Genotypes of the human papillomavirus: Relevance to Indian field trials of the vaccine

Indian Journal of Medical Research

Volumn 130, Issue 3, 2009, Pages 247-260

  Hariharan, Indhu ^a   Radhakrishna Pillai, M ^a  

^a RAJIV GANDHI CENTRE FOR BIOTECHNOLOGY   (India)

Author keywords

Cervical cancer; HPV; HPV 16; HPV vaccine

Indexed keywords

WART VIRUS VACCINE;

CANCER SCREENING; CLINICAL TRIAL; COST EFFECTIVENESS ANALYSIS; DRUG EFFICACY; GENOTYPE; HEALTH CARE AVAILABILITY; HEALTH CARE COST; HEALTH CARE DELIVERY; HEALTH ECONOMICS; HEALTH PROGRAM; HISTOPATHOLOGY; HUMAN; HUMAN PAPILLOMAVIRUS TYPE 16; HUMAN PAPILLOMAVIRUS TYPE 18; IMMUNE RESPONSE; INDIA; NONHUMAN; PAPANICOLAOU TEST; PUBLIC HEALTH; REVIEW; TREATMENT PLANNING; UTERINE CERVIX CANCER; UTERINE CERVIX CYTOLOGY; VIRUS CARCINOGENESIS; VIRUS CLASSIFICATION; VIRUS INFECTION; WART VIRUS;

CLINICAL TRIALS AS TOPIC; FEMALE; GENOTYPE; HUMANS; INDIA; MASS SCREENING; PAPILLOMAVIRIDAE; PAPILLOMAVIRUS VACCINES; UTERINE CERVICAL NEOPLASMS;

EID: 72649084417     PISSN: 09715916     EISSN: 09715916     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: None     Document Type: Review

References (101)

