African perspectives on China-Africa links

China Quarterly

Volumn , Issue 199, 2009, Pages 728-759

  Sautman, Barry ^a   Hairong, Yan ^a  

^a NONE

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS; MEDIA ROLE; PERCEPTION; PUBLIC ATTITUDE;

AFRICA; CHINA;

EID: 77249178292     PISSN: 03057410     EISSN: 14682648     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1017/S030574100999018X     Document Type: Article

References (191)

1. See, e.g. Ofeibea Quist-Acton, "Army of shopkeepers paved China's way in Africa," National Public Radio (US), 1 August 2008, http://www.npr.org/templates/story/story.php?storyId=93143915 (Senegalese writer on China's "new form of colonialism");
2. Craig Trimberg, "In Africa, China's trade brings growth, unease," ashington Post, 13 June 2006 (prominent South Africa businessman: "If the British were our masters yesterday, the Chinese have taken their place").
3. "China helps Africa where West failed - State Bank official," Reuters, 18 October 2007;
4. Yuan Wu, China and Africa (Beijing: China Intercontinental Press, 2006).
5. "Zhongguo zai Feizhou xingxiang diaocha" ("Survey of China's image in Africa"), Xinhuawang, 6 November 2006, http://news.xinhuanet.com/herald/2006-11/06/content-5294430.htm; "Sino-African ties seen in the right perspective," China Daily, 10 August 2008.
6. Barry Sautman and Yan Hairong, "Friends and interests: China's distinctive links with Africa," African Studies Review, Vol. 50, No. 3 (2007), pp. 75-114;
7. and "Forest for the trees: trade, investment and the China-in-Africa discourse," Pacific Affairs, Vol. 81, No. 1 (2008), pp. 9-29.
8. Similarly, a survey among university students in Nigeria that found that between 1973 and 1995 popular priorities had shifted from favouring economic development to favouring democracy is said to have nevertheless produced a "fascinating finding." Michael Bratton et al ., Public Opinion, Democracy, and Market Reform in Africa (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2005), pp. 51, 55.
9. The West Africa correspondent for LeMonde has stated that in Africa "despite all its talk of brotherhood and lack of colonial past, China remains unpopular," citing remarks by taxi drivers, street sellers and construction workers. Serge Michel, "When China met Africa," Foreign Policy, 1 May 2008, pp. 38-46.
10. A Sunday Times (London) Africa correspondent, speaking of the Chinese presence in Africa, has stated that "at grassroots this is highly unpopular." R.W. Johnson, "China's empire-builders sweep up African riches," 16 July 2006. A Los Angeles Times journalist has focused on "popular resentment toward the Chinese." Robyn Dixon, "Africans lash out at China," 6 October 2006.
11. See e.g. Kwesi Kwaa Prah (ed.), Afro-Chinese Relations: Past, Present and Future (Capetown: CASAS, 2007);
12. Firoze Manji and Stephen Marks (eds.), African Perspectives on China in Africa (Oxford: Fahamu, 2007);
13. Kweku Ampiah and Sanusha Naidu (eds.), Crouching Tiger, Hidden Dragon? China and Africa (Durban: University of Kwazulu-Natal Press, 2008).
14. "China's Africa strategy: a new approach to development and diplomacy?" Carnegie Endowment, 12 December 2006, http://www. carnegieendowment.org/events/index.cfm?fa=print&id=941.
15. Carol Wang and Danielle Flam, "Bridging the gap: experiences and attitudes in Sino-African relations," China Rights Forum (February 2007), pp. 196-208.
16. A 33-country, 2005 random sample poll asked whether China's influence in the world is mainly positive or mainly negative. "Positive views were particularly widespread in Africa" (Senegal 73%, 6%; Nigeria 68%, 11%; Congo 59%, 12%; Kenya 59%, 7%; Tanzania 53%, 14%; Ghana 46%, 9%; South Africa 34%, 21%; Zimbabwe 34%, 17%). "BBC World Service poll," http://www.worldpublicopinion.org/pipa/pdf/feb06/ViewsCountries-Feb06-quaire. pdf. A 2007 BBC poll showed Egypt 82%, 11%; Kenya 74%, 16%; Nigeria 67%, 16%; Ghana 56%, 16%. http://www.worldpublicopinion.org/pipa/pdf/apr08/BBCEvals-Apr08- rpt.pdf.
