The impact and control of biofouling in marine finfish aquaculture

Advances in Marine Antifouling Coatings and Technologies

Volumn , Issue , 2009, Pages 177-221

  De Nys, R ^a   Guenther, Jana ^b  

^a JAMES COOK UNIVERSITY   (Australia)

^b NORWEGIAN UNIVERSITY OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY   (Norway)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

BIOCIDES; BIOFOULING; COATINGS; DISSOLVED OXYGEN; FISH; FISHERIES; FLOTATION; FOULING; MESH GENERATION; POPULATION STATISTICS; RESERVOIRS (WATER);

ANTIFOULING PRODUCTS; AQUACULTURE OPERATIONS; BIOFOULING CONTROL; LARGE SURFACE AREA; MECHANICAL CLEANING; MITIGATION STRATEGY; OPERATIONAL PROBLEMS; STRUCTURAL FATIGUE;

AQUACULTURE;

EID: 71649095885     PISSN: None     EISSN: None     Source Type: Book    
DOI: 10.1533/9781845696313.1.177     Document Type: Chapter

References (266)

1. Aarsnes J.V., Rudi H., Loland G. Engineering for Offshore Fish Farming. Current forces on cages, net deflection. Editor 1990, 137-152. Thomas Telford, London.
2. Ahlgren M.O. Consumption and assimilation of salmon net pen fouling debris by the red sea cucumber Parastichopus califormicus: implications for polyculture. J World Aquaculture Soc 1998, 29:133-139.
3. Aldred N., Phang I.Y., Comlan S.L., Clare A.S., Vancso G.J. The effects of a serine protease, Alcalase®, on the adhesives of barnacle cyprids (Balanus amphitrite). Biofouling 2008, 24:97-107.
4. Alzieu C. Environmental problems cause by TBT in France: assessment, regulations, prospects. Mar Environ Res 1991, 32:7-17.
5. Alzieu C. Tributyltin: case study of a chronic contaminant in the coastal environment. Ocean Coast Manage 1998, 40:23-36.
6. Alzieu C., Heral M., Thibaud Y., Dardignac M.J., Feuillet M. Influence des peintures antisalissures à base d'organostanniques sure lat calcification de la coquille de l'huître Crassostrea gigas. Revue Trav Inst Pêches Marit 1981, 45:101-116.
7. Alzieu C., Sanjuan J., Deltreil J.P., Borel M. Tin contamination in Arcachon Bay: effects on oyster shell anomalies. Mar Pollut Bull 1986, 17:494-498.
8. Andersen R.J., Luu H.A., Chen D.Z.X., Homes C.F.B., Kent M.L., Le Blanc F., Taylor F.J.R., Williams D.E. Chemical and biological evidence links microcystins to salmon netpen liver disease. Toxicon 1993, 31:1315-1325.
9. Andersson A., Kautsky L. Copper effects on reproductive stages of Baltic Sea Fucus vesiculosus. Marine Biology 1996, 125:171-176.
10. Angel D.L., Eden N., Breitstein S., Yurman A., Katz T., Spanier E. In situ biofiltration: a means to limit the dispersal of effluents from marine finfish cage aquaculture. Hydrobiologia 2002, 469:1-10.
11. Anon Rotating cage in Scottish trials. Fish Farm Int 1979, 3:14.
12. Anon How Ocean Spar solves problems of currents. Fish Farm Int 1993, 21:20.
13. Anon New machine cleans nets on the cages. Fish Farm Int 1994, 21:22.
14. Anzecc (Australian And New Zealand Environment And Conservation Council) Maritime Accidents and Pollution: Impacts on the Marine Environment from Shipping Operations 1995, 50. Paper for Public Comment, Commonwealth of Australia.
15. Balls P.W. Tributyltin (TBT) in the waters of a Scottlish sea loch arising from the use of antifoulant treated netting by salmon farms. Aquaculture 1987, 65:227-237.
16. Bell G.M., Chadwick J. Regulatory controls on biocides in the United Kingdom and restrictions on the use of triorganotin-containing antifouling products. Int Biodeter Biodegr 1994, 34:375-386.
17. Bers V., Wahl M. The influence of natural surface microtopographies on fouling. Biofouling 2004, 20:43-51.
18. Beveridge M. Cage Aquaculture 2004, 1-368. Blackwell Publishing Ltd., Oxford, UK.
19. Bhadury P., Wright P.C. Exploitation of marine algae: biogenic compounds for potential antifouling applications. Planta 2004, 219:561-578.
20. Bingaman W.W., Willingham G.L. The changing regulatory environment: EPA registration of a new marine antifoulant active ingredient. Int Biodeter Biodegr 1994, 34:387-399.
21. Blair A., Burgess W.H. Rotating, floating cage for fish culture simplifies cleaning and replacement of panels. Prog Fish-Cult 1979, 41:74-76.
22. Blair A., Campbell R., Grant P.T. A submersible fish cage that can be rotated on the surface to remove biofouling and for other purposes. Aquaculture 1982, 29:177-184.
23. Bond P.R., Brown M.T., Moate R.M., Gledhill M., Hill S.J., Nimmo M. Arrested development in Fucus spiralis (Phaeophyceae) germlings exposed to copper. European Journal of Phycology 1999, 34:513-521.
24. Boxall A.B.A., Comber S.D., Conrad A.U., Howcroft J., Zaman N. Inputs, monitoring and fate modeling of antifouling biocides in UK estuaries. Mar Pollut Bull 2000, 40:898-905.
25. Boyd C.E. Water quality management for pond fish culture. Developments in Aquaculture and Fisheries Science 1982, 318. Elsevier, Amsterdam.