1. Available from: http://www.who.int/vaccine_research/documents/816%20%20HPV%20meeting.pdf.
2. Ferlay J, Bray F, Pisani P, Parkin D. Mortality and prevalence worldwide GLOBOCAN 2002 cancer incidence. IARC Cancer Base. No. 5 version 2.0. Lyon: IARC Press; 2004.
3. Sherman ME, Wang SS, Carreon J, Devesa SS. Mortality trends for cervical squamous and adenocarcinoma in the United States. Relation to incidence and survival. Cancer 2005; 103: 1258-64.
4. Bray F, Carstensen B, Moller H, Zappa M, Zakelji MP, Lawrence G, et al. Incidence trends of adenocarcinoma of the cervix in 13 European countries. Cancer Epidemiol Biomarkers Prev 2005; 14: 2191-9.
5. International Agency for Research on Cancer. Handbooks of cancer prevention, vol 9. Cervix cancer screening. Lyon: IARC Press; 2004.
6. Nanda K, McCrory DC, Myers ER, Bastian LA, Hasselblad V, Hickey JD, et al. Accuracy of the Papanicolaou test in screening for and follow-up of cervical cytologic abnormalities: a systematic review. Ann Intern Med 2000; 132: 810-9.
7. Walboomers JM, Jacobs V, Manos MM, Bosch Fx, Kummer JA, Shah KV, et al. Human papillomavirus is a necessary cause of invasive cervical cancer worldwide. J Pathol 1999; 189: 12-9.
8. Wright Jr TC, Schiffman M. Adding a test for human papillomavirus DNA to cervical cancer screening. N Engl J Med 2003; 348: 489-90.
9. Ho GY, Bierman R, Beardsley L, Chang CJ, Burk RD. Normal history of cervicovaginal papillomavirus infection in young women. N Engl J Med 1998; 338: 423-8.
10. Snijders PJ, Steenbergen RD, Heiderman DA, Meijer CJ. HPV-mediated cervical carcinogenesis: concepts and clinical implications. J Pathol 2006; 208: 152-64.
11. Hildesheim A, Hadjimichael O, Schwartz PE, Wheeler CM, Barnes W, Lowell DM, et al. Risk factors for rapid onset cervical cancer. Am J Obstet Gynecol 1999; 180: 571-7.
12. Schwartz PE, Hadjimichael O, Lowell DM, Merino MJ, Janerich D. Rapidly progressive cervical cancer: the Connecticut experience. Am J Obstet Gynecol 1996; 175: 1105-19.
13. Einstein MH, Cruz Y, El-Awady MK, Popescu NC, DiPaolo JA, Ranst M, et al. Utilization of the human genome sequence localizes human papillomavirus type 16 DNA integrated into the TNFAIP2 gene in a fatal cervical cancer from a 39-year old woman. Clin Cancer Res 2002; 8: 549-54.
14. Stanley MA, Pett MR, Coleman N. HPV: from infection to cancer. Biochem Soc Trans 2007; 35: 1456-60.
15. Schiffman M, Castle PE. Human papillomavirus: epidemiology and public health. Arch Pathol Lab Med 2003; 127: 930-4.
16. Clifford GM, Smith JS, Plummer M, Munoz N, Franceschi S. Human papillomavirus types in invasive cervical cancer worldwide: a meta-analysis. Br J Cancer 2003; 88: 63-73.
17. Margaret S. Immune responses to human papillomavirus. Vaccine 2006; 24: 16-22.
18. Burd EM. Human papillomavirus and cervical cancer. Clin Microbiol Rev 2003; 16: 1-17.
19. Bosch F, Sanjose S, Castellsague X, Moreno V, Munoz N. Epidemiology of human papillomavirus infections and associations with cervical cancer: new opportunities for prevention. In: Campo M, editor. Papillomavirus research: From natural history to vaccines and beyond. Norfolk, England: Caister Academic Press; 2006. p. 19-40.
20. Koutsky L. Epidemiology of genital human papillomavirus infection. Am J Med 1997; 102: 3-8.
21. Parkin D, Bray F, Ferlay J, Pisani P. Global cancer statistics, 2002. CA Cancer J Clin 2005; 55: 74-108.
22. Smith HO, Tiffany MF, Qualls CR, Key CR. The rising incidence of adenocarcinoma relative to squamous cell carcinoma of the uterine cervix in the United States-a 24-year population-based study. Gynecol Oncol 2000; 78: 97-105.
23. Castellsague X, Diaz M, de Sanjose S, Munoz N, Herrero R, Franceschi S, et al. Worldwide human papillomavirus etiology of cervical adenocarcinoma and its cofactors: implications for screening and prevention. J Natl Cancer Inst 2006; 98: 303-15.
24. Wang SS, Sherman ME, Hildesheim A, Lacey JV, Devesa S. Cervical adenocarcinoma and squamous cell carcinoma incidence trends among white women and black women in the United States for 1976-2000. Cancer 2004; 100: 1035-44.
