Anxieties in colonial mauritius and the erosion of the White Australia policy

Journal of Imperial and Commonwealth History

Volumn 32, Issue 3, 2004, Pages 1-24

  Neumann, Klaus ^a  

^a SWINBURNE UNIVERSITY OF TECHNOLOGY   (Australia)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

EID: 7644239783     PISSN: 03086534     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1080/0308653042000279641     Document Type: Article

References (137)

1. On the origins of the White Australia policy, see Andrew Markus, Fear and Hatred: Purifying Australia and California, 1850-1901 (Sydney, 1979); Charles Price, The Great White Walls Are Built: Restrictive Immigration to North America and Australia 1836-1888 (Canberra, 1974); A.T. Yarwood, Asian Migration to Australia: The Background to Exclusion 1896-1923 (Melbourne, 1964) ; and Myra Willard, A History of the White Australia Policy (Melbourne, 1923). A.C. Palfreeman's The Administration of the White Australia Policy (Melbourne, 1967); and H.I. London's Non-White Immigration and the 'White Australia Policy' (Sydney, 1970) are the two key studies on changes to and the administration of the White Australia policy.
2. On the origins of the White Australia policy, see Andrew Markus, Fear and Hatred: Purifying Australia and California, 1850-1901 (Sydney, 1979); Charles Price, The Great White Walls Are Built: Restrictive Immigration to North America and Australia 1836-1888 (Canberra, 1974); A.T. Yarwood, Asian Migration to Australia: The Background to Exclusion 1896-1923 (Melbourne, 1964) ; and Myra Willard, A History of the White Australia Policy (Melbourne, 1923). A.C. Palfreeman's The Administration of the White Australia Policy (Melbourne, 1967); and H.I. London's Non-White Immigration and the 'White Australia Policy' (Sydney, 1970) are the two key studies on changes to and the administration of the White Australia policy.
3. On the origins of the White Australia policy, see Andrew Markus, Fear and Hatred: Purifying Australia and California, 1850-1901 (Sydney, 1979); Charles Price, The Great White Walls Are Built: Restrictive Immigration to North America and Australia 1836-1888 (Canberra, 1974); A.T. Yarwood, Asian Migration to Australia: The Background to Exclusion 1896-1923 (Melbourne, 1964) ; and Myra Willard, A History of the White Australia Policy (Melbourne, 1923). A.C. Palfreeman's The Administration of the White Australia Policy (Melbourne, 1967); and H.I. London's Non-White Immigration and the 'White Australia Policy' (Sydney, 1970) are the two key studies on changes to and the administration of the White Australia policy.
4. On the origins of the White Australia policy, see Andrew Markus, Fear and Hatred: Purifying Australia and California, 1850-1901 (Sydney, 1979); Charles Price, The Great White Walls Are Built: Restrictive Immigration to North America and Australia 1836-1888 (Canberra, 1974); A.T. Yarwood, Asian Migration to Australia: The Background to Exclusion 1896-1923 (Melbourne, 1964) ; and Myra Willard, A History of the White Australia Policy (Melbourne, 1923). A.C. Palfreeman's The Administration of the White Australia Policy (Melbourne, 1967); and H.I. London's Non-White Immigration and the 'White Australia Policy' (Sydney, 1970) are the two key studies on changes to and the administration of the White Australia policy.
5. On the origins of the White Australia policy, see Andrew Markus, Fear and Hatred: Purifying Australia and California, 1850-1901 (Sydney, 1979); Charles Price, The Great White Walls Are Built: Restrictive Immigration to North America and Australia 1836-1888 (Canberra, 1974); A.T. Yarwood, Asian Migration to Australia: The Background to Exclusion 1896-1923 (Melbourne, 1964) ; and Myra Willard, A History of the White Australia Policy (Melbourne, 1923). A.C. Palfreeman's The Administration of the White Australia Policy (Melbourne, 1967); and H.I. London's Non-White Immigration and the 'White Australia Policy' (Sydney, 1970) are the two key studies on changes to and the administration of the White Australia policy.
6. On the origins of the White Australia policy, see Andrew Markus, Fear and Hatred: Purifying Australia and California, 1850-1901 (Sydney, 1979); Charles Price, The Great White Walls Are Built: Restrictive Immigration to North America and Australia 1836-1888 (Canberra, 1974); A.T. Yarwood, Asian Migration to Australia: The Background to Exclusion 1896-1923 (Melbourne, 1964) ; and Myra Willard, A History of the White Australia Policy (Melbourne, 1923). A.C. Palfreeman's The Administration of the White Australia Policy (Melbourne, 1967); and H.I. London's Non-White Immigration and the 'White Australia Policy' (Sydney, 1970) are the two key studies on changes to and the administration of the White Australia policy.