26. Brady R.F., Aronson C.L. Elastomeric fluorinated polyurethane coatings for nontoxic fouling control. Biofouling 2003, 19:59-62.
27. Braithwaite R.A., Mcevoy L.A. Marine biofouling on fish farms and its remediation. Advances Marine Biol 2005, 47:215-252.
28. Braithwaite R.A., Cadavid Carrascosa M.C., Mcevoy L.A. Biofouling of salmon cage netting and the efficacy of a typical copper-based antifoulant. Aquaculture 2007, 262:219-226.
29. Bram J.B., Page H.M., Dugan J.E. Spatial and temporal variability in early successional patterns of an invertebrate assemblage at an offshore oil platform. J Exp Mar Biol Ecol 2005, 317:223-237.
30. Brooks K.M. Determination of copper loss rates from Flexgard XI™ treated nets in marine environments and evaluation of the resulting environmental risks 2000, 24. West Pender Street, Vancouver, BC.
31. Brooks K.M., Mahnken C.V.W. Interactions of Atlantic salmon in the Pacific Northwest environment. III. Accumulation of zinc and copper. Fish Res 2003, 62:295-305.
32. Bruno D.W., Ellis A.E. Histopathological effects in Atlantic salmon, Salmo salar L., attributed to the use of tributyltin antifoulant. Aquaculture 1988, 72:15-20.
33. Buchanan L. Ranching Atlantic bluefin. Sea Front 1977, 23:172-180.
34. Burgess J.G., Boyd K.G., Armstrong E., Jiang Z., Yan L., Berggren M., May U., Pisacane T., Granmo A., Adams D.R. The development of a marine natural product-based antifouling paint. Biofouling 2003, 19:197-205.
35. Bwathondi P.O.J., Ngoile M.A.K. Bivalves fouling floating cages used in aquaculture. Indian J Mar Sci 1982, 11:283-285.
36. Caillouet C.W. Rotatable cage for high-density aquaculture. Prog Fish-Cult 1972, 34.
37. Call D.K., Brooke L.T., Kent R.J., Knuth M.L., Poirier S.H., Huot J.M., Lima A.R. Arch Environ Contamin Toxicol 1987, 16:607.
38. Callow M.E. Recent Advances in Marine Biotechnology, Vol 3, Biofilms, Bioadhesion, Corrosion, and Biofouling. The status and future of biocides in marine biofouling prevention 1999, 109-126. Science Publishers, Enfield, NH. M. Fingerman, R. Nagabhushanam, M.-F. Thompson (Eds.).
39. Callow M.E., Fletcher R.L. The influence of low surface energy materials on bioadhesion - a review. Int Biodeter Biodegr 1994, 34:333-348.
40. Callow M.E., Willingham G.L. Degradation of antifouling biocides. Biofouling 1996, 10:239-249.
41. Callow M.E., Jennings A.R., Brennan A.B., Seegert C.E., Gibson A., Wilson L., Feinberg A., Baney R., Callow J.A. Microtopographic cues for settlement of zoospores of the green fouling alga Enteromorpha. Biofouling 2002, 18:237-245.
42. Carman M.L., Estes T.G., Feinberg A.W., Schumacher J.F., Wilkerson W., Wilson L.H., Callow M.E., Callow J.A., Brennan A.B. Engineered antifouling microtopographies - correlating wettability with cell attachment. Biofouling 2006, 22:11-21.
43. Caux P.Y., Scrimshaw M.D., Emmerson R.H.C., Lester J.N. Environmental fate and effects of chlorothalonil - a Canadian perspective. Crit Rev Environ Sci Technol 1996, 26:45-93.
44. Chambers L.D., Stokes K.R., Walsh F.C., Wood R.J.K. Modern approaches to marine antifouling coatings. Surface and Coatings Technology 2006, 201:3642-3652.
45. Chapman G.A. Toxicities of cadmium, copper, and zinc to four juvenile stages of chinook salmon and steelhead. Trans American Fish Soc 1978, 107:841-847.
46. Chapman G.A., Stevens D.G. Acutely lethal levels of cadmium, copper, and zinc to adult male coho salmon and steelhead. Trans American Fish Soc 1978, 107:837-840.
47. Cheah S.H., Chua T.E. A preliminary study of the tropical marine fouling organisms on floating net cages. Malaysian Nat J 1979, 33:39-48.
48. Cheah S.H., Chua T.E. The rate of encrustation of biofouling organisms on experimental floating net-cages in tropical coastal waters. Proc Symp on Coastal Aquaculture, Cochin, India, 1980. Part 2: Molluscan Culture. Mar Biol Assoc India 1983, 6:677-683.
49. Chen D.Z.X., Boland M.P., Ptak C., Smillie M.A., Klix H., Andersen R.J., Holmes C.F.B. Identification of protein phosphatase inhibitors of the microcystin class in the marine environment. Toxicon 1993, 31:1407-1414.
50. Chengxing Z. Ecology of ascidians in Daya Bay. Collections of Papers on Marine Ecology in Daya Bay 1990, 2:397-403.
51. Chopin T., Buschmann A.H., Halling C., Troel M., Kautsky N., Neori A., Kraemer G.P., Zertuche-GonzÁLez J.A., Yarish C., Neefus C. Integrating seaweeds into marine aquaculture systems: a key toward sustainability. J Phycol 2001, 37:975-986.
52. Chou C.L., Paon L.A., Moffat J.D., Zwicker B. Copper contamination and cadmium, silver, and zinc concentrations in the digestive glands of American lobster (Homarus americanus) from the Inner Bay of Fundy, Atlantic Canada. Bull-Environ Contam Toxicol 2000, 65:470-477.
