The developmental basis for germline mosaicism in mouse and Drosophila melanogaster

Genetica

Volumn 102-103, Issue , 1998, Pages 421-443

  Drost, Joni B ^a   Lee, William R ^a  

^a LOUISIANA STATE UNIVERSITY   (United States)

Author keywords

Clusters; Germinal mosaics; Germline development; Germline mutation; Timing of mutation

Indexed keywords

ANIMALIA; DROSOPHILA MELANOGASTER; HEXAPODA; MAMMALIA; MELANOGASTER;

EID: 7344259634     PISSN: 00166707     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1023/a:1017002221520     Document Type: Article

References (157)

1. Aaron, C.S. & W.R. Lee, 1978. Molecular dosimetry of the mutagen ethyl methanesulfonate in Drosophila melanogaster spermatozoa: Linear relation of DNA alkylation per sperm cell (dose) to sex-linked recessive lethals. Mutat. Res. 49: 27-44.
2. Abramczulk, J. & W. Sawicki, 1975. Pronuclear synthesis of DNA in fertilized and parthenogenetically activated mouse eggs. Exp. Cell Res. 92: 361-372.
3. Auerbach, C., 1946. Chemically induced mosaicism in Drosophila melanogaster. Proc. Roy. Soc. Edinb. B62: 211-221.
4. Barker, D., M. Schafer & R.White, 1984. Restrictionsites containing CpG show a higher frequency of polymorphism in human DNA. Cell 36: 131-138.
5. Bate, M. & Martinez Arias, 1993. The development of Drosophila melanogaster. Vol. I, II. Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory Press.
6. Beaumont, H.M. & A.M. Mandl. 1963. A quantitative study of primordial germ cells in the male rat. J. Embryol. Exp. Morphol. 11: 715-740.
7. Beaumont, H.M. & A.M. Mandl, 1962. A quantitative and cytological study of oogonia and oocytes in the foetal and neonatal rat. Proc. Roy. Soc. B 155: 557579.
8. Bellvé, A.R., J.C. Cavicchia, C. F. Millette, D. A. O'Brien, Y. M. Bhatnagar & M. Dym, 1977. Spermatogenic cells of the prepuberal mouse. J. Cell Biol. 74: 68-85.
9. Bhanot, O.S. & A. Ray, 1986. Proc. Nat. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. 83: 7348-7352.
10. Bodenstein, D., 1950. The post embryonic development of Drosophila, pp. 275-367 in The Biology of Drosophila, edited by M. Demerec. John Wiley and Sons, New York.
11. Burgoyne, P.S., 1987. The role of the mammalian Y chromosome in spermatogenesis Development (suppl.) 101: 133-141.
12. Byskov, A.G., 1982. Primordial germ cells and regulation of meiosis, pp 1-281 in Reproduction in mammals, I. Germ cells and fetilization. 2nd ed., edited by C.R. Austin and R.V. Short. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge.
13. Campos-Ortega, J.A. & V. H artenstein, 1985. The embryonic development of Drosophila melanogaster. Springer Verlag Berlin.
14. Carter, T.C., 1958. Radiation-induced gene mutation in adult female and foetal male mice. Brit. J. Radiol. 31: 407-411.
15. Carter, T.C., M. Lyon & R. Phillips. 1960. The genetic sensitivity to X-rays of mouse foetal gonads. Genet. Res. Camb. 1: 351-355.
16. Chandley, A.C. & A.J. Bateman, 1962. Timing of spermatogenesis in Drosophila melanogaster using tritiated thymidine. Nature 193: 299-300.
17. Chiquoine, A.D., 1954. The identification, origin, and migration of the primordial germ cells in the mouse embryo. Anat. Rec. 118: 135-146.
18. Clark, J.M. & E.M. Eddy, 1975. Fine structural observations on the orginand association of primordial germ cells of the mouse. Dev. Biol. 47: 198-236.
19. Clermont, Y., 1972. Kinetics of spermatogenesis in mammals: Seminiferous epithelium cycle and spermatogonial renewal. Physiol. Rev. 52: 198-236.
