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Volumn 43, Issue 2, 2009, Pages 307-340

Women's work: The feminization and shifting meanings of clerical work

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EID: 75949114464     PISSN: 00224529     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1353/jsh.0.0284     Document Type: Article
Times cited : (37)

References (222)
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    • eds. R. Kahn-Hut, A. K. Daniels, and R. Colvard (New York and Oxford)
    • Evelyn Glenn and Roslyn Feldberg, "Degraded and deskilled: The proletarianization of clerical work" in Women and Work: Problems and Perspectives, eds. R. Kahn-Hut, A. K. Daniels, and R. Colvard (New York and Oxford, 1982).
    • (1982) Women and Work: Problems and Perspectives
    • Glenn, E.1    Feldberg, R.2
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    • The 10 percent sample data includes information on the name, age, place of birth, language/s spoken, religion, position in household, marital status, employment, and income of women aged 15 to 29. These sample data were used to explore how clerical workers compare to the broader population of similarly aged women, whether in waged work or not
    • The 10 percent sample data includes information on the name, age, place of birth, language/s spoken, religion, position in household, marital status, employment, and income of women aged 15 to 29. These sample data were used to explore how clerical workers compare to the broader population of similarly aged women, whether in waged work or not.
  • 18
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    • Canada has a national system of banks that is currently dominated by the so-called 'Big Five' banks (Bank of Montreal, Bank of Nova Scotia/Scotiabank, Canadian Imperial Bank of Commerce/CIBC, Royal Bank, and Toronto-Dominion Bank), most are the result of several rounds of mergers dating back to the nineteenth century. We gathered material from the archives of each of the five major domestic banks, as well as the Sun Life Assurance Company, and the Banque d'Hochelaga, a major Quebec bank that initially targeted francophones
    • Canada has a national system of banks that is currently dominated by the so-called 'Big Five' banks (Bank of Montreal, Bank of Nova Scotia/Scotiabank, Canadian Imperial Bank of Commerce/CIBC, Royal Bank, and Toronto-Dominion Bank), most are the result of several rounds of mergers dating back to the nineteenth century. We gathered material from the archives of each of the five major domestic banks, as well as the Sun Life Assurance Company, and the Banque d'Hochelaga, a major Quebec bank that initially targeted francophones.
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    • Suburban pink collar ghettos: The spatial entrapment of women?
    • The original intent of the interviews with the clerical workers was to explore their decisions to enter paid work and strategies for combining family and employment obligations. The women were drawn from a random sample of women clerical workers listed in the Polk's City Directory. The interviews were open-ended and relatively unstructured, so an enormous amount of information was gathered. In the secondary analysis for this paper, special attention was focused on the 18 women in their 40s, 50s and 60s, especially those whose interviews with more of an oral history component (for an example of the original analysis, see) The interviews with personnel managers in Toronto were aimed at address ing questions about the linkages between the banks' occupational profiles and decisions about the location of the banks' back offices and branches
    • The original intent of the interviews with the clerical workers was to explore their decisions to enter paid work and strategies for combining family and employment obligations. The women were drawn from a random sample of women clerical workers listed in the Polk's City Directory. The interviews were open-ended and relatively unstructured, so an enormous amount of information was gathered. In the secondary analysis for this paper, special attention was focused on the 18 women in their 40s, 50s and 60s, especially those whose interviews with more of an oral history component (for an example of the original analysis, see Kim England, "Suburban Pink Collar Ghettos: The Spatial Entrapment of Women?, " Annals of the Association of American Geographers 83:2 (1993): 225-242). The interviews with personnel managers in Toronto were aimed at address ing questions about the linkages between the banks' occupational profiles and decisions about the location of the banks' back offices and branches.
    • (1993) Annals of the Association of American Geographers , vol.83 , Issue.2 , pp. 225-242
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    • Kwollek, 1994.
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    • Fine, 1990.
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    • (2005) Journal of Social History , vol.39 , Issue.1
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    • Braverman (1974), 294-5.
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    • Ehrenreich (1985), quote from p. 29.
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    • Jessie MacDonald Murray, "Woman in the Banking World: What it means to her and to it, " Journal of the Canadian Banker's Association, 23:4 (1916): 315-320.
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    • The cult of true womanhood, 1820-1860
    • See the, for a retrospective on Barbara Welter's classic 1966 essay
    • See the Journal of Women's History Spring 2002, for a retrospective on Barbara Welter's classic 1966 essay "The cult of true womanhood, 1820-1860.".