53. Chou C.L., Haya K., Paon L.A., Moffat J.D. Metals in the green sea urchin (Strongylocentrotus droebachiensis) as an indicator for the near-field effects of chemical wastes from salmon aquaculture sites in New Brunswick, Canada. Bull Environ Contam Toxicol 2003, 70:948-956.
54. Chua T.E., Teng S.K. Floating fish pens for rearing fishes in coastal waters, reservoirs and mining pools in Malaysia. Fish Bull Minist Agric Rural Dev (Malays) 1977, 20:36.
55. Chua T.E., Teng S.K. Economic production of estuary grouper, Epinephelus salmoides Maxwell, reared in floating net cages. Aquaculture 1980, 20:187-228.
56. Ciba-Geigy Technical Information Bulletin. Irgarol 1051 in antifouling paints 1995, Ciba-Geigy Ltd, Basel, Switzerland.
57. Claisse D., Alzieu Cl Copper contamination as a result of antifouling paint regulations?. Mar Pollut Bull 1993, 26:395-397.
58. Clare A.S. Marine natural product antifoulants: status and potential. Biofouling 1996, 9:211-229.
59. Clark A., Nowak B.F. Field investigations of amoebic gill disease in Atlantic salmon, Salmo salar L., in Tasmania. J Fish Dis 1999, 22:433-443.
60. Clarkson N., Evans L.V. Evaluation of a potential non-leaching biocide using the marine fouling diatom Amphora coffeaeformis. Biofouling 1993, 7:187-195.
61. Clarkson N., Evans L.V. Further studies investigating a potential non-leaching biocide using the marine fouling diatom Amphora coffeaeformis. Biofouling 1995, 9:17-30.
62. Conand C., Sloan N.A. Marine invertebrate fisheries: Their assessment and management. World fisheries for echinoderms 1989, 647-663. John Wiley and Sons, NY, USA. J.F. Cadey (Ed.).
63. Cook E.J., Black K.D., Sayer M.D.J., Cromey C.J., Angel D.L., Spanier E., Tsemel A., Katz T., Eden N., Karakassis I., Tsapakis M., Apostolaki E.T., Malej A. The influence of caged mariculture on the early development of sublittoral fouling communities: a pan-European study. ICES J Mar Sci 2006, 63:637-649.
64. Corner R.A., Ham D., Bron J.E., Telfer T.C. Qualitative assessment of initial biofouling on fish nets used in marine cage aquaculture. Aquac Res 2007, 38:660-663.
65. Costello M.J., Grant A., Davies I.M., Cecchini S., Papoutsoglou S., Quigley D., Saroglia M. The control of chemicals used in aquaculture in Europe. J Appl Ichthyol 2001, 17:173-180.
66. CRAB (Collective Research on Aquaculture Biofouling, EU Project COLL-CT-2003-500536-CRAB) Strategy Factsheet: Mechanical Cleaning 2004-2007, accessed June 2008. http://www.crabproject.com.
67. Crisp D.J. Marine Biodeterioration: An Interdisciplinary Study. Overview of research on marine invertebrate larvae, 1940-1980 1984, 103-126. Naval Institute Press, Maryland. J.D. Costlow, R.C. Tipper (Eds.).
68. Cronin E. Honours Thesis. An investigation into the effects of net fouling on the oxygen budget of southern bluefin tuna (Thunnus maccoyii) farms 1995, 72. University of Adelaide, South Australia.
69. Cronin E.R., Cheshire A.C., Clarke S.M., Melville A.J. An investigation into the composition, biomass and oxygen budget of the fouling community on a tuna aquaculture farm. Biofouling 1999, 13:279-299.
70. Dahl B., Blanck H. Toxic effects of the antifouling agent Irgarol 1051 on periphyton communities in coastal water microcosm. Mar Pollut Bull 1996, 32:342-350.
71. Dahlström M., Elwing H. Adrenoceptor and pharmacoactive compounds as putative antifoulants. Mar Mol Biotech 2006, 42:171-202.
72. Davies I.M., Mckie J.C. Accumulation of total tin and tirbutyltin in muscle tissue of farmed Atlantic salmon. Mar Pollut Bull 1987, 18:405-407.
73. De Nys R., Steinberg P.D. Linking marine biology and biotechnology. Curr Opin Biotechnol 2002, 13:244-248.
74. Doedens R. Mechanical cleaning of nets - Preliminary report. Proc 1992 Research and Development Review Seminar 1992, 203-206.
75. Douglas-Helders G.M., Tan C., Carson J., Nowak B.F. Effects of copper-based antifouling treatment on the presence of Neoparamoeba pemaquidensis Page, 1987 on nets and gills of reared Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar). Aquaculture 2003, 221:13-22.
76. Dubost N., Masson G., Moreteau J. Temperate freshwater fouling on floating net cages: Method of evaluation, model and composition. Aquaculture 1996, 143:303-318.
77. Edwards A., Edelston D.J. Marine fish cages - the physical environment. Proc Royal Society Edinburgh 1976, 75:207-221.
78. Edwards D.P., Nevell T.G., Plunkett B.A., Ochiltree B.C. Resistance to marine fouling of elastomeric coatings of some poly(dimethylsiloxanes) and poly (dimethyldiphenylsiloxanes). Int Biodeter Biodegrad 1994, 34:349-359.