7. See, for example, Gwenda Tavan, 'Immigration: Control or Colour Bar? The Immigration Reform Movement, 1959-1966', Australian Historical Studies, 32, 117(2001), 181-200.
8. See, for example, Sean Brawley, The White Peril: Foreign Relations and Asian Immigration to Australia and North America 1919-78 (Sydney, 1995).
9. Barry York has provided a detailed analysis of the impact the White Australia policy had on Maltese migrants; see his Empire and Race: The Maltese in Australia 1881-1949 (Kensington, 1990), particularly chapters 4 and 5.
10. F.J. Quinlan to Sec. Prime Minister's Dept, 5 Aug. 1926, Al 1926/14582, National Archives of Australia (hereafter NAA).
11. See Rosita Joan Henry, '"A Tulip in Lotus Land": The Rise and Decline of Dutch Burgher Ethnicity in Sri Lanka', MA thesis, Australian National University, 1986.
12. James Jupp and Barry York, Birthplaces of the Australian People: Colonial and Commonwealth Censuses, 1828-1991 (Canberra, 1995), 60.
13. I b i d.
14. Edward Duyker, 'Mauritians', in James Jupp (ed.), The Australian People: An Encyclopedia of the Nation, Its People and Their Origin (Cambridge, 2001), 596.
15. Department of Immigration and Multicultural Affairs, Statistics Section, Immigration: Federation to Century's End 1901-2000 (Canberra, 2001), 22-23: P.R. Heydon to Minister, 14 April 1970, A446 1970/75117, NAA.
16. E.L. Charles to First Asst Sec., 11 Feb. 1969, p.8, A446 1970/95260, NAA; see also W.K. Brown to Sec. Dept of External Affairs, 4 Nov. 1970, A1838 146/10/1 part 2, NAA.
17. H.W. Bullock, 'Mauritius - the First Year of Independence', 16 May 1969, A1209 1965/ 6376, NAA.
18. W.K. Brown to Asst Sec., Entry Policy Branch, 11 Dec. 1968, A446 1970/95043, NAA. Overall, the immigration of Anglo-Indians and Ceylonese Burghers has been more substantial than that of Mauritian gens de couleur, and this article does not try to make the immigration of the latter appear more significant than that of other communities of mixed descent. Most of the general observations made in this article, however, could be made in relation to immigrants of mixed descent from South Asia.
19. For this and subsequent paragraphs on the history of Mauritius, see Richard B. Allen, Slaves, Freedmen, and Indentured Laborers in Colonial Mauritius (Cambridge, 1999), 9-31; Larry W. Bowman, Mauritius: Democracy and Development in the Indian Ocean (Boulder, CO, 1991), 8-42; Adele Smith Simmons, Modem Mauritius: The Politics of Decolonization (Bloomington, IN, 1982); Auguste Toussaint, History of Mauritius, translated by W.E.F. Ward (London, 1977); and Jay Narrain Roy, Mauritius in Transition (s.l., 1960), 20-240.
20. For this and subsequent paragraphs on the history of Mauritius, see Richard B. Allen, Slaves, Freedmen, and Indentured Laborers in Colonial Mauritius (Cambridge, 1999), 9-31; Larry W. Bowman, Mauritius: Democracy and Development in the Indian Ocean (Boulder, CO, 1991), 8-42; Adele Smith Simmons, Modem Mauritius: The Politics of Decolonization (Bloomington, IN, 1982); Auguste Toussaint, History of Mauritius, translated by W.E.F. Ward (London, 1977); and Jay Narrain Roy, Mauritius in Transition (s.l., 1960), 20-240.
21. For this and subsequent paragraphs on the history of Mauritius, see Richard B. Allen, Slaves, Freedmen, and Indentured Laborers in Colonial Mauritius (Cambridge, 1999), 9-31; Larry W. Bowman, Mauritius: Democracy and Development in the Indian Ocean (Boulder, CO, 1991), 8-42; Adele Smith Simmons, Modem Mauritius: The Politics of Decolonization (Bloomington, IN, 1982); Auguste Toussaint, History of Mauritius, translated by W.E.F. Ward (London, 1977); and Jay Narrain Roy, Mauritius in Transition (s.l., 1960), 20-240.