17. "Early impressions: Africans on US, Chinese leadership," November 2006, http://www.gallup.com/poll/ 25414/Early-Impressions-Africans-US- Chinese-Leadership-Part.aspx.
18. Pew Research Center, "47-nation Pew global attitudes survey," 27 June 2007, http://pewglobal.org/ reports/pdf/256.pdf.
19. A slight majority of black South Africans are urban; whites are "highly urbanized." "South Africa," http://encarta.msn.com/ encylcopedia-761557321-3/south-africa.html.
20. Our own South Africa survey's proportion of whites (34%) far exceeded that of whites in the South African population (9%) and was higher than that of whites among university students (27%). Robin Cohen, "Higher education in post-apartheid South Africa," http://www2.warwick.ac.uk/newsandevents/ events/ac21/gsi-cohenr---he-in-s-africa-post-apartheid.pdf.
21. Megali Rheault, "Chadians view US, China more favorably than France," 18 February 2008, http:// www.gallup.com/poll/104404/Chadians- view-US-China-More-Favorably-Than-France.aspx.
22. "China, Chad vow to boost military cooperation," Xinhua, 21 September 2007.
23. Magali Rheault, "United States, China elicit different opinions," 10 June 2008, http://www.gallup.com/ poo/107785/United-States- China-Elicit-Different-Opinions-Sudan.aspx.
24. Ivo Ngome, "Cameroonian perceptions of the Chinese invasion," AfricaFiles: At Issue Ezine, Vol. 6 (2007), http://www.africafiles.org/ atissueezine.asp?issue=issue6.
25. "China's African syndrome," Daily Mail (London), 25 July 2008 (claim of 50,000 in Zimbabwe).
26. But see John Karumbidza, "Win-win economic cooperation: can China save Zimbabwe's economy?" in Manji and Marks, African Perspectives, pp. 87-105 (less than 10,000);
27. "Politicians differ over influx of Chinese traders into country," Namibian TV, 29 January 2007, in BBC Monitoring Africa, 31 January 2007 (opposition leaders claim 40,000 Chinese; our July 2008 interviews of Chinese there found a consensus of 4,000).
28. Giles Mohan and Marcus Power, "New African choices? The politics of Chinese engagement," Review of African Political Economy, No. 115 (2008), pp. 23-42.
29. See "China-Africa relations and the global village: diplomatic perspective," State Department Documents and Publications, 7 April 2008; "EU to pursue partnership with China in Africa," EUobserver.com, 10 January 2008. For the debate on China-US competition in Africa, compare William Lyakurwa, "American and Chinese activities in Africa - and African priorities for the future," Brenthurst Foundation Discussion Paper 6/2008, http://www.robmillard.com/Brenthurst%20Discussion %20Paper%206%202008%20Lyakurwa%20China%20%20US%20in%20Africa.pdf;
30. Padraig Carmody and Francis Owusu, "Competing hegemons? Chinese versus American geo-economic srategies in Africa," Political Geography, Vol. 26, No. 5 (2007), pp. 504-24;
31. Michael Klare and Daniel Volman, "America, China and the scramble for Africa's oil," Review of African Political Economy, No. 108 (2006), pp. 297-309;
32. with Xu Yi-chong, "China and the United States in Africa: coming conflict or commercial coexistence," Australian Journal of International Affairs, Vol. 62, No. 1 (2008), pp. 16-37;
33. and Jedrzej Frynas and Manuel Paulo, "A new scramble for African oil? Historical, political and business perspectives," African Affairs, Vol. 106, No. 523 (2007), pp. 229-51.
34. Darren Taylor, "Chinese aid flows into Africa," Voice of America, 8 May 2007.
35. See also Geoffrey York, "China, Africa forging closer ties," Globe and Mail (Canada), 6 November 2006 (Canadian academic: "China is pulling out all stops to honor African leaders and curry favor with African elites").
36. See also Sanusha Naidu and Daisy Mbazima, "China-Africa relations: a new impulse in a changing continental landscape," Futures, No. 40 (2008), pp. 748-61 (China appears to present "tantalizing opportunity" to African elites, but "terrifying threat" to Africa's citizenry).