20. Clermont, Y & B. Perey, 1957. Quantitative study of the cell population of the seminiferous tubules in immature rats. Am. J. Anat. 100: 241-267.
21. Clermont, Y. & M. Trott. 1969. Duration of the cycle of the seminiferous epitheliumin the mouse and hamster determined by means of 3H-thymidine and autoradiography. Fertil. Steril. 20: 805-817.
22. Cooper, D.N. & M. Krawczak, 1990. Cytosine methylation and the fate of CpG dinucleotides invertebrate genomes. Hum. Genet. 83: 181-189.
23. Cooper, D.N. & H. Youssoufian, 1988. The CpG dinucleotide and human genetic disease. Hum. Genet. 78: 151-155.
24. Cooper, D.N., S. Gerber-Huber, D. Nardelli, J.L. Schubiger & W. Wahll, 1987. The distribution of the dinucleotide CpG and cytosine methylation in the vitellogenin gene family. J. Mol. Evol. 25: 107-115.
25. Cooper, K. W., 1950. Normal spermatogenesis in Drosophila melanogaster, pp. 1-61 in Biology of Drosophila, edited by M. Demerec. Hafner. New York/London.
26. Copp, A. J., H.M. Roberts & P.E. Polani, 1986. Chimerism of primordial germ cells in the early postimplantation mouse embryo following microsurgical grafting of posterior primitive streak cells in vitro. J. Embryol. Exp. Morphol. 95: 95-115.
27. Corwin, H.O., 1968. The mutagenic effect of N-nitrosomethylurea on the dampy locus in Drosophila melanogaster. Mutat. Res. 5: 259-270.
28. Counce, S.J., 1963. Developmental morphology of polar granules in Drosophila. Including observations on pole cell behavior and distribution daring embryo gene sis. J. Morph. 112: 129-146.
29. David, J. & J. Merle, 1968. A reevaluation of the duration of egg chamber stages in oogenesis of Drosophila melanogaster. Dros. Inf. Serv. 43: 122-123.
30. Drake, J.W., 1988. Clone size distributions of mutations induced by ethyl methanesulfonate in bacteriophage T4. J. Mol. Biol 202: 11-16.
31. Driscoll, D.J. & B.R. Migeon, 1989. Evidence for lack of DNA methylation in human fetal germ cells: Relevance to parental chromosome imprinting and CpG mutation. Am. J. Hum. Genet. 45(Suppl 4): A111.
32. Driscoll, D.J. & B.R. Migeon, 1990. Sex difference in methylation of single-copy genes in human meiotic germ cells: Implications for X chromosome inactivation, parental imprinting and origin of CpG mutations. Somat. Cell Mol. Genet. 16(3): 267-282.
33. Drost, J.B., 1993. Comparisons of spontaneous mutation rates and estimates of numbers of cell divisions in the germlines of three metazoans. PhD thesis, Louisiana State University Baton Rouge
34. Drost, J.B. & W.R. Lee, 1995. Biological basis of germline mutation, Comparisons of spontaneous germline mutation rates among Drosophila, mice, and human. Environ Mol Mutagen 25 (suppl 26): 48-64.
35. Duncan, F.N., 1930. Some observations on the biology of the male Drosophila melanogaster. Am. Nat. 64: 545-551.
36. Dyce, J., M. George, H. Goodall & T.P. Fleming. 1987. Dotrophoectoderm and inner cell mass cells in the mouse blastocyst maintain discrete lineages? Dev. 100: 685-698.
37. Dym, M. & D.W. Fawcett. 1971. Further observations on the numbers of spermatogonia, spermatocytes and sperm atids connected by intercellular bridges in the mammalian testis. Biol. Reprod. 4: 195-215.
38. Eddy, E.M., J.M. Clark, D. Gong & B.A. Fenderson, 1981. Origin and migration of primordial germ cells in mammals. Gamete Res. 4: 333-362.
39. Eddy, E.M. & A.C. Hahnel, 1983. Establishment of the germ cell line in mammals, pp. 41-69 in Current Problems in Germ Cell Differentiation, edited by A. McLaren and C.C. Wylie. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, Great Britain.