79. Ellis D. New dangerous chemicals in the environment: Lessons from TBT. Mar Pollut Bull 1991, 22:8-10.
80. Ernst W., Doe K., Jonah P., Young J., Julien G., Hennigar P. The toxicity of chlorothalonil to aquatic fauna and the impact of its operational use on a pond ecosystem. Arch Environ Contam Toxicol 1991, 21:1-9.
81. Evans L.V. Marine algae and fouling - a review, with particular reference to ship-fouling. Botanica Mar 1981, 24:167-171.
82. Evans S.M. Tributyltin pollution: the catastrophe that never happened. Mar Pollut Bull 1999, 38:629-636.
83. Evans S.M., Birhenough A.C., Brancato M.S. The TBT ban: Out of the frying pan into the fire?. Mar Pollut Bull 2000, 40:204-211.
84. FAO The state of world fisheries and aquaculture, Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations 2008, Data for 2006 accessed March 2009.
85. Ferrer I., Barcelo D. Simultaneous determination of antifouling herbicides in marina water samples by on-line SPE followed by LC/MS. J Chromatog A 1999, 854:197-206.
86. Fredheim A. Current forces on net structures. PhD Thesis 2005, Department of Marine Technology, Norwegian University of Science and Technology, Trondheim, Norway.
87. French M.S., Evans L.V., Dalley R. Raft trial experiment on leaching from antifouling paints. Trans Ins Mar Eng 1984, 97:127-130.
88. Fukuda H. Report of an investigation on environmental parameters in relation to fish farming 1965, 1-32. Tokushima Prefectural Fisheries Experimental Station.
89. Fusetani N. Biofouling and antifouling. Nat Prod Rep 2004, 21:94-104.
90. Fusetani N., Clare A.S. Antifouling compounds. Mar Mol Biotech 2006, 42:225.
91. Geffen A. Rotating fish cage to prevent fouling. Aquaculture 1979, 16:83-85.
92. Genzer J., Efimenko K. Recent developments in superhydrophobic surfaces and their relevance to marine fouling: a review. Biofouling 2006, 22:339-360.
93. Gesamp (Imo/Fao/Unesco-Ioc/Wmo/Who/Iaea/Un/Unep Joint Group Of Experts On The Scientific Aspects Of Marine Environmental Protection) Reducing the environmental impacts of coastal aquaculture. Rep Stud GESAMP 1991, 47:35.
94. Giacomazzi S., Cochet N. Environmental impact of diuron transformation: a review. Chemosphere 2004, 56:1021-1032.
95. Gibbs P.E., Pascoe P.L., Bryan G.W. Tributyltin-induced imposex in stenoglossan gastropods: pathological effects on the female reproductive system. Comp Biochem Physiol 1991, 100C:231-235.
96. Gormican S.J. Water circulation, dissolved oxygen, and ammonia concentrations in fish net-cages. MSc Thesis 1989, 62. University of British Columbia, Canada.
97. Gough M.A., Fothergill J., Hendrie J.D. A survey of southern England coastal waters for the s-triazine antifouling compound Irgarol 1051. Mar Pollut Bull 1994, 28:613-620.
98. Gowen R.J., Bradbury N.B. The ecological impact of salmonid farming in coastal waters: a review. Oceanogr Mar Biol Ann Rev 1987, 25:563-575.
99. Greene J.K., Grizzle R.E. Successional development of fouling communities on open ocean aquaculture fish cages in the western Gulf of Maine, USA. Aquaculture 2007, 262:289-301.
100. Greenland D.C., Newton S.H., Faucette R.F. Effects of cage encrustation by the bryozoan Plumatella casmiana on production of channel catfish. Prog Fish-Cult 1988, 50:42-45.
101. Gularte R.C., Huguenin J.E. Mesh hydrodynamic data. Design guide for use of copper alloy expanded metal mesh in marine aquaculture INCRA Project 268B 1984, 54-58. Woods Hole Engineering Associates Inc.
102. Haegele C.W., Miller D.C., Brown T.J., Mccarter P.B., Hay D.E. Availability of wild feed to salmon in aquaculture cages. Can Manuscr Rep Fish Aquat Sci 1991, 2117:38.
103. Hansen L.P., Windsor M. Interactions between aquaculture and wild stocks of Atlantic salmon and other diadromous fish species: science and management, challenges and solutions. NINA Special Report 2006, 34:74.
104. Harris L.G., Irons K.P. Artificial Substrates. Substrate angle and predation as determinants in fouling community succession 1982, 131-174. Ann Arbour Science, Michigan. J. Cairns (Ed.).
105. Hasse J. Utilisation of rabbit fishes (Siganidae) in tropical oyster culture. Prog Fish-Cult 1974, 36:160-162.
106. Hayden H.S., Blomster J., Maggs C.A., Silva P.C., Stanhope M.J., Waaland J.R. Linnaeus was right all along: Ulva and Entromorpha are not distinct genera. Eur J Phyc 2003, 38:277-294.
107. Hills J.M., Thomason J.C., Muhl J. Settlement of barnacle larvae is governed by Euclidean and not fractal surface characteristics. Funct Ecol 1999, 13:868-875.
108. Hisaoka M., Nogami K., Takeuchi O., Suzuki M., Sugimoto H. Studies on sea water exchange in fish farms - II. Exchange of sea water in floating net. Bull Naiki Regional Fisheries Research Laboratory Japan] 1966, 23:21-43.
109. Hodson S.L., Burke C. Microfouling of salmon-cage netting: A preliminary investigation. Biofouling 1994, 8:93-105.
110. Hodson S.L., Lewis T.E., Burke C.M. Biofouling of fish-cage netting: Efficacy and problems of in situ cleaning. Aquaculture 1997, 152:77-90.