37. William Hartung and Frieda Berrigan, "Militarization of US Africa policy: 2000-2005," World Policy Institute (2005); http://www.worldpolicy. org/projects/arms/reports/Africa-Fact-Sheet-EAD-March-2005.pdf;
38. Daniel Volman and William Minter, "Making peace or fueling war in Africa?" Foreign Policy in Focus, 13 March 2009;
39. "China's Africa strategy: a new approach to development and diplomacy?" (Ambassador Shinn notes that "China is far behind other countries, such as the United States, Canada and Germany in its military aid to Africa.");
40. Jacques DeLisle, "Into Africa: China's quest for resources and influence," Foreign Policy Research Institute, E-Notes, 19 February 2007, http://www.fpri.org/enotes/200702.delisle.intoafricachinasquest.html ("Beijing's Africa policy has brought no security alliance or significant military assistance").
41. Neo Simutanyi, "Neo-liberalism and the relevance of Marxism to Africa: the case of Zambia," 2006, University of Zambia Institute of Economic and Social Research, www.nodo50.org/cubasigloXXI/ congreso06/conf3- simutanyi.pdf.
42. In regression analysis, independent variables are chosen because they may explain in part a dependent variable, by determining the proportion of variance in the dependent variable caused by each independent variable. E.g. regression analyses in studies of racial discrimination use variables such as race, gender, education, age, skill and output levels to explain employee salary differences by race. See e.g."Study: New York Hospital RNs report increased challenges, lack of adequate training," press release, http://www.albany.edu/news/ release-2699.shtml (higher wages of white nurses not accounted for by years worked as RN).
43. As all variables had two or more categories, multinomial logistic regression was used.
44. The questions were whether China's policies in Africa benefit the continent, China's rise benefits Africa, and how China's policies in Africa compare with those of Western states.
45. In 2007, in purchasing power parity terms, $9,700 versus $5,400. CIA, World Factbook, https://www.cia. gov/library/ publications/the-world-factbook/rankorder/2004rank.html.
46. Competition occurs in many African states between local sellers of high-end imports and Chinese and local sellers of cheaper Chinese goods. See Sabrina N'Diaye, "Gift or curse: the impact of Chinese traders on the actors of the Sandaga market in Darkar," PowerPoint, University of Frankfurt, 2008, http:// www.izo.uni-frankfurt.de/NDiaye-Korrekturen.pdf; Cailin Fitzsimmons, "A troubled frontier," South China Morning Post, 17 January 2008.
47. Several tens of thousands of Africans, mainly traders, are in China and are now the main source of Chinese goods in many African states. Simon Montlake, "Out of Africa - Guangzhou," Monocle, No. 11 (2008), pp. 61-65;
48. Michael Lyons et al., "A 'third tier' of globalization reconsidered: African traders in Guangzhou, City, Vol. 12, No. 2 (2008), pp. 196-206;
49. Brigitte Bertoncello and Sylvie Bredeloup, "The emergence of new Africa 'trading posts' in Hong Kong and Guangzhou," China Perspectives, No. 1 (2007), pp. 94-105;
50. "Out of Africa - and into China," Economist Intelligence Unit, 12 May 2008; Declan, "Black pearls in the Yellow River," 3 February 2008, http://siftalk.com/talk/?p=14.
51. See Barry Sautman and Yan Hairong, East Mountain Tiger, West Mountain Tiger: China, Africa, the West and "Colonialism," Maryland Series in Contemporary Asian Studies (Baltimore: University of Maryland School of Law), No. 186 (2007).
52. "Chinese Influence in Sudan is subtle, complicated," National Public Radio, 29 July 2008; "Bush presses China to use influence in Sudan," Deutsche Presse Agentur, 11 August 2008. Africa and Sudan specialists have concluded however that China's influence in Sudan is exaggerated. Stephen Morrison, "Will Darfur steal the Olympic spotlight?" Washington Quarterly, Vol. 31, No. 3 (2008), pp. 181-87 ("[Sudan President] Bashirmay listen to China's entreaties, but he has other bases of external support and is far from an abject dependent");
53. "Chad eyes China role in conflict," United Press International, 14 March 2008 (Ambassador Shinn states that "too many people have for too long ascribed too much power to China's ability to influence events in Sudan");
54. Nancy MacDonald, "China gives in to Hollywood heavyweights," Macleans's, 24 March 2008 (Harvard University Sudan specialist Alex de Waal states that Beijing has limited traction with Sudan's regime).