40. Ede, D.A. & S.J. Counce, 1956. A cinematographic study of the embryology of Drosophila melanogaster. Wilhelm Roux Arch. Enw Mech.Org. 149: 101-114.
41. Ehling, U.H. & A. Neuhauser-Klaus, 1988. Introduction of specific-locus mutations in female mice by 1-ethyl-1-nitrosourea and procarbazine. Mutat. Res. 202: 139-146.
42. Favor, J. & A. Neuhauser-Klaus, 1994. Genetic mosaicism in the house mouse. Amu Rev Genet 28: 27-47
43. Falconer, D.S. & P.J. Avery, 1978. Variability of chimeras and mosaics. J. Embryol. Exp. Morphol. 43: 195-219.
44. Foe, V.E. & B.M. Alberts, 1983. Studies of nuclear and cytoplasmic behavior during the five mitotic cycles that precede gastrulation in Drosophila embryo genesis. J. Cell. Sci. 61: 31-70.
45. Franchi, L.L. & A.M. Mandl, 1964. The infrastructure of germ cells in foetal and neonatal male rats. J. Embryol. Exptl. Morphol. 12: 289-308.
46. Fullilove, S.L. & A.G. Jacobson, 1978. Embryonic development: Descriptive, vol.2c, pp. 105-227 in The Genetics and Biology of Drosophila, edited by M. Ashburner and T.R.F. Wright. Academic Press, London.
47. Fritz-Niggli, H., 1966. Strahlanmutabilitat und heterogenitat mannlicher keimzellen von Drosophila vor, wahrend und nach der meiose. Biophysik. 3: 97-117.
48. Gama-Sosa, M.A., R.M. Midgett, V.A. Slagel, S. Gimens, K.C. Kuo, C.W. Gehrke & M. Ehrlich, 1983a. Tissue-specific differences in DNA methylation in various mammals. Biochim. Biophys. Acta 740(2): 212-219.
49. Gama-Sosa, M.A., R.Y. Wang. K.C. Kuo, C.W. Gehrke & M. Ehrlich, 1983b. The 5-methylcytosines content of highly repeated sequences inhuman DNA. Nucleic Acid Res. 11(10): 3087-3095.
50. Garcia-Bellido, V.A., 1964. Das Sekret der Paragonien als Stimulus der Fekunditat bei Weibdhen von Drosophila melanogaster. Z. Naturforschg. 19b: 491-495.
51. Gardner, R.L., M.F. Lyon, E.P. Evans & M.D. Burtenshaw, 1985. Clonal analysis of X-chromosome inactivation and the origin of the germ line in the mouse embryo. J. Embryol. Exptl. Morphol. 88: 349-363.
52. Gardner, R.L. & J. Rossant, 1979. Investigation of the fate of 4.5 day post-coitum mouse inner cell mass cells by blastocyst injection. J. Embryol. Exptl. Morphol. 52: 141-152.
53. Ginsburg, M., M.H .L. Snow & A. McLauren, 1990. Primordial germ cells in the mouse embryo during gastrulat ion. Development 110: 521-528.
54. Handyside, A.H., 1981. Immunofluorescence techniques for determining the number of inner and outer blastomeres inmousemorulae. J. Reprod. Immunol. 2: 339-350
55. Handyside, A.H. & S. Hunter, 1986. Cell division and death in the mouse blastocyst before implantation. Roux's Arch. Dev. Biol. 195: 519-526.
56. Hannah-Alava, A., 1965. The premeiotic stages of spermatogenesis. Advan. Genet. 13: 157-226.
57. Hay, B., L. Ackerman, S. Barbel, L.Y. Jan & Y.N. Jan, 1988.Identificication of a component of Drosophila polar granules. Development 103: 625-640.
58. Hilscher, B., W. Hilscher, B. Bulthoff-Ohnolz, U. Kramer, A. Birke, H. Pelzer & G. Gauss, 1974. Kinetics of gametogenesis. I. Comparative histological and autoradio graphic studies of oocytes and transitional prospermato gonia during oogenesis and prespermatogenesis. Cell Tiss. Res. 154: 443-470.