    • (2002) Journal of Women's History Spring
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    • 85036788483 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Flora Miller is one of the women who contributed to the oral histories of clerical workers. All names are pseudonyms. Concerns like those raised by Flora's grandfather were surely informed by moral panics about the social and moral well-being of young women adrift in the big city, untethered from the social restraint and surveillance of family and small town community
    • Flora Miller is one of the women who contributed to the oral histories of clerical workers. All names are pseudonyms. Concerns like those raised by Flora's grandfather were surely informed by moral panics about the social and moral well-being of young women adrift in the big city, untethered from the social restraint and surveillance of family and small town community.
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    • (New York) was a strong proponent of standardizing and routinizing office work practices by adapting the scientific management techniques of F.W. Taylor's time and motion studies and Henry Ford's flow-line principles to office work. Many tasks still needed to be completed by hand, and only the largest companies had the labor or the capital to afford these scientific office management systems. But there were savings to be made, especially as women could be installed as machine operators with relatively low pay
    • William H. Leffingwell, who wrote Scientific Office Management (New York, 1917) was a strong proponent of standardizing and routinizing office work practices by adapting the scientific management techniques of F.W. Taylor's time and motion studies and Henry Ford's flow-line principles to office work. Many tasks still needed to be completed by hand, and only the largest companies had the labor or the capital to afford these scientific office management systems. But there were savings to be made, especially as women could be installed as machine operators with relatively low pay.
    • (1917) Who Wrote Scientific Office Management
    • Leffingwell, W.H.1
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    • Sex and skill
    • ed. J.W. Scott (New York), quote
    • Anne Phillips and Barbara Taylor, "Sex and Skill" in Feminism and History, ed. J.W. Scott (New York, 1996), quote pp. 324-5.
    • (1996) Feminism and History , pp. 324-325
    • Phillips, A.1    Taylor, B.2
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    • Davies, 1982 remains the classic here
    • Davies, 1982 remains the classic here.
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    • Advertisement appeared, 6th January
    • Advertisement appeared in the Montreal Daily Gazette, 6th January 1910.
    • (1910) Montreal Daily Gazette
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    • Lowe, 1987.
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    • Itinéraires professionnels masculins et féminins en milieu bancaire: Le cas de la Banque d'Hochelaga, 1900-1929
    • Michèle Dagenais, "Itinéraires professionnels masculins et féminins en milieu bancaire: le cas de la Banque d'Hochelaga, 1900-1929, " Labor/Le Travail, 24 (1989): 45-68.
    • (1989) Labor/Le Travail , vol.24 , pp. 45-68
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    • Place and the politics of virtue: Clerical work, corporate anxiety, and changing meanings of public womanhood in early twentieth-century Montréal
    • Kate Boyer, "Place and the politics of virtue: clerical work, corporate anxiety, and changing meanings of public womanhood in early twentieth-century Montréal, " Gender, Place and Culture: A Journal of Feminist Geography, 5:3 (1998): 261-276.
    • (1998) Gender, Place and Culture: A Journal of Feminist Geography , vol.5 , Issue.3 , pp. 261-276
    • Boyer, K.1
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    • This is a lower figure than for the US (where more than 90 percent were nativeborn). The national origin of the Bank of Montreal's foreign-born workers demonstrates Canada's status as a Dominion of the United Kingdom: 71 percent of them were from England or Scotland, fully one-fifth of all the women hired
    • This is a lower figure than for the US (where more than 90 percent were nativeborn). The national origin of the Bank of Montreal's foreign-born workers demonstrates Canada's status as a Dominion of the United Kingdom: 71 percent of them were from England or Scotland, fully one-fifth of all the women hired.
  • 64
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    • On marriage bars in the US
    • On marriage bars in the US.
  • 69
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    • On married women's paid work
    • On married women's paid work.
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    • Strom, 1992
    • Strom, 1992.
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    • 85036780367 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Strom, 1992, p. 192. And women clerical workers did voice their grievances. They engaged in collective action creating workers organizations and attempted to form unions
    • Strom, 1992, p. 192. And women clerical workers did voice their grievances. They engaged in collective action creating workers organizations and attempted to form unions.
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    • 'Union fever': Organizing among clerical workers, 1900-1930
    • See
    • See Roslyn L. Feldberg, " 'Union fever': Organizing Among Clerical Workers, 1900-1930, " Radical America 14 (1980): 53-67.
    • (1980) Radical America , vol.14 , pp. 53-67
    • Feldberg, R.L.1
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    • 'We're no kitty foyles': Organizing office workers for the congress of industrial organizations
    • ed. Ruth Milkman (Boston)
    • Sharon Hartman Strom, "'We're no Kitty Foyles': Organizing Office Workers for the Congress of Industrial Organizations, " in Women, Work, and Protest, ed. Ruth Milkman (Boston, 1985).
