby Ushi, see the collection of several interviews published as Mwelwa C. Musambachime, ed., The Oral History of Mansa, Zambia (Lusaka, Zambia, 1996). In 1867 David Livingstone described the Bisa as the Bemba's "slaves."
85. See Livingstone, Last Journals of David Livingstone, 147 (quotation)
86. Patson Chipili, interview by Fergus Macpherson, Mukupa Katandula, Zambia, Nov. 27, 1974, in Fergus Macpherson Collection, box 2, transcript ("Any member"); Chief Shaibila, interview by Macpherson, Mkushi, Zambia, Aug. 14, 1974, Last Journals of David Livingstone, ibid. ("belonged to chief's household")
87. Headman Nythande Chirwa, interview by Macpherson, Petauke Boma, Zambia, Mar. 17, 1975, Last Journals of David Livingstone, ibid. ("[The chief] would send"). Among the Lozi, slavery was abolished by the Litunga (king) in 1906
88. See V. W. Turner, The Lozi Peoples of North-Western Rhodesia (London, 1952), 32-33
89. For Msiri's plantations, see Legros, Chasseurs d'ivoire, 110, 112
90. These words and phrases were used extensively in the Chibemba transcriptions of the Macpherson interviews. All the terms are also listed in The White Fathers' Bemba-English Dictionary, rev. ed. (Ndola, Zambia, 1991)
91. Nansala Manteta Mwenda (Chief Mailo), interview by Fergus Macpherson, Nansala Village, Zambia, Oct. 15, 1973, in Fergus Macpherson Collection, box 2, transcript ("ordinary people," "We were very happy," my emphasis). Vocabulary for "big men" is broadly shared but rendered in Chibemba orthography as wealthy big men (abakankâk) or elders (abakalamba). The best example is coercive bufumu chieftaincies replacing bulopwe sacred kingship in Luba areas. See Reefe, Rainbow and the Kings, 46
92. For many meanings of chief and mfumu, and the imprecise way that they have been used, see Wim M. J. van Binsbergen, Religious Change in Zambia: Exploratory Studies (London, 1981), 121-22
93. For the pre-1600 origins of fumu, see Vansina, How Societies Are Born, 241-44
94. Nansala Manteta Mwenda (Chief Mailo), interview by Fergus Macpherson, Nansala Village, Zambia, Oct. 15, 1973, in Fergus Macpherson Collection, box 2, transcript ("If you had"). For Chokwe traders, see Miller, "Cokwe Trade and Conquest."
95. For the general connection between ivory and slaves through the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries toward the East African coast, see Alpers, Ivory and Slaves. For interview testimony on chiefs' control over ivory, see Senior Chief Nyamphande, interview by Macpherson, Nyamphande's Palace, Petauke, Zambia, Mar. 13, 1975, in Fergus Macpherson Collection, box 2, transcript
96. Meki Chisenga, interview by Fergus Macpherson, Petauke Boma, Zambia, May 18, 1975, in Fergus Macpherson Collection, box 2, transcript ("One thought"); Senior Chief Nyamphande, interview by Macpherson, Nyamphande's Palace, Petauke, Zambia, Mar. 13, 1975, Ivory and Slaves. ibid. ("Nasala")
97. On other examples of the abrogation of responsibilities, see Headman Nythande Chirwa, interview by Macpherson, Petauke Boma, Zambia, Mar. 17, 1975, Ivory and Slaves. ibid. Memories of such trickery also seem evident farther north
98. See Patson Chipili, interview by Macpherson, Mukupa Katandula, Zambia, Nov. 27, 1974, Ivory and Slaves. ibid
99. A turning point in the local appreciation of the importance of guns in warfare was the decisive 1867 defeat of the Tabwa big man Nsama by Tippu Tip's 120 men armed with guns. See Andrew D. Roberts, "Firearms in North-Eastern Zambia before 1900," Transafrican Journal of History 1, no. 2 (1971): 3-21, esp. 6
100. For more on Tippu Tip's conflict with Nsama, see Hamed bin Muhammed el Murjebi, Maisha ya Hamed bin Muhammed el Murjebi yaani Tippu Tip Kwa maneno yake mwenyewe, trans. W. H. Whiteley, Supplement to East African Swahili Committee Journals, nos. 28-29 (July 1958-January 1959)
101. For another account of the conflict, see Livingstone, Last Journals of David Livingstone, 173-81. In 1851 David Livingstone witnessed "Mambari" traders from Angola who traded guns for captives (preferably young boys) with the Kololo
102. See Schapera, Livingstone's Private Journals, 42-43 (quotation, 42), 204-5, 226
103. See also Mainga, Bulozi under Luyana Kings, 85. Sebitwane assumed Livingstone had come to trade guns and that his "teaching was chiefly the art of shooting."