111. Hodson S.L., Burke C.M., Bissett A.P. Biofouling of fish-cage netting: The efficacy of a silicone coating and the effect of netting colour. Aquaculture 2000, 184:277-290.
112. Holmström C., Kjelleberg S. Recent Advances in Marine Biotechnology, Vol 3, Biofilms, Bioadhesion, Corrosion, and Biofouling. Factors influencing the settlement of macrofoulers 1999, 147-171. Science Publishers, Enfield, NH. M. Fingerman, R. Nagabhushanam, M.-F. Thompson (Eds.).
113. Huguenin J.E. The design, operations and economics of cage culture systems. Aquaculture Engineering 1997, 16:167-203.
114. Huguenin J.E., Ansuini F. The advantages and limitations of using copper materials in marine aquaculture. Ocean '75 1975, 444-453. Marine Technology Society, Institute of Electrical and Electronic Engineers.
115. Huguenin J., Ansuini F. A review of the technology and economics of marine fish cage systems. Aquaculture 1978, 15:151-170.
116. Hume E.B.H., Baveja J., Muir B., Schubert T.L., Kumar N., Kjelleberg S., Griesser H.J., Thissen H., Read R., Poole-Warren L.A., Schindhelm K., Willcox M.D.P. The control of Staphylococcus epidermidis biofilm formation and in vivo infection rates by covalently bound furanones. Biomaterials 2004, 25:5023-5030.
117. Hunter C.J., Farr W.E. Large floating structure for holding adult Pacific salmon (Oncorhynchus sp.). J Fish Res Bd Canada 1970, 27:947-950.
118. Hunter J.A., Evans L.V. The toxicity of the biocides zineb, nabam and their derivatives to the ship-fouling diatom Amphora coffeaeformis. Biofouling 1990, 2:267-287.
119. Hunter J.A., Evans L.V. Degradation of the biocide zineb in marine culture medium. Biofouling 1991, 3:61-68.
120. Hunter J.A., Evans L.V. Raft trial experiments on antifouling paints containing zineb and copper. Biofouling 1991, 3:113-137.
121. Inoue H. On water exchange in a net cage stocked with the fish, Hamachi. Bull Jap Soc Sci Fish 1972, 38:167-176. (Abstracts and illustrations in English).
122. Isles M. Boats follow industry in Tasmania. Fish Farm Int 1998, 25(5):36-37.
123. Jacobson A.H., Willingham G.L. Sea-nine antifoulants: an environmentally acceptable alternative to organotin antifoulants. Sci Total Environ 2000, 258:103-110.
124. Julian M.H. The roles and responsibilities of the International Maritime Organisation's Marine Environment Protection Committee. 10th International Congress on Marine Corrosion and Fouling 1999, Melbourne, Australia.
125. Kadowaki S., Kasedo T., Nakazono T. Continuous records of DO contents by cruising in the coastal culture farms. 1. Relation between DO content and fish density in cages. Mem Fac Fish Kagoshima Univ 1978, 27:273-289. (translated manuscript from Can Transl Fish Aquat Sci, 1985, no. 5189).
126. Karlsson J., Eklund B. New biocide-free anti-fouling paints are toxic. Mar Pollut Bull 2004, 49:456-464.
127. Kennedy W.A., Griffioen W., Solmie A. The 1976 crop of salmon reared on the Pacific Biological Station experimental fish farm. Mar Fish Serv Tech Rep 1977, 726:21.
128. Kent M.L. Netpen liver disease (NLD) of salmonid fishes reared in sea water: species susceptibility, recovery and probable cause. Dis Aquat Org 1990, 8:21-28.
129. Kent M.L. Marine netpen farming leads to infections with some unusual parasites. Int J Parasitol 2000, 30:321-326.
130. Kent M.L., Sawyer T.K., Hedrick R.P. Paramoeba pemaquidensis (Sarcomastigophora: Paramoebidae) infestation of the gills of coho salmon Oncorhynchus kisutch reared in sea water. Dis Aquat Org 1988, 5:163-169.
131. Kent M.L., Margolis L., Fournie J.W. A new eye disease in pen-reared Chinook salmon causes by metacestodes of Gilquinia squali (Trypanorhyncha). J Aquatic Animal Health 1991, 3:134-140.
132. Kent M.L., Whyte J.N.C., Latrace C. Gill lesions and mortality in seawater pen-reared Atlantic salmon Salmo salar associated with a dense bloom of Skeletonema costatum and Thalassiosirea species. Dis Aquat Org 1995, 22:77-81.
133. Kent M.L., Dawe S.C., St.Hilaire S., Andersen R.J. Effects of feeding rate, seawater entry and exposure to natural biota on the severity of netpen liver disease among pen-reared Atlantic salmon. Prog Fish-Cult 1996, 58:43-46.
134. Kobayashi N., Okamura H. Effects of new antifouling compounds on the development of sea urchin. Mar Pollut Bull 2002, 44:748-751.
135. Konstantinou I.K. Antifouling biocides. Hdb Env Chem 2006, 5:266. ISBN 10 3-540-31404-0, Springer-Verlag, Berlin.
136. Konstantinou I.K., Albanis T.A. Worldwide occurrence and effects of antifouling paint booster biocides in the aquatic environment: a review. Environ Internat 2004, 30:235-248.
137. Kon-Ya K., Shimidzu N., Miki W., Endo M. Indole derivatives as potent inhibitors of larval settlement by the barnacle, Balanus amphitrite. Biosci Biotechnol Biochem 1994, 58:2178-2181.