    • (1985) Women, Work, and Protest
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    • Davies, 1982
    • Davies, 1982.
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    • Aron, 1987.
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    • Lowe, 1987.
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    • de Vault, 1990.
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    • Fine, 1990.
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    • Kessler-Harris, 2003.
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    • This does not mean that women of color (and poor women) were not active in pushing for improvements in their employment opportunities and working conditions during this period
    • This does not mean that women of color (and poor women) were not active in pushing for improvements in their employment opportunities and working conditions during this period.
  • 85
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    • Black women's breakthrough into clerical work: An occupational tipping model
    • (1993)
    • Rotella, 1981, "Black Women's Breakthrough into Clerical Work: An Occupational Tipping Model, " Journal of Economic Issues 27:4 (1993): 1097-1125.
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    • (1993)
    • Kwolak-Folland, 1994, "Black Women's Breakthrough into Clerical Work: An Occupational Tipping Model, " Journal of Economic Issues 27:4 (1993): 1097-1125.
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    • Kwolak-Folland1
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    • Black women's breakthrough into clerical work: An occupational tipping model
    • (1993)
    • Kessler-Harris, 2003, "Black Women's Breakthrough into Clerical Work: An Occupational Tipping Model, " Journal of Economic Issues 27:4 (1993): 1097-1125.
    • (2003) Journal of Economic Issues , vol.27 , Issue.4 , pp. 1097-1125
    • Kessler-Harris1
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    • Black women's breakthrough into clerical work: An occupational tipping model
    • (1993)
    • Kessler-Harris, 2005, "Black Women's Breakthrough into Clerical Work: An Occupational Tipping Model," Journal of Economic Issues 27:4 (1993): 1097-1125.
    • (2005) Journal of Economic Issues , vol.27 , Issue.4 , pp. 1097-1125
    • Bjelopera1
  • 89
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    • Black women's breakthrough into clerical work: An occupational tipping model
    • Also see
    • Also see Mary C. King, "Black Women's Breakthrough into Clerical Work: An Occupational Tipping Model, " Journal of Economic Issues 27:4 (1993): 1097-1125.
    • (1993) Journal of Economic Issues , vol.27 , Issue.4 , pp. 1097-1125
    • King, M.C.1
  • 90
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    • Kwolek-Folland, 1994. In his study of office and retail clerks in Philadelphia, Bjelopera (2005) found that among African-Americans clerical work did not become heavily feminized. In 1920 four-fifths of them were men
    • Kwolek-Folland, 1994. In his study of office and retail clerks in Philadelphia, Bjelopera (2005) found that among African-Americans clerical work did not become heavily feminized. In 1920 four-fifths of them were men.
  • 91
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    • Boyer, 1998
    • Boyer, 1998.
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    • 'In case you hadn't noticed!': Race, ethnicity, and women's wage-earning in a depression-era city
    • Katrina Srigley, " 'In case you hadn't noticed!': Race, Ethnicity, and Women's Wage-Earning in a Depression-Era City, " Labour/Le Travail 55 (2005): 69-105.
    • (2005) Labour/Le Travail , vol.55 , pp. 69-105
    • Srigley, K.1
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    • Race, employment discrimination, and state complicity in wartime Canada, 1939-1945
    • Carmela Patrias, "Race, Employment Discrimination, and State Complicity in Wartime Canada, 1939-1945, " Labour/Le Travail 59 (2007): 9-42.
    • (2007) Labour/Le Travail , vol.59 , pp. 9-42
    • Patrias, C.1
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    • On occupations
    • On occupations.
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    • For Canada
    • For Canada.
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    • The neglected majority: The changing role of women in nineteenth-century montreal
    • see eds. G. A. Stelter and A. Artibise (Ottawa)
    • see D. Suzanne Cross, "The Neglected Majority: The Changing Role of Women in Nineteenth-Century Montreal, " in The Canadian City: Essays in Urban History, eds. G. A. Stelter and A. Artibise (Ottawa, 1977), pp. 255-281.
    • (1977) The Canadian City: Essays in Urban History , pp. 255-281
    • Cross, D.S.1
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    • Violet Blackman is a significant figure in Canadian history. She was a founding member of the Universal Negro (African) Improvement Association and also helped to build the Negro Credit Union. The quote comes from her interview with Dionne Brand, (Toronto)
    • Violet Blackman is a significant figure in Canadian history. She was a founding member of the Universal Negro (African) Improvement Association and also helped to build the Negro Credit Union. The quote comes from her interview with Dionne Brand, No Burden to Carry: Narratives of Black Working Women in Ontario, 1920s-1950s (Toronto 1991), p. 37-38.