22. For this and subsequent paragraphs on the history of Mauritius, see Richard B. Allen, Slaves, Freedmen, and Indentured Laborers in Colonial Mauritius (Cambridge, 1999), 9-31; Larry W. Bowman, Mauritius: Democracy and Development in the Indian Ocean (Boulder, CO, 1991), 8-42; Adele Smith Simmons, Modem Mauritius: The Politics of Decolonization (Bloomington, IN, 1982); Auguste Toussaint, History of Mauritius, translated by W.E.F. Ward (London, 1977); and Jay Narrain Roy, Mauritius in Transition (s.l., 1960), 20-240.
23. For this and subsequent paragraphs on the history of Mauritius, see Richard B. Allen, Slaves, Freedmen, and Indentured Laborers in Colonial Mauritius (Cambridge, 1999), 9-31; Larry W. Bowman, Mauritius: Democracy and Development in the Indian Ocean (Boulder, CO, 1991), 8-42; Adele Smith Simmons, Modem Mauritius: The Politics of Decolonization (Bloomington, IN, 1982); Auguste Toussaint, History of Mauritius, translated by W.E.F. Ward (London, 1977); and Jay Narrain Roy, Mauritius in Transition (s.l., 1960), 20-240.
24. Census Report 1891, quoted in R.R. Kuczynski, Demographic Survey of the British Colonial Empire, vol.2 (London, 1949), 801.
25. Maryse Duyker, 'Racial and Social Prejudices in Mauritius', in Edward Duyker (ed.), Mauritian Heritage: An Anthology of the Lionnet, Commins and Related Families (Ferntree Gully, 1986), 215; see also Jean Commins, The Impasse and Beyond', in Duyker (ed.), Mauritian Heritage, 288.
26. Maryse Duyker, 'Racial and Social Prejudices in Mauritius', in Edward Duyker (ed.), Mauritian Heritage: An Anthology of the Lionnet, Commins and Related Families (Ferntree Gully, 1986), 215; see also Jean Commins, The Impasse and Beyond', in Duyker (ed.), Mauritian Heritage, 288.
27. Burton Benedict, Mauritius: The Problems of a Plural Society (London, 1965), 28.
28. Jean-Pierre Durand and Joyce Durand, L'Ile Maurice et ses populations (Bruxelles, 1978), 45.
29. Edward Duyker, A Guide to Mauritian Genealogical Sources in Australia, 2nd rev. edn. (Ferntree Gully, 1985), 6; and Bowman, Mauritius, 28. Maryse Duyker remembered that '[t]here were some ... who made it their business to trace some coloured ancestors in a family in order to diminish them', Duyker, 'Racial and Social Prejudices', 218.
30. Edward Duyker, A Guide to Mauritian Genealogical Sources in Australia, 2nd rev. edn. (Ferntree Gully, 1985), 6; and Bowman, Mauritius, 28. Maryse Duyker remembered that '[t]here were some ... who made it their business to trace some coloured ancestors in a family in order to diminish them', Duyker, 'Racial and Social Prejudices', 218.
31. In the 1960s, the historian Auguste Toussaint still counted the Franco-Mauritians among the Creole population, History, 71; see also Benedict, Mauritius, 14.
32. In the 1960s, the historian Auguste Toussaint still counted the Franco-Mauritians among the Creole population, History, 71; see also Benedict, Mauritius, 14.
33. I follow Eriksen by using the term 'Creoles' to refer to Mauritians wholly or partially descended from slaves, and the term gens de couleur to refer to a sociological subcategory of Creoles. Thomas Hylland Eriksen, Common Denominators: Ethnicity, Nation-Building and Compromise in Mauritius (Oxford, 1998), 21n.3; compare Barbara Wake Carroll and Terrance Carroll, 'Trouble in Paradise: Ethnic Conflict in Mauritius', Journal of Commonwealth and Comparative Politics, 38, 2 (2000), 46, n.5.
34. I follow Eriksen by using the term 'Creoles' to refer to Mauritians wholly or partially descended from slaves, and the term gens de couleur to refer to a sociological subcategory of Creoles. Thomas Hylland Eriksen, Common Denominators: Ethnicity, Nation-Building and Compromise in Mauritius (Oxford, 1998), 21n.3; compare Barbara Wake Carroll and Terrance Carroll, 'Trouble in Paradise: Ethnic Conflict in Mauritius', Journal of Commonwealth and Comparative Politics, 38, 2 (2000), 46, n.5.