138. Koops H. Contribution to fouling-prevention of net cages in the Western Baltic Sea. Arch Fischereiwiss 1971, 22:65-67.
139. Kuwa M. Fouling organisms on floating cage of wire netting and the removal by Oplegnathus sp. cultured with other marine fish. Bull Jap Soc Sci Fish 1984, 50:1635-1640.
140. Lader P., Dempster T., Fredheim A., Jensen Ø Current induced net deformations in full-scale sea-cages for Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar). Aquacultural Engineering 2008, 38:52-65.
141. Lai H.C., Kessler A.O., Khoo L.E. Biofouling and its possible modes of control at fish farms in Penang, Malaysia. Asian Fisheries Science 1993, 6:93-116.
142. Larsen D.K., Wagner I., Gustavson K., Forbes V.E., Lund T. Long-term effect of sea-nine on natural coastal phytoplankton communities assessed by pollution induced community tolerance. Aquat Toxicol 2003, 62:35-44.
143. Lee H.B., Lim L.C., Cheong L. Observations on the use of antifouling paint in netcage fish farming in Singapore. Singapore J Primary Ind 1985, 13:1-12.
144. Leong J., Turner S. Isolation of waterborne infectious hematopoietic necrosis virus. Fish News 1979, 8:vi-viii.
145. Lewin R. Microbial adhesion is a sticky problem. Science 1984, 224:375-377.
146. Lewis A.G., Metaxas A. Concentrations of total dissolved copper in and near a copper-treated salmon net pen. Aquaculture 1991, 99:269-276.
147. Lewis T. Biofouling: problems and solutions - Proceedings of an international workshop. Impact of biofouling on the aquaculture industry 1994, 32-38. University of New South Wales, Sydney. S. Kjelleberg, P. Steinberg (Eds.).
148. Lewis J.A. Biofouling: problems and solutions - Proceedings of an international workshop. Biofouling and fouling protection: a defense perspective 1994, 39-43. University of New South Wales, Sydney. S. Kjelleberg, P. Steinberg (Eds.).
149. Li S. Freshwater Fish Culture in China: Principles and Practice. Fish culture in cages and pens 1994, 305-346. Elsevier, Amsterdam. S. Li, J. Mathias (Eds.).
150. Little B.J. Marine deterioration: an interdisciplinary study. Succession in microfouling 1984, 63-67. E and FN Spon Ltd, London. J.D. Costlow, R.C. Tipper (Eds.).
151. Littlewood D.T.J., Marsbe L.A. Predation on cultivated oysters, Crassostrea rhizophorae (Guilding), by the polyclad turbellarian flatworm, Stylochus (Stylochus) frontalis Verrill. Aquaculture 1990, 88:145-150.
152. Liu D., Pacepavicius G.J., Maguire R.J., Lau Y.L., Okamura H., Aoyama I. Survey for the occurrence of the new antifouling compound irgarol 1051 in the aquatic environment. Water Res 1999, 33:2833-2843.
153. Lim C.Y., Yoo Y.H., Sidhartan M., Ma C.W., Bang I.C., Kim J.M., Lee K.S., Park N.S., Shin H.W. Effects of copper (I) oxide on growth and biochemical compositions of two marine microalgae. Journal of Environmental Biology 2006, 27:461-466.
154. Lodeiros C., García N. The use of sea urchins to control fouling during suspended culture of bivalves. Aquaculture 2004, 231:293-298.
155. Loeb G.J., Neihof R.A. Marine conditioning films. Adv Chem Ser 1975, 145:319-335.
156. Lovdata Regulations for aquaculture operation (in Norwegian) accessed July 2008. http://www.lovdata.no/cgi-wift/ldles?doc=/sf/sf/sf-20041222-1785.html.
157. Løland G. Current forces on, and water flow through and around, floating fish farms. Aquacult Int 1993, 1:72-89.
158. Lumsden J.S., Wright P., Derksen J., Byrne P.J., Ferguson H.W. Paralysis in farmed Arctic char (Salevlinus aplinus) associated with ammonia toxicity. Vet Rec 1993, 133:422-423.
159. Mak P.M.S. 1982, Biofouling of mariculture cages in Hong Kong. PhD thesis, University of Hong Kong, pp. 534.
160. Maki J.S. Recent Advances in Marine Biotechnology, Vol 3, Biofilms, Bioadhesion, Corrosion, and Biofouling. The influence of marine microbes on biofouling 1999, 147-171. Science Publishers, Enfield, NH. M. Fingerman, R. Nagabhushanam, M.-F. Thompson (Eds.).
161. Maki J.C., Mitchell R. Encyclopedia of environmental microbiology. Biofouling in the marine environment 2002, 610-619. John Wiley and Sons, New York. G. Bitton (Ed.).
162. Mance G. Pollution Threat of Heavy Metals in Aquatic Environments 1987, Elsevier Applied Science, New York, 372.
163. Marmur A. Super-hydrophobicity fundamentals: implications to biofouling prevention. Biofouling 2006, 22:107-115.
164. Matthiessen P., Reed J., Johnson M. Sources and potential effects of copper and zinc concentrations in the estuarine waters of Essex and Suffolk, United Kingdom. Mar Pollut Bull 1999, 38:908-920.
165. Menton D.J., Allen J.H. Spherical (Kiel) and square steel cages: first year of comparative evaluations at St. Andrews, NB. Bull Aquacult Assoc Canada 1991, 91:111-113.
166. Meyers T.R. Marine bivalve molluscs as reservoirs of viral finfish pathogens: significance to marine and anadromous finfish culture. Mar Fish Rev 1984, 46(3):14-17.