    • (1991) No Burden to Carry: Narratives of Black Working Women in Ontario, 1920s-1950s , pp. 37-38
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    • Boyer, 1998
    • Boyer, 1998.
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    • Pringle, 1989
    • Pringle, 1989.
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    • Aron, 1987
    • Aron, 1987.
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    • Fine, 1990
    • Fine, 1990.
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    • Kwollek-Folland, 1994
    • Kwollek-Folland, 1994.
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    • Personnel Files Nos. 16, 45 & 91, Bank of Nova Scotia Archives; Stenographer's Book, Bank of Montreal Archives
    • Personnel Files Nos. 16, 45 & 91, Bank of Nova Scotia Archives; Stenographer's Book, Bank of Montreal Archives.
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    • 85036789086 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Also see Boyer, 1998
    • Also see Boyer, 1998.
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    • 85036797685 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Bank of Nova Scotia Employee Rules and Regulations book, item 353
    • Bank of Nova Scotia Employee Rules and Regulations book, item 353.
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    • Kessler-Harris, 2003
    • Kessler-Harris, 2003.
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    • Aron, 1987, p. 42
    • Aron, 1987, p. 42.
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    • Mills, 1951
    • Mills, 1951.
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    • Ehrenreich, 1985
    • Ehrenreich, 1985.
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    • Kessler-Harris, 2003, p. 109
    • Kessler-Harris, 2003, p. 109.
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    • Lowe, 1987
    • Lowe, 1987.
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    • Strom, 1992
    • Strom, 1992.
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    • Walkowitz, 1999.
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    • The new woman: Changing views of women in the 1920s
    • 1974
    • Boyer, 1998, "The New Woman: Changing Views of Women in the 1920s, " Journal of American History 61 (1974): 372-93.
    • (1998) Journal of American History , vol.61 , pp. 372-393
    • Boyer1
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    • The new woman: Changing views of women in the 1920s
    • Estelle Freedman, "The New Woman: Changing Views of Women in the 1920s, " Journal of American History 61 (1974): 372-93.
    • (1974) Journal of American History , vol.61 , pp. 372-393
    • Freedman, E.1
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    • Walkowitz, 1999.
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    • de Vault, 1990.
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    • Aron, 1987
    • Aron, 1987.
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    • Lowe, 1987
    • Lowe, 1987.
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    • The 1901 Montréal nominal Census data also show that 16 percent lived with blood relatives, likely as boarders with extended family members. Such an arrangement that would have saved money and maintained "respectability"; an important issue for young unmarried women living apart from their parents. Boarding with relatives would have allowed daughters to maintain family and religious traditions, while at the same time allowing parents to keep closer tabs on daughters than they might have otherwise
    • The 1901 Montréal nominal Census data also show that 16 percent lived with blood relatives, likely as boarders with extended family members. Such an arrangement that would have saved money and maintained "respectability"; an important issue for young unmarried women living apart from their parents. Boarding with relatives would have allowed daughters to maintain family and religious traditions, while at the same time allowing parents to keep closer tabs on daughters than they might have otherwise.
  • 127
    • 85036799981 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Strom, 1992, p. 10
    • Strom, 1992, p. 10.
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    • 85036784681 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Also see Fine, 1990
    • Also see Fine, 1990.
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    • Produced by the Royal Typewriter Company for the U.S. Civil Service Commission (National Archives and Records Administration Still Picture Branch)
    • Produced by the Royal Typewriter Company for the U.S. Civil Service Commission (National Archives and Records Administration Still Picture Branch).
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    • The dynamics of occupational segregation among bank tellers
    • eds. Clair Brown and Joseph A. Pechman, (Washington, D.C.)
    • Myra H. Strober and Carolyn L. Arnold. "The Dynamics of Occupational Segregation among Bank Tellers" in Gender in the Workplace. eds. Clair Brown and Joseph A. Pechman, (Washington, D.C., 1987), pp. 107-48.
    • (1987) Gender in the Workplace , pp. 107-148
    • Strober, M.H.1    Arnold, C.L.2
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    • Royal Bank archives, "Women in Royal Bank", unnumbered document
    • Royal Bank archives, "Women in Royal Bank", unnumbered document.
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    • See also McDowall, 1993
    • See also McDowall, 1993.
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    • Women in today's banking world
    • Dorcas Campbell, "Women in Today's Banking World" The Burroughs Clearing House, 1:1 (1945): 16-18.