25. Kyndi M, Frederiksen K, Krüger-Kjaer S. Cervical cancer incidence in Denmark over six decades (1943-2002). Acta Obstet Gyncol Scand 2006; 85: 106-11.
26. Clavel C, Masure M, Bory JP, Putaub I, Mangeonjean C, Lorenzato M, et al. Hybrid Capture II-based human papillomavirus detection, a sensitive test to detect in routine high-grade cervical lesions: a preliminary study on 1518 women. Br J Cancer 1999; 80: 1306-11.
27. Bonnez W, Reichman RC. Papillomaviruses. In: Mandell GL, Bennett JE, Dolin R, editors. Mandell, Douglas, and Bennett's principles and practice of infectious diseases, 5th ed. Philadelphia, Pa: Churchill Livingston; 2000. p. 1630-40.
28. Bosch F, Manos MM, Munoz N, Sherman M, Jansen AM, Peto J, et al. International Biological Study on Cervical Cancer (IBSCC) Study Group. Prevalence of human papillomavirus in cervical cancer: a worldwide perspective. J Natl Cancer Inst 1995; 87: 796-802.
29. Clavel C, Masure M, Bory J, Putaud I, Mangeonjean C, Lorenzato M, et al. Human papillomavirus testing in primary screening for the detection of high-grade cervical lesions: a study of 7932 women. Br J Cancer 2001; 84: 1616-23.
30. Muñoz N, Bosch Fx, de Sanjosé S, Herrero R, Castellsagué x, Shah KV, et al. Epidemiologic classification of human papillomavirus types associated with cervical cancer. N Engl J Med 2003; 348: 518-27.
31. Severson J, Evans T, Lee P, Chan T, Arany I, Tyring S. Human papillomavirus infections: epidemiology, pathogenesis, and therapy. J Cutan Med Surg 2001; 5: 43-60.
32. Chan Y, Delius H, Halpern AL, Bernard HU. Analysis of genomic sequences of 95 papillomavirus types: uniting typing, phylogeny and taxonomy. J Virol 1995; 69: 3074-83.
33. Muñoz N, Bosch Fx, Chichareon S, Eluf-Neto J, Ngelangel C, Cáceres E, et al. A multinational case-control study on the risk of cervical cancer linked to 25 HPV types: which are the high-risk types? In: Castellsague x, Bosch Fx, de Snjosé S, Moreno V, Ribes J, editors. 18th International papillomavirus conference- program and abstracts book. Barcelona: Thau SL, 2000: 125. Available from: http:/www.hpv2000.com.
34. Gary Clifford, Silvia Franceschi, Mireia Diaz, Nubia Mũnoz, Luisa Lina Villa. HPV type-distribution in women with and without cervical neoplastic diseases. Vaccine 2006; 24: S3/26-S3/34.
35. Smith JS, Lindsay L, Hoots B, Keys J, Franceschi S, Winer R, et al. Human papillomavirus type distribution in invasive cervical cancer and high-grade cervical lesions: a meta-analysis update. Int J Cancer 2007; 121: 621-32.
36. Clifford GM, Gallus S, Herrero R, Muñoz N, Snijders PJF, Vaccarella S, et al and the IARC HPV Prevalence Surveys Study Group. Worldwide distribution of human papillomavirus types in cytologically normal women in the International Agency for Research on Cancer HPV prevalence surveys: a pooled analysis. Lancet 2005; 366: 991-8.
37. Prétet JL, Jacquard AC, Carcopino x, Monnier-Benoit S, Averous G, Soubeyrand B, et al. EDITH study group. Human papillomavirus genotype distribution in high grade cervical lesions (CIN 2/3) in France: EDITH study. Int J Cancer 2008; 122: 424-7.
38. Prétet JL, Jacquard AC, Carcopino x, Charlot JF, Bouhour D, Kantelip B, EDITH study group. Human papillomavirus (HPV) genotype distribution in invasive cervical cancers in France: EDITH study. Int J Cancer 2008; 122: 428-32.
39. Pannier-Stockman C, Segard C, Bennamar S, Gondry J, Boulanger JC, Sevestre H, et al. Prevalence of HPV genotypes determined by PCR a DNA sequencing in cervical specimens from French women with or without abnormalities. J Clin Virol 2008; 42: 353-60.
40. Antonishyn NA, Horsman GB, Kelln RA, Saggar J, Severini A. The impact of the distribution of human papillomavirus types and associated high-risk lesions in a colposcopy population for monitoring vaccine efficacy. Arch Pathol Lab Med 2008; 132: 54-60.
41. Weller SC, Stanbery LR. Estimating the population prevalence of HPV. JAMA 2007; 297: 876-8.
42. Dunne EF, Unger ER, Sternberg M, McQuillan G, Swan DC, Patel SS, et al. Prevalence of HPV infection among females in the United States. JAMA 2007; 297: 813-9.