59. Howlett, S.K. & W. Reik, 1991. Methylation levels of maternal and paternal genomes during pre implant at ion development. Development 113: 119-127
60. Huai, H. & R.C. Woodruff, 1997. Clusters of identical new mutations can account for the 'overdispersed' molecular clock. Genetics, in press.
61. Huckins, C. & E.F. Oakberg, 1978. Morphological and quantitative analysis of permatogonia in mouse testes using whole mounted seminiferous tubules. Anat. Rec. 192: 519-528.
62. Huettner, A.F., 1930. The spermatogenesis of Drosophila melanogaster. Z. Zellforsch. Mikrosk. Anat. 11: 615-637.
63. Jenkins, J.B., 1967. Mutagaenesis at a complex locus in Drosophila with the mono functional alkylating agent, ethyl methanesulfonate. Genetics 57: 783-793.
64. Johnson, F.M., G.T. Roberts, R.K. Sharma, F. Chasalow, R. Zweidinger, A. Morgan, R.W. Hendren & S.E. Lewis, 1981. The detection of mutants in mice by electrolysis: results of a del induction experiment with procarbazine. In Genetics, by The Genetics Society of America, Austin, Texas
65. Kafri, T., M. Ariel, M. Brandeis, R. Shemer, L. Urven, J. McCarrey, H. Cedar & A. Razin, 1992. Developmental pattern of genespecific DNA methylation in the mouse embryo and germ line. Genes and Dev 6: 705-714.
66. Kale, P.G. & J.W. Baum, 1983. Sensitivity of Drosophila melanogaster to low concentrations of gaseous mutagens. IV. Mutations in embryonic spermatogonia. Mutat. Res. 113: 135-143.
67. Kerkis, J., 1933. The growth of the gonads in Drosophila melanogaster. Genetics 16: 12-224.
68. King, R.C., 1975. The cell cycle and cell differentiation in the Drosophila ovary. Res. Prob. Cell Diff. 7: 85-109.
69. King, R.C., 1970. In, Ovarian Development in Drosophila melanogaster, p. 227. Academic Press, New York.
70. Lawson, K.A. & W.J. Hege, 1993. Clonal analysis of the origin of primordial germ cells in the mouse, pp. 68-91 in Germline Development edited by J. Marsh & J. Goode. Ciba Foundation Symposium 182.
71. Lee, W.R., 1976. Chemical mutagenesis, pp. 1299-1341 in The Genetics and Biology of Drosophila, edited by M. Ashburner and N. Novitski. Academic Press.
72. Lee, W.R., C.J. Kirby & C.W. Debney, 1967. The relation of germ line mosaicism to somatic mosaicism in Drosophila. Genetics 55: 619-634.
73. Lee, W.R., G.A. Sega & J.B. Bishop, 1970. Chemically indaced mutations observedas mosaics in Drosophila melanogaster. Mutat. Res. 9: 323-336.
74. Lee, W.R., D.T. Beranek, J.B. Bjrne & A.B. Tucker, 1990. Comparison of dose-response relationship for ethyl methanesulfonate and l-ethyl-1-nitrosourea in Drosophila melanogaster spermatozoa. Mutat. Res. 231: 31-45.
75. Lindsley, D.L. & K.T. Tokuyasu, 1980. Spermatogenesis, pp. 225-294 in The Genetics and Biology of Drosophila, V2d., eited by M. Ashburner and T.R.F. Wright. Academic Press, New York.
76. Locechler, E.L., C.L. Green & J.M. Essigmann, 1984. In vivo mutagenesis by O6-methylguanine built into a unique site in a viral genome. Proc. Nat. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. 81: 6271-6275.
77. Luthardt, F.W. & R.P. Donahue, 1973. Pronuclear DNA synthesis in mouse eggs: An autoradiographic study. Exp. Cell Res. 82: 143-151.