35. Benedict, Mauritius, 15.
36. Duyker, 'Racial and Social Prejudices', 218.
37. A.R. Mannick, Mauritius: The Development of a Plural Society (Nottingham, 1979), 73.
38. Benedict, Mauritius, 28.
39. Mark Twain, Following the Equator: A Journey around the World, vol.2 (New York, 1899), 315.
40. This stratification was in the interests of, and arguably fostered by, the British colonial rulers; see Kenneth Ballhatchet, The Structure of British Official Attitudes: Colonial Mauritius, 1883-1968', Historical Journal, 38, 4 (1995), 989-1011.
41. Bernard Lionnet, 'Memoirs from a Still Short Life', in Duyker (ed.), Mauritian Heritage, 206.
42. See, in particular, Eriksen, Common Denominators, 103-36.
43. For the following, see Harley J. Walker, 'Overpopulation in Mauritius: A Survey', Geographic Review, 54 (1964), 243-48; and H.C. Brookfield, 'Mauritius: Demographic Upsurge and Prospect', Population Studies, 11, 2 (1957), 102-22.
44. For the following, see Harley J. Walker, 'Overpopulation in Mauritius: A Survey', Geographic Review, 54 (1964), 243-48; and H.C. Brookfield, 'Mauritius: Demographic Upsurge and Prospect', Population Studies, 11, 2 (1957), 102-22.
45. Richard M. Titmuss and Brian Abel-Smith, Social Policies and Population Growth in Mauritius: Report to the Governor of Mauritius (London, 1968), 46.
46. Brookfield, 'Mauritius', 107.
47. See Djaffar Moussa-Elkadhum. Transition démographique dans les îles du sud-ouest de l'Océan Indien', Population, 42, 4-5 (1987), 756-60.
48. Demographers considered Mauritius an ideal laboratory to study population growth; see, for example, J.E. Meade, 'Population Explosion, the Standard of Living and Social Conflict' , Economic Journal, 77 ( 1967), 233-255; Annabelle Desmond and Judy K. Morris, The Story of Mauritius: Rom the Dodo to the Stork', Population Bulletin, 18, 5 (1962), 93-114: and Leo Silberman, 'Der Fall Mauritius', Zeitschrift für Geopolitik, 26, 11 (1955), 676-90.
49. Demographers considered Mauritius an ideal laboratory to study population growth; see, for example, J.E. Meade, 'Population Explosion, the Standard of Living and Social Conflict' , Economic Journal, 77 ( 1967), 233-255; Annabelle Desmond and Judy K. Morris, The Story of Mauritius: Rom the Dodo to the Stork', Population Bulletin, 18, 5 (1962), 93-114: and Leo Silberman, 'Der Fall Mauritius', Zeitschrift für Geopolitik, 26, 11 (1955), 676-90.
50. Demographers considered Mauritius an ideal laboratory to study population growth; see, for example, J.E. Meade, 'Population Explosion, the Standard of Living and Social Conflict' , Economic Journal, 77 ( 1967), 233-255; Annabelle Desmond and Judy K. Morris, The Story of Mauritius: Rom the Dodo to the Stork', Population Bulletin, 18, 5 (1962), 93-114: and Leo Silberman, 'Der Fall Mauritius', Zeitschrift für Geopolitik, 26, 11 (1955), 676-90.
51. M.V.M. Herchenroder et al., Report of the Committee on Population, 1953-54, Mauritius Legislative Council, Sessional Paper No.4 of 1955 (Port Louis, 1955).
52. Brookfield, 'Mauritius', 110-11.
53. Quoted in J.E. Meade et al., The Economic and Social Structure of Mauritius: Report to the Governor of Mauritius (London, 1961), xv.
54. Quoted in Titmuss and Abel-Smith, Social Policies, xi.
55. Meade et al., The Economic and Social Structure of Mauritius, 70.
56. Titmuss and Abel-Smith, Social Policies, 63.
57. R.C. Wilkinson, Report on the Project of Emigration from Mauritius to North Borneo (Port Louis, 1949).
58. Mauritians' preoccupation with emigration as a solution to their woes was highlighted by the Trinidadian writer V.S. Naipaul in his essay The Overcrowded Barracoon', in V.S. Naipaul, The Overcrowded Barracoon and Other Articles (London, 1972), 255-86.