55. John Sides and Jack Citrin, "European opinion about immigration: the role of identities, interests and information," British Journal of Political Science, Vol. 37, No. 3 (2007), pp. 477-504. This study found that Europeans also greatly overestimate the actual level of immigration to their countries and that a high level of unemployment is strongly correlated with a high level of opposition to immigration. African unemployment levels are the highest in the world.
56. Asgede Hagos, Hardened Images: the Western Media and the Marginalization of Africa (Trenton: Africa World Press, 2000) and essays in New African, No. 474 (2008).
57. Geoff Mungham, "Images of Africa in the Western media," The Courier, No. 158 (1996);
58. Luke Uche, "Ideology, theory and professionalism in the African mass media," Africa Media Review, Vol. 5, No. 1 (1991), pp. 1-15.
59. Nnamdi Emenyeonu, "Africa's image in the local press: an analysis of African news in some Nigerian newspapers," Africa Media Review, Vol. 9, No. 2 (1995), pp. 82-104.
60. Another study found that developing country newspapers mainly use Western wire services for international news and often "cut and paste" from the BBC. Dipankar de Sarkar, Trade Challenges, Media Challenges: Strengthening Trade Coverage Beyond the Headlines (London: Panos, 2006), p. 5.
61. "Address at the launch of SABC News International," 20 July 1997, http://www.anc.org.za/ ancdocs/history/mbeki/2007/tm0720.html.
62. "Ghana to host media summit to re-brand Africa for a brighter future," Ghana News Agency, 3 August 2006.
63. Emma Mawdsley, "Fu Manchu versus Dr Livingstone in the Dark Continent: representing, China, Africa and the West in British broadsheet newspapers" Political Geography, No. 27 (2008), pp. 509-29.
64. "UPI poll: China's influence in Africa," United Press International, 27 July 2007.
65. Bratton et al., Public Opinion, p. 109.
66. "Levy Mwanawasa, Zambian leader fought corruption," International Herald Tribune, 20 August 2008.
67. Miles Larmer and Alastair Fraser, "Of cabbages and King Cobra: populist politics and Zambia's 2006 election," African Affairs, Vol. 106, No. 425 (2007), pp. 611-37.
68. David Blair, "Why China is trying to colonize Africa," Daily Telegraph, 31 August 2007;
69. "What it will take African nations to cut poverty," East African Standard (Nairobi), 25 September 2007.
70. Sata later stated: "We want the Chinese to leave and the old colonial rulers to return. They exploited our natural resources too, but at least they took care of us. They built schools, taught us their language and brought us the British civilization." Andreas Lorenz and Thilo Thielke, "China's conquest of Africa," Spiegel, 30 May 2007, www.spiegel.de/international/world/0,1518,druck-484603,00. In a 17 July 2007 interview with the authors, Sata confirmed the quotation. He added that the British were transparent and tolerant and that black people sent from Africa to the US as slaves were better off for it.
71. See, "State monitors Sata's anti-government campaign," Times of Zambia, 25 October 2007.
72. "Mazoka must accept that he is sick, says Walamba," Post (Lusaka), 13 December 2005.
73. "Sata threatens Lebanese, Indian investors," Times of Zambia, 15 August 2006;
74. "Zambian opposition leader targets Chinese immigrants in campaign rhetoric," Radio France Internationale, 29 August 2006, in BBC Monitoring Africa, 29 August 2006;
75. Michael Wines, "Strong challenge to Zambia's president," New York Times, 29 September 2006.
76. "Sata goes to Malawi," Post, 24 September 2006;
77. Benjamin Robertson, "Into Africa," South China Morning Post, 20 September 2006.
78. Only four African states recognize Taiwan, but its foreign minister has expressed hope that hostility towards China will redound to Taiwan's benefit in Africa. See China Reform Monitor, No. 675 (2007), www.afpc.or/crm/crm675. shtml.
79. "Ruling party cries foul over Sata's remarks" Post, 16 August 2006;
80. "Opposition censures Sata," Times of Zambia, 29 October 2007.
81. "China's growing presence," IPS, 18 July 2007.
82. "While protecting Africans from its fire," Business Day (Johannesburg), 1 November 2006;
83. Martyn Davies, "Yin and yang," Financial Mail (Johannesburg), 2 February 2007.
84. Jonathan Clayton, "African protests show China that investment comes with heavy price," The Times (London), 3 February 2007.
85. "Expel Nakzwe, Sata directs councillors," Times of Zambia, 2 March 2007.