43. Beerens E, Van Renterghem L, Praet M, Sturtewagen Y, Weyers S, Temmerman M, et al. Human papillomavirus DNA detection in women with primary abnormal cytology of the cervix: prevalence and distribution of HPV genotypes. Cytopathology 2005; 16: 199-205.
44. Rassu M, Bertolini G, Mengoli C, Peron A, Benedetti P, Palu G. HpV genotype prevalence in cervical specimens with abnormal cytology: a report from North-East Italy. Scand J Infect Dis 2005; 37: 476-81.
45. Clifford GM, Rana RK, Franceschi S, Smith JS, Gough G, Pimenta JM. Human papillomavirus genotype distribution in low-grade cervical lesions: comparison by geographic region and with cervical cancer. Cancer Epidemiol Biomarkers Prev 2005; 14: 1157-64.
46. Camara GN, Cerqueira DM, Oliveira AP, Silva EO, Carvalho LG, Martins CR. Prevalence of human papillomavirus types inwomen with pre-neoplastic and neoplastic cervical lesions in the Federal District of Brazil. Mem Inst Oswaldo Cruz 2003; 98: 879-83.
47. Lin H, Ma YY, Moh JS, Ou YC, Shen SY, Chang Chien CC. High prevalence of genital human papillomavirus type 52 and 58 infection in women attending gynaecologic practitioners in South Taiwan. Gynecol Oncol 2006: 101: 40-5.
48. Sowjanya PA, Jain M, Poli UR, Padma S, Das M, Shah KV, et al. Prevalence and distribution of high-risk human papilloma virus (HPV) types in invasive squamous cell carcinoma of the cervix and in normal women in Andhra Pradesh, India. BMC Infect Dis 2005; 5: 116. Available from: http://www.biomedcentral.com/1471-2334/5/116.
49. Franceschi S, Rajkumar R, Snijders PJF, Arslan A, Mahe C, Plummer M. Papillomavirus infection in rural women in Southern India. Br J Cancer 2005; 92: 601-6.
50. Travasso CM, Anand M, Samarth M, Deshpande A, Sinha CK. Human papillomavirus genotyping by multiplex pyrosequencing in cervical cancer patients from India. J Biosci 2008; 33: 73-80.
51. Gilham C, Varghese C, Gibson I, Peto J. HPV infection in a population-based cohort study in Kerala, India. 23rd International Papillomavirus Conference & Clinical Workhop; September 1-7, 2006. Prague. Czech Republic.
52. Peedicayil A, Abraham P, Sathish N, John S, Shah K, Sridharan G, et al. Human papillomavirus genotypes in tissue with cervical neoplasia in India. Int J Gynecol Cancer 2006; 16: 1591-5.
53. Datta P, Patro RK, Bhatla N, Singh N. Prevalence of human papillomavirus (HPV) infection in a cohort of young women in Delhi, India. Available from: fasebj.org/cgi/content/meeting_abstract.
54. Bhatla N, Dar L, Rajkumar PA, Kriplani A, Gulati A, Verma K. Human papillomavirus type distribution in cervical cancer in Delhi, India. Int J Gynecol Pathol 2006; 25: 398-402.
55. Kirnbauer R, Hubbert NL, Wheeler CM, Becker TM, Lowy DR, Schiller JT. A virus-like particle enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay detects serum antibodies in a majority of women infected with human papillomavirus type 16. J Natl Cancer Inst 1994; 86: 494-9.
56. Wikström A, van Doornum GJJ, Quint WGV, Schiller JT, Dillner J. Identification of human papillomavirus seroconversions. J Gen Virol 1995; 76: 529-39.
57. Carter JJ, Wipf GC, Hagensee ME, McKnight B, Habel LA, Lee SK, et al. Use of human papillomavirus type 6 capsids to detect antibodies in people with genital warts. J Infect Dis 1995; 172: 11-8.
58. Villa LL, Costa RLR, Petta CA, Andrade RP, Ault KA, Giuliano AR, et al. Prophylactic quadrivalent human papillomavirus (types 6, 11 16 and 18) L1 virus-like particle vaccine in young women: a randomised double-blind placebo-controlled multicentre phase II efficacy trial. Lancet Oncol 2005; 6: 271-8.
59. Kreider JW, Bartlett GL. The Shope papilloma-carcinoma complex of rabbits: a model system of neoplastic progression and spontaneous regression. Adv Cancer Res 1981; 35: 81-110.
60. Suzich JA, Ghim SJ, Palmer-Hill FJ, White WI, Tamura JK, Bell JA, et al. Systemic immunization with papillomavirus L1 protein completely prevents the development of viral mucosal papillomas. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 1995; 92: 11553-7.
61. Dillner J. The serological response to papillomaviruses. Semin Cancer Biol 1999; 9: 423-30.
62. Kirnbauer R. Papillomavirus-like particles for serology and vaccine development. Intervirology 1996; 39: 54-61.