59. Benedict, Mauritius, 62; see also Roy, Mauritius in Transition, 355-56.
60. Benedict, Mauritius, 62; see also Roy, Mauritius in Transition, 355-56.
61. Michael Malim, Island of the Swan: Mauritius (London, 1953), 106-08; see also Commins, The Impasse', 290. The reference to the 'Malabars' does not indicate that Indo-Mauritians are mainly descended from people from the southwest of the Indian subcontinent- In fact, most of the indentured labourers came from North India. Durand and Durand, L'Ile Maurice, 46. Indians and Mauritians of Indian descent were referred to as 'Malabars' from the eighteenth century. A suburb in Port Louis with a high concentration of Indians was referred to as 'Camp des Malabars'. Hubert Gerbeau, "The Indians of the Mascarenes: A Success in Diaspora: Mauritius and Reunion (17th-20th Centuries)', Bengal Past and Present, 116, 1-2 (1997), 40.
62. Michael Malim, Island of the Swan: Mauritius (London, 1953), 106-08; see also Commins, The Impasse', 290. The reference to the 'Malabars' does not indicate that Indo-Mauritians are mainly descended from people from the southwest of the Indian subcontinent- In fact, most of the indentured labourers came from North India. Durand and Durand, L'Ile Maurice, 46. Indians and Mauritians of Indian descent were referred to as 'Malabars' from the eighteenth century. A suburb in Port Louis with a high concentration of Indians was referred to as 'Camp des Malabars'. Hubert Gerbeau, "The Indians of the Mascarenes: A Success in Diaspora: Mauritius and Reunion (17th-20th Centuries)', Bengal Past and Present, 116, 1-2 (1997), 40.
63. See, for example, Heyes to Sec. Dept of External Affairs, 9 Aug. 1946, A1838 401/3/6/1/1, NAA.
64. On Anglo-Indians, see Alison Blunt, 'Postcolonial Migrations: Anglo-Indians in "White Australia"', International Journal of Anglo-Indian Studies, 5, 2 (2000), http.//www. alphalink.com.au/-agilbert/aijour-html, accessed 2 April 2004; on Ceylonese Burghers, see Calwell to Frost, 4 March 1948, A1838 160/2/5/5, NAA; A.C. Leith to Chifley, 2 Dec. 1948, A446 1969/72040, NAA.
65. T.H.E. Heyes to Sec. Dept of External Affairs, 20 Jan. 1949, A1838 1531/ 1 part 1, NAA.
66. J.W. Burton to Sec. Dept of Immigration, 16 Feb. 1949, A1838 1531/1 part 1, NAA.
67. Heyes to Sec. Dept of External Affairs, 22 Nov. 1950, A1838 1531/1 part 1, NAA; see also A. Nutt, 'Conditions Governing the Admission of Persons of Mixed Blood to Australia', 20 Sept 1950, A446 1970/95021, NAA.
68. Heyes to Sec. Dept of External Affairs, 22 Nov. 1950, A1838 1531/1 part 1, NAA; see also A. Nutt, 'Conditions Governing the Admission of Persons of Mixed Blood to Australia', 20 Sept 1950, A446 1970/95021, NAA.
69. I b i d.
70. Heyes to Minister, 21 March 1957, A446 1970/95021, NAA.
71. See also David Dutton, One of Us? A Century of Australian Citizenship (Sydney, 2002), 60; Andrew Markus, Australian Race Relations (St Leonards, 1994), 167-68.
72. See also David Dutton, One of Us? A Century of Australian Citizenship (Sydney, 2002), 60; Andrew Markus, Australian Race Relations (St Leonards, 1994), 167-68.
73. G.V. Greenhalgh to Sec. Dept of Immigration, 24 May 1957, A446 1970/95021, NAA.
74. Edward Duyker, Of the Star and the Key: Mauritius, Mauritians and Australia (Sylvania, 1988), 89.
75. Heyes to Chief Migration Officer London, 19 Nov. 1951, A446 1969/72043, NAA.
76. A.R. Downer to A.J. Cooke, 8 Nov. 1961, A446 1969/72043, NAA.
77. Downer to W.S. Bovell, 10 May 1962, A446 1969/72043, NAA.
78. H. McGinness to Sec., 14 July 1958, A446 1969/72043, NAA.
79. G.C. Watson to Sec. Dept of Immigration, 1 Sept. 1958, A446 1969/72043, NAA.
80. Alfred North-Coombes, The Island of Rodrigues (Port Louis, 1971), 272.
81. See also Renéc Perrin, quoted in Monique Dinan, Une île éclatée: Analyse de l'émigration mauricienne 1960-1982 (Port Louis, 1985), 123.