86. Patson Chilemba, "We gave Sata money: Taiwanese govt," Post, 16 November 2007;
87. "Chinese investment in Africa and implications for international relations, consolidation of democracy and respect for human rights: the case of Zambia," paper, Harvard University, 24 October 2007, www.humanrights. harvard.edu/calendar/Sata%20Presentation%2010.24.07.pdf;
88. "Controversy over Chinese role in Zambia continues to rage," Zambia Daily Mail, 7 November 2007, http://tradeafrica.blogspot.com/ 2007-11-01-archive.html. Heads of Chinese associations we interviewed in Lusaka in 2007 and 2008 agreed there are 6,000-7,000 Chinese in Zambia.
89. "Stop defending Chinese investors, says opposition leader," Times of Zambia, 1 November 2007.
90. Gershom Ndhlovu, 'Cobra' Sata spits venom," 30 November 2007, http://gndhlovu.blogspot.com/ 2007/11/cobra-sata-spits-venom. html.
91. Peter Hitchens, "In China, 5,000 people die and there is nothing. In Zambia, 50 people die and everyone is weeping," Mail on Sunday (London), 28 September 2008;
92. Simon Plummer, "The Games will expose China's weaknesses," Daily Telegraph (London), 14 February 2008;
93. "Kaunda, Sata and Chiluba rail at Mugabe's critics," newzimbabwe.com, 22 March 2007, in BBC Worldwide Monitoring, 22 March 2007.
94. Ofeibea Quist-Act," Chinese-built Zambian smelter stirs controversy," National Public Radio, 31 July 2008, http://www.npr.org/ templates/story/story.php?storyId=93081721on.
95. One commentator stated that if Sata became president "investor confidence will drop to zero almost immediately. Even China, which has been our all-weather friend, will put out some of its investments." Nyuma Banda, "Who will be country's next president?" Times of Zambia, 25 September 2008.
96. Shapi Shacinda, "Zambia's Sata backtracks on Chinese firms," Business Day, 9 September 2008.
97. "Zambian acting president urges ruling MMD party members to be honest to voters," Zambia Daily Mail, 11 September 2008;
98. "Sata rules out pact," New Times (Uganda), 18 September 2008.
99. A PF leader has stated that he "could not categorically say whether the PF was still receiving financial support from Taiwan." "PF warns KK over his support for Banda," Post, 7 October 2008.
100. "Sata files in presidential nomination," Times of Zambia, 24 September 2008.
101. "My vision to lead Zambians lives on - Sata," Times of Zambia, 6 October 2008.
102. "We'll continue booing Sata - UNZA students," Post (Zambia), 14 December 2005.
103. "Levy and King Cobra," Africa Confidential, Vol. 47. No. 16 (2006), p. 8.
104. Only one Zambian newspaper group (the Daily Mail, Financial Mail and Sunday Mail) carries a large amount of international news and it is "drawn almost exclusively from foreign wire services." Donna Kips, "Zambia web report," s.d., http://journ.ru.ac.za/amd/webzam.htm.
105. See "China's engagement of Africa," p. 159.
106. Barry Sautman and Yoon Jung Park, "Southern Africa's 'dragon slayers': political oppositions and anti-Chinese agitation," paper in progress.
107. From 2009 however, Botswana's economy was hard-hit by the decline in the world diamond market. Tom Burgis, "Botswana's diamonds drained of sparkle," Financial Times, 12 March 2009.
108. "Botswana, world's largest producer of rough diamonds, wants share of cutting, polishing," Associated Press, 19 March 2008.
109. Happy Siphambe, "Botswana: diamonds aren't forever," Southern Africa Report, Vol. 12, No. 1 (1996), pp. 21-30;
110. Gideon Nkala, "BDP gets Chinese windfall," Mmegi, 7 September 2006.
111. Sam Akaki, "Would we prefer a Chinese 'commonwealth' today? Monitor (Uganda), 27 October 2007.
112. Lindsey Hilsum, "Prosperity and a red carpet trump democracy," New Statesman, 13 November 2006.
113. "Ambassador Ding tells Botswana a real China," unpublished interview with Mmegi, 31 March 2008, http://bw.china-embassy.org/eng/ sbgx/t425042.htm.
114. Ryder Gabathuse, "BNF honours Koma," Mmegi, 20 June 2008.
115. "BNF petitions government," Daily News (Botswana), 23 August 2007.