63. Hilleman MR. Overview of vaccinology with special reference to papillomavirus vaccines. J Clin Virol 2000; 19: 79-90.
64. Ault KA, Giuliano AR, Edwards RP, Tamms G, Kim LL, Smith JF, et al. A phase I study to evaluate a human papillomavirus (HPV) type 18 L1 VLP vaccine. Vaccine 2004; 22: 3004-7.
65. Fife KH, Wheeler CM, Koutsky LA, Barr E, Brown DR, Schiff MA, et al. Dose-ranging studies of the safety and immunogenicity of human papillomavirus Type 11 and Type 16 virus-like particle candidate vaccines in young healthy women. Vaccine 2004; 22: 2943-52.
66. Harper DM, Franco EL, Wheeler C, Ferris DG, Jenkins D, Schuind A, et al. Efficacy of a bivalent L1 virus-like particle vaccine in prevention of infection with human papillomavirus types 16 and 18 in young women: a randomised controlled trial. Lancet 2004; 364: 1757-65.
67. Harper DM, Franco EL, Wheeler CM, Moscicki AB, Romanowski B, Roteli-Martins CM, et al. on behalf of the HPV Vaccine Study group. Sustained efficacy up to 4-5 years of a bivalent L1 virus-like particle vaccine against human Papillomavirus types 16 and 18: follow-up from a randomized control trial. Lancet 2006; 367: 1247-55.
68. Stanley M, Lowy DR, Frazer I. Chapter 12: prophylactic HPV vaccines: underlying mechanisms. Vaccine 2006; 24 (Suppl 3): S106-13.
69. Gardasil®. Merck & Co., Inc, Whitehouse Station, NJ 08889, USA. Prescribing information; 2007.
70. Villa LL, Costa RLR, Petta CA, Andrade RP, Paavonen J, Iversen O-E, et al. High sustained efficacy of a prophylactic quadrivalent human papillomavirus types 6/11/16/18 L1 virus-like particle vaccine through 5 years of follow-up. Br J Cancer 2006; 95: 1459-66.
71. Future II Study Group. Effect of prophylactic human papillomavirus L1 virus-like-particle vaccine on risk of cervical intraepithelial neoplasia grade 2, grade 3, and adenocarcinoma in situ: a combined analysis of four randomised clinical trials. Lancet 2007; 369: 1861-88.
72. Eltoum IA, Roberson J. Impact of HPV testing, HPV vaccine development, and changing screening frequency on national Pap test volume: projections from the National Health Interview Survey (NHIS). Cancer 2007; 111: 34-40.
73. Dempsey AF, Koutsky LA, Golden M. Potential impact of human papillomavirus vaccines on public STD clinic workloads and on opportunities to diagnose and treat other sexually transmitted diseases. Sex Transm Dis 2007; 34: 1-5.
74. Kohli M, Ferko N, Martin A, Franco EL, Jenkins D, Gallivan S, et al. Estimating the long-term impact of a prophylactic human papillomavirus 16/18 vaccine on the burden of cervical cancer in the UK. Br J Cancer 2007; 96: 143-50.
75. Combita AL, Touze A, Bousarghin L, Christenen ND, Coursaget P. Identification of two cross-neutralising linear epitopes within the L1 major capsid protein of human papillomaviruses. J Virol 2002; 76: 6480-6.
76. Ferenczy A, Franco EL. Prophylactic human papillomavirus vaccines: potential for sea change. Expert Rev Vaccines 2007; 6: 511-25.
77. Slupetzky K, Gambhira R, Culp TD, Shafti-Keramat S, Schellenbacher C, Christensen ND, et al. A papillomavirus-like particle (VLP) vaccine displaying HPV16 L2 epitopes induces cross-neutralizing antibodies to HPV11. Vaccine 2007; 25: 2001-10.
78. xu Y, Wang Q, Han Y, Song G, xu x. Type-specific and cross-reactive antibodies induced by human papillomavirus 31 L1/L2 virus-like particles. J Med Microbiol 2007; 56: 907-13.
79. India census 2001. Available from: http://www.censusindia.net/, accessed on September 20, 2008.
80. Conrad-Stöppler MC, Ching KH, Stöppler K, Clancy R, Schlegle, Icenogle J. Natural variants of the human papillomavirus type 16 E6 protein differ in their abilities to alter keratinocyte differentiation and to induce p53 degradation. J Virol 1996; 70: 6987-93.
81. Veress G, Szarka K, Dong xP, Gergely L, Pfister H. Functional significance of sequence variation in the E2 gene and the long control region of human papillomavirus type 16. J Gen Virol 1999; 80:1035-53.
82. Roden RB, Armstrong A, Haderer P, Christensen ND, Hubbert NL, Lowy DR, et al. Characterization of a human papillomavirus type 16 variant-dependent neutralizing epitope. J Virol 1997; 71: 6247-52.