78. Lyon, M.F., R.J. Phillips & G. Fisher, 1979. Dose-response curves for radiation-induced gene mutation in mouse oocytes and their interpretation. Mutat. Res. 63: 161-173.
79. Mahowald, A.P. & M.P. Kambysellis, 1980. Oogenesis, pp. 141-224 in The Genetics and Biology of Drosophila, V2d., edited by M. Ashburner and T.R.F. Wright. Academic Press, New York.
80. Mason, J.M., C.S. Aaron, W.R. Lee, P.D. Smith, A. Thakar, R. Valencia, R.C. Woodruff, F.E. Wurgler & S. Zimmering, 1987. A guide for performing germ cell mutagenesis assays using Drosophila melanogaster. Mutat. Res. 189: 93-102.
81. McCarrey, J.R., 1992. Development of the germ cell, p. 896 in Cell and Molecular Biology of the Testis, edited by C. Desjardins and L.L. Ewing. Oxford University Press, Oxford.
82. McCarrey, J.R. & U.K. Abbott, 1979. Mechanisms of genetic sex determination, gonadal sex differentiation, and germ-cell development in animals. Adv. Genet. 20: 217-290.
83. McLaren, A., 1976. Growth from fertilization to birth in the mouse, pp. 40 and 47-57 in Embryogenesis in Mammals, Ciba Foundation Symposium. Elsivier, North Holland, Amsterdam.
84. McMahon, A., M. Fosten & M. Monk, 1981. Random X-chromosome inactivation in male primordial germ cells in the mouse. J. Embryol. Exptl. Morphol. 64: 251-258.
85. McMahon, A., M. Posten & M. Monk, 1983. X-chromosome inactivationmosaicism in The three germ layers and the germ line of the mouse embryo. J. Embryol. Exptl. Morphol. 74: 207-220.
86. Meistrich, M.L. & M.E.A.B. van Beek, 1992. Sperm at ogonial stem celk. p. 896 in Cell and Molecular Biology of the Testis, edited by C. Desjardins and L.L. Ewing. Oxford University Press, Oxford.
87. Mintz, B., 1959. Continuity of the female germ cell line from embryo to adult. Arch. Anat. micr. Morph. exp. 48: 155-172.
88. Mintz, B., 1964. Synthetic processes and early development in the mammalian egg. J. Exp. Zool. 157: 85-100.
89. Mintz, B. & E.S. Russell, 1957. Gene-induced embryological modifications of primordial germ cells in the mouse. J. Exp. Zool. 134: 207-237.
90. Mohrenweiser, H.W. & I.M. Jones, 1990. Review of the molecular characteristics of gene mutations of the germline and somatic cells of the human. Mutation Res. 231: 87-108.
91. Mohrenweiser, H.W. & B. Zingg, 1995. Mosaicism: The embryo as a target for induction of mutations leading to cancer and genetic disease. Environ Mol Mutagen 25 (suppl 26): 21-29.
92. Monesi, V., 1962. Autoradio graphic study of DNA synthesis and the cell cycle in spermatogonia and spermatocytes of mouse testes using Tritiated thymidine. J. Cell Biol. 14: 1-18.
93. Monk, M & M.I. Harper. 1979. Sequential X chromosome inactivation coupled with cellular differentiation in early mouse embryos. Nature 281: 311-313.
94. Monk, M. & A. McLaren. 1981. X-chromosome activity in foetal germ cells of the mouse. J. Embryol. Exptl. Morphol. 63: 75-84.
95. Monk, M., M. Boubelik & S. Lehnert. 1987. Temporal and regional changes in DNA methylation in the embryonic, extraembryonic and germ cell lineagesduring mouse embryo development. Dev. 99: 371-382.
96. Muller, H.J., 1954a. The nature of the genetic effects produced by radiation, pp. 351-473 in Radiation Biology, edited by A. Hollaender. McGraw-Hill, N.Y.
97. Muller, H.J., 1954b. The manner of production of mutations by radiation, pp. 475-626 in Radiation Biology, edited by A. Hollaender. McGraw-Hill, N.Y.