    • (1945) The Burroughs Clearing House , vol.1 , Issue.1 , pp. 16-18
    • Campbell, D.1
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    • Campbell was a formidable force. She became the first woman Vice-President of East River Savings Bank, she also achieved many other 'firsts' in her 30 year banking career. She was the author of two books on banking careers (including one explicitly aimed at women). She frequently appeared in the pages of the New York Times and the Washington Post often via announcements about her public lectures and activities in professional organizations. When she died in 1959, a 340-word obituary appeared in the New York Times
    • Campbell was a formidable force. She became the first woman Vice-President of East River Savings Bank, she also achieved many other 'firsts' in her 30 year banking career. She was the author of two books on banking careers (including one explicitly aimed at women). She frequently appeared in the pages of the New York Times and the Washington Post often via announcements about her public lectures and activities in professional organizations. When she died in 1959, a 340-word obituary appeared in the New York Times.
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    • Canada's wage-earning wives and the construction of the middle class, 1945-60
    • 1990
    • Goldin, 1990. Veronica Strong-Boag, "Canada's Wage-Earning Wives and the Construction of the Middle Class, 1945-60," Journal of Canadian Studies 29:3 (1994): 5-25.
    • (1994) Journal of Canadian Studies , vol.29 , Issue.3 , pp. 5-25
    • Goldin1
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    • Beyond feminisation: Clerical workers in the united states from the 1920s through the 1960s
    • G. Anderson ed., (Manchester)
    • Margaret L. Hedstrom, "Beyond Feminisation: Clerical Workers in the United States from the 1920s through the 1960s", in G. Anderson ed., The White-Blouse Revolution, (Manchester, 1988), 143-69.
    • (1988) The White-Blouse Revolution , pp. 143-169
    • Hedstrom, M.L.1
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    • Machines instead of clerks': Technology and the feminization of bookkeeping, 1910-1950
    • ed. H.I. Hartmann (Washington, D.C.)
    • Sharon Hartman Strom, "Machines Instead of Clerks': Technology and the Feminization of Bookkeeping, 1910-1950, " in Computer Chips and Paper Clips: Technology and Women's Employment, ed. H.I. Hartmann (Washington, D.C., 1987), 63-97.
    • (1987) Computer Chips and Paper Clips: Technology and Women's Employment , pp. 63-97
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    • C. Wright Mills (New York, 1951), quotes are from p. 191 and p. 206.
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    • Strom, 1987.
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    • Fuchs, 1965.
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    • Freidan's critique of the Cult of Domesticity was already quite pervasive in popular culture of the day
    • Freidan's critique of the Cult of Domesticity was already quite pervasive in popular culture of the day.
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    • Strom, 1992.
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    • Sun Life Financial Corporate Archives, box 407, employment matters.
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    • A second brochure from the same period called "Where are You Going, my Pretty Maid?" informed potential employees that: "By deciding to become associated with the Sun Life of Canada you will be linking up with a modern organization which takes pride in providing congenial and healthy surroundings for its employees." (Sun Life Financial Corporate Archives, box 713, pamphlet)
    • A second brochure from the same period called "Where are You Going, my Pretty Maid?" informed potential employees that: "By deciding to become associated with the Sun Life of Canada you will be linking up with a modern organization which takes pride in providing congenial and healthy surroundings for its employees." (Sun Life Financial Corporate Archives, box 713, pamphlet).
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    • Goldin, 1990.
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    • Henry O. Ruhnke, "Selecting clerical personnel, " Banking, (Nov 1963). Even in 1970 a larger proportion of women clerical workers were less than 24 years old than was the case for women in other occupations (Hedstrom, 1988).
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    • Goldin, 1990.
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    • Also see Strong-Boag, 1994 on Canada.
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    • Goldin, 1990.
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    • King, 1993; Goldin, 1990. The five cities in the 1940 survey were Houston, Los Angeles, Kansas City, Richmond, and Philadelphia.
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    • Betty's remarks about private companies reflects how African-American women found clerical work in the public sector far earlier than in the private sector
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    • Amott1    Matthaei2
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    • Strong-Boag, 1994, p. 6.
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    • Amott and Matthaei, 1991.
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    • King, 1993.
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    • Katz1
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    • See note 4 for information about these interviews
    • See note 4 for information about these interviews.
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    • Hartmann, 1987. There was a lively debate about the deskilling of clerical work and whether clerical workers were becoming 'proletarianized'; this discussion was firmly rooted in class analysis, and arguments that this round of automation would finally blur the distinction between white-collar clerical workers and blue-collar workers.
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