167. Miller B. An assessment of sediment copper and zinc concentrations in marine caged fish farms in SEPA West region. Report from the Scottish Environmental Protection Authority March 1998, 77.
168. Milne P.H. Fish farm enclosures. 1. Marine growths on netting. World Fish 1969, 18:26-28.
169. Milne P.H. Fish farming: A guide to the design and construction of net enclosures. Marine Research, No. 1 1970, 31. Department of Agriculture and Fisheries for Scotland, HMSO, Edinburgh.
170. Milne P.H. Fouling of marine cages - Part One. Fish Farming Int 1975, 2(3):15-19.
171. Milne P.H. Fouling of marine cages - Part Two. Fish Farming Int 1975, 2(4):18-21.
172. Milne P.H. Engineering and economics of aquaculture. J Fisheries Research Board Canada 1976, 33(4):888-898.
173. Milne P.H. Advances in Aquaculture. Selection of sites and design of cages, fishpens and net enclosures for aquaculture 1979, 416-423. Fishing News Books Ltd, England. T.V.R. Pillay, W.A. Dill (Eds.).
174. Milne P.H., Powell H.T. Department of Civil Engineering Report. Preliminary report of marine fouling of fish netting test panels at Millport 1967, 14. University of Strathclyde and SMBA.
175. Milne P.H., Powell H.T. Department of Civil Engineering Report. Final report of marine fouling of fish netting test panels at Millport, Loch Sween, Loch Creran, Dunstaffnage Bay 1970, 45. University of Strathclyde and SMBA.
176. Mochida K., Ito K., Harino H., Kakuno A., Fuji K. Acute toxicity of pyrithione antifouling biocides and joint toxicity with copper to red sea bream (Pagrus major) and toy shrimp (Heptacarpus futilirostris). Environ Toxicol Chem 2006, 25:3058-3064.
177. Moller D. Advances in Aquaculture. Recent developments in cage and enclosure aquaculture in Norway 1979, 447-453. Fishing News Books, Oxford. T.V.R. Pillay, W.A. Dill (Eds.).
178. Moring J.R. Aspects of growth, and the effects of some environmental factors on pen-related Chinook salmon. Oncorhynchus tshawytscha (Walbaum), in Puget Sound 1973, 225. PhD Thesis, University of Washington, Washington.
179. Moring J.R., Moring K.A. Succession of net biofouling material and its role in the diet of pen-cultured Chinook salmon. Prog Fish-Cult 1975, 37:27-30.
180. Moss B., Marsland A. The effects of underwater scrubbing on marine fouling algae. Proceedings, International Marine and Shipping Congress 1976, 39-43.
181. Munari C., Mistri M. Effect of copper on the scope for growth of clams (Tapes philippinarum) from a farming area in the Northern Adriatic Sea. Mar Environ Res 2007, 64:347-357.
182. Navarro N., Leakey R.J.G., Black K.D. Effect of salmon cage aquaculture on the pelagic environment of temperate coastal waters: seasonal changes in nutrients and microbial community. Mar Ecol Prog Ser 2008, 361:47-58.
183. Nebeker A.V., Schuytema G.S. Chronic effects of the herbicide diuron on freshwater cladocerans, amphipods, midges, minnows, worms, and snails. Arch Environ Contam Toxicol 1998, 35:441-446.
184. Needham T. Salmon and Trout Farming. Sea water cage culture of salmonids 1988, 117-154. Ellis Horwood, Chichester. L. Laird, T. Needham (Eds.).
185. Neori A., Chopin T., Troell M., Buschmann A.H., Kraemer G.P., Halling C., Shpigel M., Yarish C. Integrated aquaculture: rationale, evolution and state of the art emphasizing seaweed biofiltration in modern mariculture. Aquaculture 2004, 231:361-391.
186. Neyts A., Sunde L.M. Inventory of infrastructure and knowledge gaps in aquaculture technology. DesignACT 2005, accessed online June 2008. http://www.designact.org.
187. Nyström B., Becker-Van Slooten K., Berard A., Grandjean D., Druart J.C., Leboulanger C. Toxic effects of Irgarol 1051 on phytoplankton and macrophytes in Lake Geneva. Water Res 2002, 36:2020-2028.
188. Okamura H., Aoyama I., Liu D., Maquire R.J., Pacepavicius G.J., Lau Y.L. Fate and ecotoxicity of the new antifouling compound Irgarol 1051 in the aquatic environment. Water Res 2000, 34:3523-3530.
189. Okamura H., Aoyama I., Takami T., Maruyama T., Suzuki Y., Matumoto M., Katsuyama I., Hamada J., Beppu T., Tanaka O., Maquire R.J., Liu D., Lau Y.L., Pacepavicius G.J. Phytotoxicity of the new antifouling compound Irgarol 1051 and a major degradation product. Mar Pollut Bull 2000, 40:754-763.
190. Okamura J., Watanabe T., Aoyama I., Hasobe M. Toxicity evaluation of new antifouling compounds using suspension-cultured fish cells. Chemosphere 2002, 46:945-951.
191. Olafsen T. Cost analysis of different antifouling strategies (in Norwegian). SINTEF Fisheries and Aquaculture 2006, 23. SFH80 A066041, ISBN 82-14-03947-9.
192. Osawa Y., Tawara Y., Taketomi H. Studies on behaviour of fish cages against flow of water. On relationship between volume of fish cages and current velocity. Bull Nat Res Inst Fish Eng (Japan) 1985, 6:297-321.
193. O'Sullivan D., Savage J. Australasia Aquaculture 2005 Trade Directory. Status of Australian Aquaculture in 2002/2003 2005, 5-23. Turtle Press, Hobart, Tasmania. T. Walker (Ed.).