98. Muller, H.J., I.I. Oster & S. Zimmering, 1963. Are chronic and acute gamma irradiation equally mutagenic in Drosophil? pp. 275-311 in Repair from Genetic Radiation Damage, edited by F.H. Sobels. MacMillan, N.Y.
99. Nebel, B.R., A.B. Amrose & E.M. Hackett, 1961. Calendar of gametogenic development in the prepuberalmale mouse. Science 134: 832-833.
100. Oakberg, E.F., 1956. Duration of spermatogenes is in the mouse and timing of stages of the cycle of the seminiferous epithelium. Am. J. Anat. 99: 507-516.
101. Oakberg, E.F. & C. Huckins, 1976. Spermatogonial stem cell renewal in the mouse as revealed by 3H-thymidine labeling and irradiation, pp. 287-302 in Stem Cells of Renewing Cell Populations, edited by A.B. Cairnie, P. Lala and D.G. Osmond. Academic Press, New York.
102. Painter, T.S., 1940. On the synthesis of cleavage chromosomes. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 26: 95-100. Patterson, J.T. & W. Stone, 1938. Gynandromorphs in Drosophila melanogaster. Univ. Texas Publication 3825.
103. Painter, T.S., 1940. On the synthesis of cleavage chromosomes. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 26: 95-100. Patterson, J.T. & W. Stone, 1938. Gynandromorphs in Drosophila melanogaster. Univ. Texas Publication 3825.
104. Pesce, M. & M. De Felici, 1995. Rapid Communication, Purification of mouse primordial germ cells my mini MACS magnetic separation system. Develop. Biol. 170) 722-725.
105. Peters, H., 1970. Migration of gonocytes into the mammalian gonad and their differentiation. Phil. Trans. Roy. Soc. Lond.B. 259: 91-101.
106. Poirie, M., E. Niederer & M. Steinmann-Zwicky, 1995. A sex-specific number of germ cells in embryonicgonads of Drosophila. Development 121: 1865-1873.
107. Pontecorvo, G., 1944. Synchronous mitoses and differentiation, sheltering the germ Track. Dros. Inf. Serv. 18: 54-55.
108. Poodry, C.A., 1980. Imaginai disk, Morphology and development pp. 407-441 in The Genetics and Biology of Drosophila, edited by M. Ashburner and T.R.F. Wright.
109. Rabinowitz, M., 1941. Studies on the cytology and early embryology of the egg of Drosophila melanogaster. J. Morphol. 69: 1-49.
110. Rinehart, R.R. & W.R. Lee, 1972. The relative frequency of induced mutations recovered from Drosophila melanogaster gametogenic stages irradiated at different dose rates. Mutat. Res. 14: 287-297.
111. Robertson, C.W., 1936. The metamorphosis of Drosophila melanogaster, including an accurately timed account of the principalmorphological changes. J. Morphol. 59: 351-399.
112. Roosen-Runge, B.C. & J. Leik, 1968. Gonocyte degeneration in the postnatal male rat. Am. J. Anat. 122: 275-300.
113. Russell, L.B., 1964. Genetic and functional mosaicism inthemouse, pp. 153-181 in The Role of Chromosomes in Development edited by M. Locke. Academic Press, New York.
114. Russell, L.B., 1996. Mutation clusters in specific-locus experiments. Environ Mol Mutagen 27 (suppl 27):58
115. Russell L.B., J.W. Bantam, K.F. Stelzner & P.R. Hunsicker, 1988. High frequency of mosaic mutants produced by N-ethyl-N-nitrosourea exposure of mouse zygotes. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 85: 9167-9170.
116. Russell, L.B. & W. L. Russell, 1992. Frequency and nature of specific-locus mutations induced in female mice by radiations and chemicals, areview. Mutat. Res. 296: 107-127.
117. Russell, L.B. & W.L. Russell, 1996. Spontaneous mutations recovered as mosaics in the mouse specific-locus test. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 93: 13072-13077.