116. "I support Taiwan, says BNF legislator," Mmegi, 3 December 2007.
117. Bame Piet, "Magama chides Chinese for bad workplace rules," Mmegi, 14 February 2008.
118. "MPs divided over Chinese loan," Mmegi, 14 July 2006.
119. See also "BHC units must meet set standards," Daily News, 5 August 2004.
120. "Chinese P55 million loan to BHC debated," The Voice, 25 July 2006.
121. "CKGR issues attracts international human rights organizations," Daily News, 23 November 2005.
122. Bame Piet, "Unskilled Chinese laborers flood the country," Mmegi, 12 August 2008;
123. "Chinese projects create over 2,000 jobs." Mmegi, 29 November 2006; "MPs divided over Chinese loan."
124. Moondisi Dube, "Of Chinese, tenders and labor relations," Mmegi, 16 May 2008.
125. "An overview of the relations between China and Botswana," 1 February 2008, http://bw. china-embassy.org/eng/sbgx/t404979.htm. The ambassador later stated that there are 18,000-20,000 Batswana working for Chinese; in construction, Chinese firms employ 700 Chinese, 5,270 permanent and 5,000 contract workers, while 5,000 locals work for the Chinese-owned Caratex textile exporting firm. "Ambassador Ding tells Botswana a real China." Chinese are to invest $200 million in a China-Botswana Economic and Trade Co-operation Area, to be opened in 2011 and employ 8,000. Machinery, auto electronics etc. will be assembled. "Chinese propose light industry plan," Mmegi, 17 August 2007; "Two Chinese firms win nod to invest in Botswana project," China Knowledge Newswire, 4 March 2008; "China to invest $200 mil. in industrial park in Botswana," Global Insight, 19 May 2008.
126. Bame Biet, "Work permit process frustrates Chinese envoy," Mmegi, 15 August 2008.
127. "Protect citizens against Chinese," Botswana Gazette, 2 July 2003;
128. "'Mixed reactions' to Chinese invasion," Mmegi, 24 May 2005;
129. "China: friend or foe?" Mmegi, 17 October 2006;
130. Editorial, "China must not repeat colonizers' mistakes," Mmegi, 8 November 2006;
131. "Chinese are slave drivers, claim local workers," The Voice, 7 November 2006;
132. "The Chinese way," The Voice, 24 July 2007 (claiming Chinese shop owners beat a customer);
133. "Some bad apples among Chinese," Mmegi, 19 July 2007;
134. "Employees of Chinese shops exploited?" Mmegi, 5 September 2007;
135. "Beware of Chinese toothpaste," Mmegi, 23 January 2008;
136. "Unions want fair trade with Chinese," Mmegi, 4 April 2008.
137. China has also been sharply attacked over its relations with Zimbabwe. "A victory of good over evil," Mmegi, 23 April 2008;
138. "Russia and China sell out to capitalism," Mmegi, 15 July 2008.
139. Wene Owino, "Wanted: a magician for the Botswana opposition," 16 April 2008, http://politics. nationmedia.com/Blog/default.asp?Display=230.
140. China also has non-oil investments, e.g. hydro-electric facilities and textile plants. Henry Lee and Dan Shalmon, Searching for Oil: China's Oil Initiatives in the Middle East (Cambridge: Belfer Center, 2007), p. 24. The United Arab Emirates has $7 billion invested in Sudan, but no political problems have been raised about its role. "UAE investment in Sudan touch $7 billion: Sudanese president," The Emirates, 12 March 2008.
141. US Department of Commerce, US-African Trade Profile (Washington, DC: International Trade Administration, 2006), p. 13.
142. International Crisis Group, "China's thirst for oil," Report No. 153, 9 June 2008.
143. Yitzhak Shichor, "Sudan: China's outpost in Africa," China Brief Vol. 5, No. 21 (2006), pp. 9-11.
144. "Sudan: oil sector's background," APS Review Downstream Trends, 25 February 2008, http://goliath. ecnext.com/coms2/gi-0199-7552580/ SUDAN-Oil-Sector-s-Background.html.
145. "Good man in Africa," China Daily, 11 May 2007.
146. Zhao Hong, "China's oil venture in Africa," East Asia, No. 24 (2007), pp. 399-415.
147. "International society should help Darfur people as China has," Xinhua, 20 March 2008;
148. "Sudan -exports," APS Review Downstream Trends, 25 February 2008).