82. E.L. Charles to Armstrong, 25 May 1964, A446 1969/72044, NAA.
83. P.R. Heydon to Principal Immigration Officer Mauritius, 25 June 1964, A446 1969/72044, NAA.
84. P. V. Flynn to Sec. Dept of Immigration, 25 June 1964, A446 1969/72044, NAA.
85. Heydon to T.D. Vickers, 9 July 1964, A446 1969/72044, NAA.
86. Tom Vickers to P.R. Heydon, 27 July 1964, A446 1969/72044, NAA.
87. Heyes to Chief Migration Officer London, 19 Nov. 1951 ; R.R. Sedgwick to N. W. Lamidey, 26 May 1952, both A446 1969/72043, NAA.
88. Heyes to Chief Migration Officer London, 19 Nov. 1951 ; R.R. Sedgwick to N. W. Lamidey, 26 May 1952, both A446 1969/72043, NAA.
89. Heydon to Minister, 19 Dec. 1966, A446 1970/95043; see also Hubert Opperman, Cabinet Submission, "The Policy for the Admission of Persons of Mixed Race', 1 Sept. 1964, A6980 S250888, both NAA.
90. Heydon to Minister, 19 Dec. 1966, A446 1970/95043; see also Hubert Opperman, Cabinet Submission, "The Policy for the Admission of Persons of Mixed Race', 1 Sept. 1964, A6980 S250888, both NAA.
91. Cabinet minute, decision no.481 re submission no.406, 15 Sept. 1964, A446 1970/95021, NAA.
92. I b i d.
93. Beazley, Commonwealth Parliamentary Debates, Representatives 44 (16 and 17 Nov. 1964), 3055.
94. Draft reply to question no.633, House of Representatives, n.d., A446 1970/95021, NAA.
95. Heydon to B.C. Ballard, 23 Nov. 1964, A446 1970/95021, NAA.
96. Opperman, Commonwealth Parliamentary Debates, Representatives 44 (16 and 17 Nov. 1964), 3055.
97. Department of Immigration, 'Rules for the Admission to Australia, as Settlers, of Persons of Mixed Race', 1 Oct. 1965, A446 1970/95029, NAA.
98. W.K. Brown to Asst Sec. Entry Policy Branch, 11 Dec. 1968, A446 1970/95043, NAA. In 1971. only 1.8 per cent of all immigrants of mixed descent were admitted on account of discrimination in their home countries, whereas 76. 5 per cent were admitted on account of having close relatives living in Australia. A.J. Forbes, 'Report on Immigration to Australia of Non-Europeans and Persons of Partly Non-European Descent', 15 June 1972. A5908 713, NAA.
99. W.K. Brown to Asst Sec. Entry Policy Branch, 11 Dec. 1968, A446 1970/95043, NAA. In 1971. only 1.8 per cent of all immigrants of mixed descent were admitted on account of discrimination in their home countries, whereas 76. 5 per cent were admitted on account of having close relatives living in Australia. A.J. Forbes, 'Report on Immigration to Australia of Non-Europeans and Persons of Partly Non-European Descent', 15 June 1972. A5908 713, NAA.
100. In 1965, following a report from the Australian Trade Commissioner in South Africa, an immigration officer thought that 'discrimination may become a factor to be considered in deciding certain cases' from Mauritius. S.R. Lewis to Charles, 2 Aug. 1965; see also J.L. Chapman to Sec. Dept of Immigration, 26 May 1965, both A446 1969/72044, NAA. There is no evidence to suggest that it did.
101. In 1965, following a report from the Australian Trade Commissioner in South Africa, an immigration officer thought that 'discrimination may become a factor to be considered in deciding certain cases' from Mauritius. S.R. Lewis to Charles, 2 Aug. 1965; see also J.L. Chapman to Sec. Dept of Immigration, 26 May 1965, both A446 1969/72044, NAA. There is no evidence to suggest that it did.
102. H. McGinness to Minister, 9 Feb. 1967, A446 1970/95043, NAA.
103. Brown to Sec. Dept of External Affairs, 4 Nov. 1970, app., p.4, A1838 146/10/1 part 2, NAA.
104. For the following, see Dinan, Une íle éclatée, ch. 5; Christiane Adone Resch, 'La communauté mauricienne en Australie', PhD thesis, Université de Toulouse II - Le Mirail, 2001, 192-200. The growing interest in emigration to Australia coincided with the introduction of immigration restrictions by Britain. See Arun Kumar Banerji, 'Unburdening an Imperial Legacy: Colour, Citizenship and British Immigration Policy', India Quarterly, 32, 4 (1976), 433-46. Britain had been a destination for Indo-Mauritians rather than petits blancs or gens de couleur. On the history of Mauritian immigration in Britain, see Sam Lingayah, Mauritian Immigrants in Britain: A Study of Their Hopes and Frustrations (London, 1987), ch.2.