118. Russell W.L., 1965. Studi es in mammalian radiation genetics. Nucleonics 23: 53-56
119. Russell, W.L., L.B Russell & E.M. Kelly, 1958. Radiation dose rate and mutation frequency. Science 128: 1546-1549.
120. Sanford J., L. Forrester, V.M. Chapman, A. Chandley & N. Hastie, 1984. Methylation patterns of repetitive DNA sequences in germ cells of Mus musculus. Nucleic Acids Res 12(6): 2823-2836.
121. Sanford J.P., H.J. Clark, V.M. Chapman & J. Rossant, 1987. Differences in DNA methylation daring oogenesis and sperm atogenesis and their persistence during early embryogenesis in the mouse. Genes Devel. 1: 1039-1046.
122. Sankaranarayanan, K. & F. Sobels, 1976. Radiation genetics, vol. 1e pp. 1090-1250 in The Genetics and Biology of Drosophila, edited by M. Ashburner and E. Novitski. Academic Press, London
123. Savatier, P., G. Trabuchet, C. Faure', Y. Chebloure', M. Gouy, G. Verdier & V.M. Nigon, 1985. Evolution of the primate beta-glob in gene region. High rate of variation in CpG dinucleotides and in short repeated sequences between man and chimpanzee. J. Mol. Biol. 182: 21-29.
124. Schalet, A., 1986. The distribution of and complementation relationships between spontaneous X-linked recessive lethal mutations recovered from crossing long-term lab oratory stocks of Drosophila melanogaster. Mutat. Res. 163: 115-144.
125. Schalet, A., 1960. A study of spontaneous visible mutations in Drosophila melanogaster. Ph.D. Thesis, Bloom ington, Indiana.
126. Searle, A.G. & R.J.S. Phillips, 1971. Themutagenic effectiveness of fast neutrons in male and female mice. Mutat. Res. 11: 97-105.
127. Sega, G.A., J.G. Owens & R.B. Cumming, 1976. Studies on DNA repair in early spermatid stages of male mice after in vivo Treatment with methyl-, ethyl-, propyL,and isopropyl methanesulfonate. Mutat. Res. 36: 193-212.
128. Selby, P.B., 1973a. X-ray induced sped fie-locus mutation rate in newborn male mice. Mutat. Res. 18: 63-75.
129. Selby, P.B., 1973b. X-ray induced specific-locus mutation rates in young male mice. Mutat. Res. 18: 77-88.
130. Selby, P.B., 1996. The doubling dose for radiation, or for any other mutagen, is actually several times larger than has been previously thought if it is based on specific-locus mutation frequencies in mice. Environ. Mol. Mutagen. 27 (suppl 27): 61.
131. Sirlin, J.L. & R.G. Edwards. 1959. Timing of DNA synthesis in ovarian oocyte nuclei and pronuclei of the mouse. Exp. Cell Res. 18: 190-194.
132. Slack, J.M.W., 1983. From Egg to Embryo, p. 241. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge.
133. Snow, M.H.L., 1976. Embryonic growth during the immediate post-implantation period., pp. 40 and 53-66 in Embryogenesis in Mammals. Ciba Foundation Symposium., Elsevier, North Holland/Am sterdam, 40, 53-66.
134. Snow, M.H.L., 1981. Autonomous development of parts isolated from primitive streak stage mouse embryos. Is development clonal? J. Embryol. Exptl. Morphol. (suppl) 65: 269-287.
135. Snow, M.H.L. & M. Monk, 1983. Emergence and migration of mouse primordial germ celk. pp. 115-135 in Current Problems in Germ Cell Differentiation, Symposium of British Society for Developmental Biology, edited by A. Me Laren and C.C. Wylie. Cambridge University Press, Great Britain.
136. Sonnenblick, B.P., 1941. Germ cell movements and sex differentiation of the gonads in the Drosophila embryo. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 27: 484-489.
137. Sonnenblick, B.P., 1950. The early embryology of Drosophila melanogaster, pp. 62-167 in Biology of Drosophila, edited by M. Demerec. Hafner, New York/London.
138. Southin, J.L., 1966. An analysis of eight classes of somatic and gonadal mutation at the dumpy locus in Drosophila melanogaster Mutat. Res. 3: 54-65.