149. Erica Downs, China (Washington: Brookings 2006), p. 31.
150. Similarly, Nigeria accounts for 11% of US crude imports. "US warns of Al-Qaeda attacks," This Day (Nigeria), 7 September 2007.
151. "China's overseas investments in oil and gas production," report to the US-China Economic and Security Review Commission (Washington: Euro/Asia Group, 2006), p. 3. Three US oil companies, Exxon Mobil, Chevron and Conoco Phillips, alone produce ten times the volume of equity oil that China does. US Department of Energy, "Energy Policy Act of 2005, sec. 1837: national security review of international energy requirements" (Washington: DOE, 2006), p. 28.
152. Darren Taylor, "Concerns mount about Chinese oil interests in Africa," VOANews, 3 May 2007, www. voanews.com/english/Africa/Concerns-= Mount-about-Chinese-Oil-Interersts-in-Africa.cfm; Nicholas Freeman, The Dragon on the Nile: China's Pursuit of Energy Security in Sudan (Annapolis: US Naval Academy 2006), p. 79.
153. CNPC reported that 90% of its 2003 equity oil production was sold on the international market. With the Grain or Against the Grain: Energy Security and Chinese Foreign Policy in the Hu Jintao Era (Washington: Brookings, 2006), p. 28.
154. Erica Downs, "The fact and fiction of Sino-African energy relations," China Security, Vol. 3, No. 3 (2007), pp. 42-68.
155. See also Atlantic Council and China Institute of Contemporary International Relations, "US-China energy security cooperation dialogue," 2006, p. 6 (Chinese firms that invest in Sudan and elsewhere say "a very small percentage of the oil they produce overseas is transported back to China"), http://www.acus.org/docs/070612-US-China-Energy-Security- Cooperation-Dialogue-Report.pdf
156. Trevor Houser, "The roots of Chinese oil investment abroad," Asia Policy, No. 5 (2008), pp. 141-66.
157. IMF figures for 2006 show that some 50% of Sudan's oil exports went to Japan. Daniel Large, "China and the contradictions of non-interference in Sudan," Review of African Political Economy, No. 115 (2008), pp. 93-106.
158. Official 2006 trade statistics show "Sudan shipped 14,000 bbl/d of its crude exports to Japan, and China's import of Sudanese crude exports averaged only 99,000 bbl/d." "Sudan: whose oil?" Fatal Transactions, 2008, p. 25, www.su-dan.org/home.htm.
159. Unaware that Japan is the largest buyer of Sudan oil, a prominent Japanese weekly referring to China and Sudan, rhetorically queried, "What does one call it when an economic powerhouse buys the lion's share of a backwater's exports? How about 'virtual economic domination?'" "Beijing pursues 'virtual domination' in Africa," Nikkei Weekly, 29 September 2008.
160. Interview, Abd Almoniem Abuedries Ali, Al-Ahbdath journalist, Khartoum, 29 November 2008. Politically, India is more closely aligned with Sudan than is China. See Daniel Large, "Sudan's foreign relations with Asia: China and the politics of 'looking east'," Institute of Security Studies Paper 158 (2008), p. 5.
161. William Hartung, "Deadly traffic: China's arms trade with the Sudan," New America Foundation, August 2008, http://www.newamerica.net/ files/080606PBChinaArmsTrade.pdf; "China denies report it increased small-arms sales to Sudan as Darfur violence escalated," Associated Press, 14 March 2008.
162. Stockholm International Peace Research Institute arms transfer database, http://armstrade.sipri.org.
163. "It is not objective to one-sidedly accuse China of arms sales to Sudan," Xinhua, 8 March 2008. China helped develop the industry during the 1980s.
164. Large, "China and the contradictions of non-interference in Sudan," p. 101.
165. The Chinese government does not however necessarily regard Darfur rebel groups as anti-China. Ben Blanchard, "China's role in Sudan 'distorted' by the media," Mail & Guardian (South Africa), 29 June 2008.
166. See Liu Guijin, "BBC misrepresents China's relations with Sudan with ulterior motives," Xinhua, 19 July 2008. See also Liu Guijin, "No logic in blaming China for Darfu," China Daily, 6 May 2008;
167. Klas Marklund and Karin Odqvist, Perspectives on Africa Today: a Swedish-Chinese-African Dialogue (Uppsala: Institute for Security & Development Policy, 2008), p. 17.