83. White WI, Wilson SD, Palmer-Hill FJ, Woods RM, Ghim SJ, Hewitt LA, et al. Characterization of a major neutralizing epitope on human papillomavirus type 16 L1. J Virol 1999; 73: 4882-9.
84. Roden RB, Greenstone HL, Kirnbauer R, Booy FP, Jessie J, Lowy DR, et al. In vitro generation and type-specific neutralization of a human papillomavirus type 16 virion pseudotype. J Virol 1996; 70: 5875-83.
85. Pastrana DV, Vass WC, Lowy DR, Schiller JT. NHPV16 VLP vaccine induces human antibodies that neutralize divergent variants of HPV16. Virology 2001; 279: 361-9.
86. Hildesheim A, Schiffman M, Bromley C, Wacholder S, Herrero R, Rodriuez AC, et al. Human papillomavirus type 16 variants and risk of cervical cancer. J Natl Cancer Inst 2001; 93: 315-8.
87. Allen M, Kalantari MN, Pettersson YB, Hagmar BL, Johansson SB, Petterson U, et al. HLA DQ-DR haplotype and susceptibility to cervical carcinoma: indications of increased risk for development of cervical carcinoma in individuals infected with HPV18. Tissue Antigens 1996; 48: 32-7.
88. Apple RJ, Becker TM, Wheeler CM, Erlich HA. Comparison of human leukocyte antigen DR-DQ disease associations found with cervical dysplasia and invasive cervical carcinoma. J Natl Cancer Inst 1995; 87: 427-36.
89. Bontkes HJ, Duin VM, deGruijl TD, Duggan-Keen DJ, Walboomers JM, Stukart MJ, et al. HPV 16 infection and progression of cervical intraepithelial neoplasia: analysis of HLA polymorphism and HPV 16 E6 sequences variants. Int J Cancer 1998; 78: 166-71.
90. Jacobs MV, Snijders PJ, van den Brule AJ, Helmerhorst TJ, Meijer CJ, Walboomers JM, et al. A general primer P5_/GP6-mediated PCR enzyme immunoassay method for rapid detection of 14 high-risk and 6 low-risk human papillomavirus genotypes in cervical scrapings. J Clin Microbiol 1997; 35: 791-5.
91. Kleter B, Van Doorn LJ, Schrauwen L, Molijn A, Sastrowijoto S, TerSchegget J, et al. Development and clinical evaluation of a highly sensitive PCR-reverse hybridization line probe assay for detection and identification of anogenital human papillomavirus. J Clin Microbiol 1999; 37: 2508-17.
92. Quint WG V, Scholte G, Van Doorn LJ, Kleeter B, Smits PHM, Lindeman J. Comparative analysis of human papillomavirus infections in cervical scrapes and biopsy specimens by general SPF10 PCR and HPV genotyping. J Pathol 2001; 194: 51-8.
93. Woodman CB, Collins S, Winter H, Bailey A, Ellis J, Prior P, et al. Natural history of cervical human papillomavirus infection in young women: a longitudinal cohort study. Lancet 2001; 357: 1831-6.
94. Perrons C, Jelley R, Kleter B, Quint W, Brink N. Detection of persistent high risk human papillomavirus infections with hybrid capture II and SPF10/LiPA. J Clin Virol 2005; 32: 278-85.
95. Rousseau MC, Franco EL, Villa LL, Sobrinho JP, Termini L, Prado JM, et al. A cumulative case-control study of risk factor profiles for oncogenic and nononcogenic cervical human papillomavirus infections. Cancer Epidemiol Biomarkers Prev 2000; 9: 469-76.
96. Liaw KL, Hildesheim A, Burk RD, Gravitt P, Wacholder S, Manos MM, et al. A prospective study of human papillomavirus (HPV) type 16 DNA detection by polymerase chain reaction and its association with acquisition and persistence of other HPV types. J Infect Dis 2001; 183: 8-15.
97. Lipsitch M. Vaccintaion against colonizing bacteria with multiple sero types. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 1997; 94: 6571-6.
98. Lipsitch M. Bacterial vaccines and serotype replacement: lesions from Haemophilus influenzae and prospectus for Streptococus pneumoniae. Emerg Infect Dis 1999, 5: 336-45.
99. Roden R, Wu TC. How will HPV vaccines affect cervical cancer? Nature Rev Cancer 2006; 6: 753-63.
100. Koutsky LA. Ault KA, Wheeler CM, Brown DR, Barr E, Alvarez FB, et al. A controlled trial of a human papillomavirus type 16 vaccine. N Engl J Med 2002; 347: 1645-51.
101. Mao C, Koutsky LA, Ault KA, Wheeler CM, Brown DR, Wiley DJ, et al. Efficacy of human papillomavirus-16 vaccine to prevent cervical intraepithelial neoplasia: a randomized controlled trial. Gynecol Obstet 2006; 107: 18-27.