105. For the following, see Dinan, Une íle éclatée, ch. 5; Christiane Adone Resch, 'La communauté mauricienne en Australie', PhD thesis, Université de Toulouse II - Le Mirail, 2001, 192-200. The growing interest in emigration to Australia coincided with the introduction of immigration restrictions by Britain. See Arun Kumar Banerji, 'Unburdening an Imperial Legacy: Colour, Citizenship and British Immigration Policy', India Quarterly, 32, 4 (1976), 433-46. Britain had been a destination for Indo-Mauritians rather than petits blancs or gens de couleur. On the history of Mauritian immigration in Britain, see Sam Lingayah, Mauritian Immigrants in Britain: A Study of Their Hopes and Frustrations (London, 1987), ch.2.
106. For the following, see Dinan, Une íle éclatée, ch. 5; Christiane Adone Resch, 'La communauté mauricienne en Australie', PhD thesis, Université de Toulouse II - Le Mirail, 2001, 192-200. The growing interest in emigration to Australia coincided with the introduction of immigration restrictions by Britain. See Arun Kumar Banerji, 'Unburdening an Imperial Legacy: Colour, Citizenship and British Immigration Policy', India Quarterly, 32, 4 (1976), 433-46. Britain had been a destination for Indo-Mauritians rather than petits blancs or gens de couleur. On the history of Mauritian immigration in Britain, see Sam Lingayah, Mauritian Immigrants in Britain: A Study of Their Hopes and Frustrations (London, 1987), ch.2.
107. For the following, see Dinan, Une íle éclatée, ch. 5; Christiane Adone Resch, 'La communauté mauricienne en Australie', PhD thesis, Université de Toulouse II - Le Mirail, 2001, 192-200. The growing interest in emigration to Australia coincided with the introduction of immigration restrictions by Britain. See Arun Kumar Banerji, 'Unburdening an Imperial Legacy: Colour, Citizenship and British Immigration Policy', India Quarterly, 32, 4 (1976), 433-46. Britain had been a destination for Indo-Mauritians rather than petits blancs or gens de couleur. On the history of Mauritian immigration in Britain, see Sam Lingayah, Mauritian Immigrants in Britain: A Study of Their Hopes and Frustrations (London, 1987), ch.2.
108. Simmons, Modern Mauritius, 162.
109. Quoted in ibid., 169.
110. Duyker, 'Mauritians', 595; see also Duyker, Of the Star and the Key, 90-92; Simmons, Modem Mauritius, 159; and Adone Resch, 'La communauté mauricienne en Australie', 222-32.
111. Duyker, 'Mauritians', 595; see also Duyker, Of the Star and the Key, 90-92; Simmons, Modem Mauritius, 159; and Adone Resch, 'La communauté mauricienne en Australie', 222-32.
112. Duyker, 'Mauritians', 595; see also Duyker, Of the Star and the Key, 90-92; Simmons, Modem Mauritius, 159; and Adone Resch, 'La communauté mauricienne en Australie', 222-32.
113. Duyker, 'Mauritians', 595; see also Duyker, Of the Star and the Key, 90-92; Simmons, Modem Mauritius, 159; and Adone Resch, 'La communauté mauricienne en Australie', 222-32.
114. E. Sinclair to O.I.C. Entry Policy Branch, 18 Dec. 1967, A446 1969/ 72045; F.C. Castle, 'Report on Mauritian Migrants Ex "Australis" at Melbourne 24.3.68', 26 March 1968, A446 1968/70586; Kersley to T. Smith, 14 Feb. 1967, A446 1966/12989, all NAA.
115. E. Sinclair to O.I.C. Entry Policy Branch, 18 Dec. 1967, A446 1969/ 72045; F.C. Castle, 'Report on Mauritian Migrants Ex "Australis" at Melbourne 24.3.68', 26 March 1968, A446 1968/70586; Kersley to T. Smith, 14 Feb. 1967, A446 1966/12989, all NAA.
116. Castle to Assistant Secretary, 29 Dec. 1967; Castle to Secretary, 11 Jan. 1968, both A446 1969/72045, NAA.
117. [name illegible], memorandum to Asst Sec., 17 June 1966, A446 1969/72045, NAA.
118. Roy, Mauritius in Transition. 9.
119. Ibid., 381.
120. A.J. Christopher, 'Ethnicity, Community and the Census in Mauritius, 1830-1990', Geographical Journal, 158, 1 (1992), 59-60. Commenting on the 1911 census, the then census commissioner explained mat '[t]he classification of the population is effected principally by means of the surnames as, for obvious reasons, it cannot be made a subject of direct census enquiry'. A. Walter, quoted in Knczynski Demographic Survey, vol.2, 803.