168. Gwen Thompkins, "Chinese influence in Sudan is subtle, complicated," National Public Radio (US), 29 July 2008. In other authoritarian African states, opposition parties have attacked government deals with China. Antoine Halff, "The panda menace," National Interest (July 2007), pp. 35-41 (Angola);
169. Akwe Amosu, "China in Africa: it's (still) the governance, stupid," Foreign Policy in Focus, 9 March 2007, pp. 2-3 (DRC).
170. Ali Abdalla Ali, "EU, China and Africa: the Sudanese experience," Sudan Tribune, 10 July 2007;
171. "Workshop on foreign existence calls for foreign labor laws," Khartoum Monitor, 3 April 2008, in BBC Worldwide Monitoring, 4 April 2008;
172. "Chinese commodities imperil craftsmen," Al-Ra'y al-Amm, 27 April 2007, in BBC Worldwide Monitoring, 28 April 2007.
173. "China to finance development projects in south Sudan," Sudan Tribune, 1 September 2007;
174. James Dak, "China to increase investment in southern Sudan: diplomat," Sudan Tribune, 25 September 2008.
175. "Sudan opposition parties and SPLM urge quick resolution to Darfur crisis," Sudan Tribune, 15 July 2008;
176. "Sudan's opposition leader presents national reconciliation initiative," Xinhua, 2 June 2008.
177. "Sudan media study summary," Concordia University Media Relations, 8 September 2006, http:// mediarelations.concordia.ca/pressreleases/ archives/2006/09/sudan-media-study-summary.php.
178. Michael Chege, "Economic relations between Kenya and China, 1963-2007," in Jennifer Cooke (ed.), US and Chinese Engagement in Africa: Prospects for Improving US-China-Africa Cooperation (Washington, DC: Center of Strategic and International Studies 2008), pp. 12-32;
179. see Alaba Ogunsanwo, "A tale of two giants: Nigeria and China," in Ampiah and Naidu, Crouching Tiger, Hidden Dragon? pp. 192-207.
180. Elsewhere in Zambia, Chris Burke found that "the overwhelming majority of people interviewed have very favourable perceptions of China, simply because they can now buy a broader range of affordable consumer goods" and Muna Ndulo concluded that "it is clear that the reaction of Zambians to Chinese investments is complex, but on the whole, welcoming]." Chris Burke , China's Engagement of Africa: Preliminary Scoping of African Case Studies (Stellenbosch: Centre for Chinese Studies, 2007), p. 158;
181. Ndulo, "Chinese investments in Africa: a case study of Zambia," in Ampiah and Naidu, Crouching Tiger, Hidden Dragon? pp. 138-51.
182. Yaroslav Trofimov, "In Africa, China's expansion begins to stir resentment," Wall Street Journal, 2 February 2007.
183. Building Bridges: Chinas Growing Role as Infrastructure Financier (Washington, DC: World Bank, 2008).
184. Ralph M. Wrobel, "China's role on the international markets for natural resources: implication for sustainability and growth in less developed countries," paper presented at the Congress of Political Economists International annual meeting, 12-19 July 2008, New Delhi, p. 11.
185. Alemayehu Geda and Atnafu Meskel, "China and India's growth surge: is it a curse or blessing for Africa? The case of manufactured exports," African Development Review, Vol. 20, No. 2 (2008), pp. 247-72.
186. John Loxley and Harry Sackey, "Aid effectiveness in Africa," African Development Review, Vol. 20, No. 2 (2008), pp. 163-99.
187. A group of Africans involved in assessing China-African links have averred that a non-interference policy obviates "the sense of condescension and dictation that frustrates many Africans in their dealings with the West." Marklund and Odqvist, Perspectives on Africa Today, p. 15.
188. See Gu Jing, "Global governance and developing countries: the implications of the rise of China," World Development, Vol. 36, No. 2 (2008), pp. 274-92;
189. Long Yongtu, "United States goes against WTO rules by subsidizing agriculture," Wen wei po (Hong Kong), 31 July 2008, in BBC Worldwide Monitoring, 31 July 2008.
190. "Build capacity for growth, say African leaders as World Economic Forum on Africa opens," 14 July 2007, http://www.egovmonitor.com/node/ 11874;
191. Marklund and Odqvist, Perspectives on Africa Today, p. 9.