139. Sutcliffe, M.J. & P.S. Burgoyne, 1989. Analysis of the testes of H-Y negative XOSxrb mice suggests that the spermatogenesis gene (spy) acts during the differentiation of the Aspermatogonia. Dev. 107: 373-380.
140. Tam, P.P.L. & M.H.L. Snow, 1981. Proliferation and migration of primordial germ cells during compensatory growth in mouse embryos. J. Embryol. Exptl. Morphol. 64: 133-147.
141. Technau, G. & J.A. Campos-Ortega, 1986. Lineage analysis of transplanted individual cells in embryos of Drosophila melanogaster. Roux's Arch. Dev. Biol. 195: 489-498.
142. 1 hybrid mouse. Mutat. Res. 290: 193-200.
143. Turner, F.R. & A.P. Mahowald, 1976. Scanning electron microscopy of Drosophila embryo genesis. Develop. Biol. 50: 95-108.
144. van Beek, M.E.A.B., M.L. Meistrich & D.G. de Rooij, 1990. Probability of self-renewing of sperm atogonial stem cells incolonies, formed after fission neutron irradiation. Cell Tissue Kinet. 23: 1-16.
145. Vogel, E.W., R.L. Dusenbery & P.D. Smith, 1985. The relationship between reaction kinetics and mutagenic action of mono functional alkylating agents in higher eukaryotic systems IV. The effects of the excision-defective mei-9LI and mus(2)201DI mutants on alkylation-indaced genetic damage in Drosophila. Mutat. Res. 149: 193-207.
146. Weismann, A., 1893. The germplasm, A theory of heredity,p. 477, edited by W. Scott, London.
147. Wieschaus, E., 1978. The use of mosaics to study oogenesis in Drosophila melanogaster, pp. 23-43 in The Clonal Basis of Development edited by S. Subtelny and I.M Sussex. 6th Symp. Soc. Dev.
148. Wieschaus, E. & J. Szabad. 1979. The development and function of the female germ line in Drosophila melanogpster. a cell lineage study. Develop. Biol. 68: 29-46.
149. Williams, L.D. & B.R. Shaw, 1987. Protonated base pairs explain the ambiguous pairing properties of O6-methylguanine. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. 84: 1779-1783.
150. Woodruff, R.C., B.E. Slatko & J.N. Thompson, Jr., 1983. Factors affecting mutation rates in natural populations, pp. 37-124 in The genetics and biology of Drosophila, V3c., edited by M. Ashburner, H.L. Carson and J.N. Thompson, Jr. Academic Press, New York.
151. Woodruff, R.C., J.M. Mason, R. Valencia & S. Zimmering, 1984. Chemical mutagenesis testing in Drosophila, I. Comparison of positive and negative control data for sex-linked recessive lethal mutations and reciprocal translocations in three laboratories. Environ. Mutagen. 6: 189-202.
152. Woodruff, R.C., J.M. Mason, R. Valencia & S. Zimmering, 1985. Chemical mutagenesis testing in Drosophila vs. results of 53 coded compounds tested for the National Toxicology Program. Environ. Mutagen. 7: 677-702.
153. Woodruff R.C. & J.N. Thompson Jr., 1992. Have premeiotic clusters been overlooked in evolutionary theory? J. Evol. Biol. 5: 457-464.
154. Woodruff, R.C., H. Huai & J.N. Thompson, Jr., 1996. Clusters of identicle new mutations in the evolutionary landscape. Genetica 98: 149-160.
155. Zalokar, M. & I. Erk, 1976. Division and migration of nuclei during early embryogenesis of Drosophila melanogaster. J. Microsc. Biol. Cell 25: 97-106.
156. Zamboni, L. & H. Merchant 1973. The fine morphology of mouse primordial germ cells in extragonadal locations. Am. J. Anat. 137: 299-336.
157. Zimmerman, C.P. & D.J. Wolgemouth, 1984. Methylation of satellite sequences in mouse spermatogenic and somatic DNAs. Nucleic Acids Res 12(6): 2807-2822.