121. A.J. Christopher, 'Ethnicity, Community and the Census in Mauritius, 1830-1990', Geographical Journal, 158, 1 (1992), 59-60. Commenting on the 1911 census, the then census commissioner explained mat '[t]he classification of the population is effected principally by means of the surnames as, for obvious reasons, it cannot be made a subject of direct census enquiry'. A. Walter, quoted in Knczynski Demographic Survey, vol.2, 803.
122. Report of the Dept of External Affairs on Mauritius, 1964, enclosed with G. Hartley to Sec. Dept of Immigration, 2 Dec. 1964, A446 1969/72044, NAA.
123. E.M. Robinson, 'Report of the Third Australian Visa Mission to Mauritius', 19 June 1970, A446 1970/75117, NAA.
124. See, for example, K.R. Dodsworth to Asst Sec. Operations Division, 24 July 1966, p. 2, A446 1969/72045; W.G. Powrie to Senior Migration Officer, 19 Oct. 1966, A446 1966/22935, both NAA. Some applications included statements by the Passport and Immigration Officer saying that the applicants 'are to the best of my knowledge and belief of EUROPEAN ORIGIN'. See, for example, Passport and Immigration Officer, 10 March 1966, A446 1966/12989, but the Immigration Department does not seem to have insisted on such statements -possibly because it did not trust them. In 1970 a Mauritian immigrant informed the Minister for Immigration's private secretary that '[b]lood certificates' could be easily purchased from corrupt Mauritian police officers; an officer of the Department of Immigration commented in a marginal note: 'We know this from experience'. M. Migus to Sec., 14 April 1970, A446 1970/75117, NAA.
125. Castle to C.M.O., 23 June 1966, A446 1969/72045, NAA.
126. F.L. Bett, file note, 27 Aug. 1968, A1209 1965/6376, NAA.
127. Interviewing officer's comments, 28 May 1970, A446 1966/6460, NAA.
128. Interviewing officers comments, 2 Oct. 1968, A446 1966/7235, NAA,
129. H. McGinness for Heydon to Minister, 14 April 1970, A446 1970/75117, NAA.
130. A 1972 case involving a Mauritian family is cited in a book by the Labor Party politician responsible for the abolition of the White Australia policy: Al Grassby, The Tyranny of Prejudice (Melbourne, 1984), 48-49. When arguing the case for the 1964 reforms, one of Grassby's predecessors, Hubert Opperman, had also drawn attention to this problem. E.L. Charles to Treloar, 5 March 1964, A446 1970/95021, NAA.
131. Bartara Wake Carroll and Terrance Carroll, 'Accommodating Ethnic Diversity in a Modernizing Democratic State: Theory and Practice in the Case of Mauritius', Ethnic and Racial Studies, 23, 1 (2000), 120-42.
132. Wolfgang Lutz and Anne Babette Wils, 'People on Mauritius', in Wolfgang Lutz (ed.), Population - Development - Environment (Berlin, 1994), 75-97; Huw Jones, 'Fertility Decline in Mauritius: The Role of Malthusian Population Pressure', Geoforum, 20, 3 (1989), 315-27.
133. Wolfgang Lutz and Anne Babette Wils, 'People on Mauritius', in Wolfgang Lutz (ed.), Population - Development - Environment (Berlin, 1994), 75-97; Huw Jones, 'Fertility Decline in Mauritius: The Role of Malthusian Population Pressure', Geoforum, 20, 3 (1989), 315-27.
134. Thomas Meisenhelder, "The Developmental State in Mauritius'- Journal of Modern African Studies, 35, 2 (1997), 279-97.
135. Philippe. Leymarie, 'L'Ile Maurice ou l'indépendance difficile', Revue française d'études politiques africaines, 77 (1972), 70.
136. Philippa Mein Smith, 'New Zealand Federation Commissioners in Australia: One Past, Two Historiographies', Australian Historical Studies, 34, 122 (2003), 305-25; Marilyn Lake, 'White Man's Country: The Trans-National History of a National Project' Australian Historical Studies, 34, 122 (2003), 346-63.
137. Philippa Mein Smith, 'New Zealand Federation Commissioners in Australia: One Past, Two Historiographies', Australian Historical Studies, 34, 122 (2003), 305-25; Marilyn Lake, 'White Man's Country: The Trans-National History of a National Project' Australian Historical Studies, 34, 122 (2003), 346-63.