104. See also Livingstone, Missionary Traveb in South Africa (Santa Barbara, Calif., 2001), 1: 207
105. For the disintegration of the Kololo Kingdom at the hands of armed youth, see Walima T. Kalusa, "Elders, Young Men, and David Livingstone's 'Civilizing Mission': Revisiting the Disintegration of the Kololo Kingdom, 1851-1864," International Journal of African Historical Studies 42, no. 1 (2009): 55-80
106. For the expansion of Lozi trade to the south, see Lewis Gann, "The End of the Slave Trade in British Central Africa: 1889-1912," Rhodes-Livingstone Journal 16 (1954): 27-51, esp. 39. George Westbeech was an English hunter and trader who came to play a prominent role in the 1880s, replacing trade relationships from the west with those from the south
107. See Edward C. Tabler, ed., Trade and Travel in Early Barotseland: The Diaries of George Westbeech, 1885-1888, and Captain Norman MacLeod, 1875-1876 (Berkeley, Calif., 1963)
108. For Msiri's manufacture of bullets and repair of guns, see Roberts, Transafrican Journal of History 1: 9
109. For Chikunda sale of guns, see John Mwelwa, interview by Fergus Macpherson, Chingombe Mission, Zambia, Aug. 13, 1974, in Fergus Macpherson Collection, box 2, transcript. For Bemba use of guns, see Roberts, Transafrican Journal of History 1: 10-12
110. See also C. P. Muluka and Emmanuel Bwembya, interview by Macpherson, Bwembya Village, Zambia, May 1963, in Fergus Macpherson Collection, box 2, transcript; Roberts, History of the Bemba, 204
111. Victor Giraud, Les lacs de L'Afrique équatoriale, voyage d'exploration exécuté de 1883 à 1885 (Paris, 1890), 238
112. For details on the Swahili and Nyamwezi caravan trade in the Bemba area, see correspondence in British South Africa Company Collection, folder 1/132, Slave Trade and Pacification of Awemba, NE Rhodesia, National Archives of Zambia, Lusaka, Zambia. For Ngoni use of guns, see Wiese, Expedition, 153-54. 253
113. According to interviewees, Chikunda, esp. Kanyemba, raided for food because they had "hunger" in their land. See Albino Ngulube, Albezyo Ntawa, and Michael Kanguma, interview by Fergus Macpherson, Zarupango Village, Katondwe, Zambia, Sept. 4, 1974, in Fergus Macpherson Collection, box 2, transcript (quotation); Tiki Mazyambwe Nguluwe, interview by Macpherson, Natondwe Mission, Zambia, Sept. 4, 1974, Chasseurs d'ivoire, ibid
114. Headman Nythande Chirwa, interview by Fergus Macpherson, Petauke Boma, Zambia, Mar. 17, 1975, in Fergus Macpherson Collection, box 2, transcript ("We produced"). In addition to the illustrations, Victor Giraud described a fortified and hidden Lunda capital surrounded by equally protected villages in Giraud, Lacs de L'Afrique, 253-55, 369-71. 53I-32. For the barricading of villages, see Headman Nythande Chirwa, interview by Macpherson, Petauke Boma, Zambia, Mar. 17, 1975, in Fergus Macpherson Collection, box 2, transcript; Machende and Chisambo, interview by P. Lary, Mbereshi, Zambia, Sept. 8, 1973, ibid., box 3, transcript; Chief Shaibila, interview by Macpherson, Mkushi, Zambia, Aug. 14, 1974, ibid., box 2, transcript
115. For dispersal of women and children into the bush, see Hermann von Wissmann, My Second Journey through Equatorial Africa from the Congo to the Zambezi in the years 1886 and 1887, trans. Minna J. A. Bergmann (London, 1891), 273
116. For eastern Lunda tactics of lineage power brokering and Swahili and Yeke uses of these tactics to undermine the eastern Lunda, see Macola, Kingdom of Kazembe, 55, 144
117. For declining control over trade and intensified rivalries, see Hoover, "Seduction of Ruwej," 353-55
118. See the diaries of Dan Crawford in G. E. Tilsley, Dan Crawford: Missionary and Pioneer in Central Africa (London, 1929), 196-201
119. See also the published account of the Stairs expedition's doctor, Joseph A. Moloney, With Captain Stairs to Katanga (London, 1893), 171-82. Only twelve hundred mostly African and Indian soldiers and orderlies conquered North-Eastern Rhodesia
120. See Gann, Rhodes-Livingstone Journal 16: 46. See also British South Africa Company Collection, folder 1/132, Slave Trade and Pacification of Awemba, NE Rhodesia, National Archives of Zambia
121. For decentralized despotism in the colonial era, see Mahmood Mamdani, Citizen and Subject: Contemporary Africa and the Legacy of Late Colonialism (Princeton, N.J., 1996)