194. Owen R., Knap A., Toaspern M., Carbery K. Inhibition of coral photosynthesis by the antifouling herbicide Irgarol 1051. Mar Pollut Bull 2002, 44:623-632.
195. Paclibare J.O., Evelyn T.P.T., Albright L.J., Prosperi-Porta L. Clearing of the kidney disease bacterium Renibacterium salmoninarum from seawater by the blue mussel Mytilus edulis, and the status of the mussel as a reservoir of the bacterium. Dis Aquat Org 1994, 18:129-133.
196. Pantastico J.B., Baldia J.P. An assessment of algal growth in net cages in Laguna lake. Fish Res J Phillip 1981, 6:19-25.
197. Paul J.D., Davies I.M. Effects of copper and tin-based antifoulant on the growth of cultivated scallops (Pecten maximus) and oyster (Crassostrea gigas). Aquaculture 1986, 54:191-203.
198. Peterson L.K., D'Auria J.M., Mckeown B.A., Moore K., Shum M. Copper levels in the muscle and liver tissue of farmed chinook salmon, Oncorhynchus tshawytscha. Aquaculture 1991, 99:105-115.
199. Pettitt M.E., Henry S.L., Callow M.E., Callow J.A., Clare A.S. Activity of commercial enzymes on settlement and adhesion of cypris larvae of the barnacle Ballanus amhitrite, spores of the green alga Ulva linza, and the diatom Navicula perimuta. Biofouling 2004, 20:299-311.
200. Price R.R., Patchan M., Clare A., Rittschof D., Bonaventurea J. Performance enhancement of natural antifouling compounds and their analogs through microencapsulation and controlled release. Biofouling 1992, 6:207-216.
201. Readman J.W., Kwong L.L., Grondin D., Bartocci J., Villeneuve J.P., Mee L.D. Coastal water contamination from a triazine herbicide used in antifouling paints. Environ Sci Technol 1993, 27:1940-1942.
202. Rittschof D., Clare A.S., Gerhert D.J., Bonaventura J., Smith C., Hadfield M.G. Rapid field assessment of antifouling and foul-release coatings. Biofouling 1992, 6:181-192.
203. Rittschof D. Natural product antofoulants: one perspective on the challenges related to coatings development. Biofouling 2000, 15:119-127.
204. Rittschof D., Lai C.-H., Kok L.-M., Teo S.L.-M. Pharmaceuticals as antifoulants: concepts and principles. Biofouling 2003, 19:207-212.
205. Rodger H.D., Mcardle J.F. An outbreak of amoebic gill disease in Ireland. Vet Rec 1996, 139:348-349.
206. Ross K.A., Thorpe J.P., Brand A.R. Biological control of fouling in suspended scallop cultivation. Aquaculture 2004, 229:99-116.
207. Rothwell G.N., Nash C.E. Aquaculture in Tropical Oceans, Year 01 1977, The Oceanic Institute, Hawaii, 82.
208. Ruokolahti C. Effects of fish farming on growth and chlorophyll a content of Cladophora. Mar Pollut Bull 1988, 19:166-169.
209. Sakkas V.A., Konstantinou I.K., Albanis T.A. Photochemical fate of organic booster biocides in the aquatic environment. In: Konstantinou IK (ed), Antifouling paint biocides. Hdb Env Chem 2006, 5(0):171-200.
210. Sandberg M.G., Olafsen T. Overview of laws and regulations regarding antifouling methods in fish farming. SINTEF Fisheries and Aquaculture Report SFH80 A066001 2006, 35. Trondheim, Norway.
211. Sanderson J.C., Cromey C.J., Dring M.J., Kelly M.S. Distribution of nutrients for seaweed cultivation around salmon cages at farm sites in north-west Scotland. Aquaculture 2008, 278:60-68.
212. Santhanam R., Srikrishnadhas B., Natarajan P. Fouling problems in cages and pens. Proc Natl Seminar on Cage and Pen Culture 1983, 143-147. Fisheries College, Tamil Nadu Agricultural University, Tuticorin, Tamil Nadu Agricultural University.
213. Scardino A., De Nys R., Ison O., O'Connor W., Steinberg P.D. Microtopography and antifouling properties of cell surface of the bivalve mollusks Mytilus galloprovincialis and Pinctata imbricata. Biofouling 2003, 19:221-230.
214. Scardino A.J., De Nys R. Fouling deterrence on the bivalve shell Mytilus galloprovincialis: A physical phenomenon?. Biofouling 2004, 20:249-257.
215. Scardino A.J., Harvey E., De Nys R. Testing attachment point theory: diatom attachment on microtextured polyimide biomimics. Biofouling 2006, 22:55-60.
216. Scardino A.J., Guenther J., De Nys R. Attachment point theory revisited: the fouling response to a microtextured matrix. Biofouling 2008, 24:45-53.
217. Scarlett A., Donkin P., Fileman T.W., Morris R.J. Occurrence of the antifoul-ing herbicide Irgarol 1051, within coastal-water seagrasses from Queensland, Australia. Mar Pollut Bull 1999, 38:687-691.
218. Schumacher J.F., Aldred N., Callow M.E., Finlay J.A., Callow J.A., Clare A.S., Brennan A.B. Species-specific engineered antifouling topographies: correlations between the settlement of algal zoospores and barnacle cyprids. Biofouling 2007, 23:307-317.
219. Schumacher J.F., Carman M.L., Estes T.G., Feinberg A.W., Wilson L.H., Callow M.E., Callow J.A., Finlay J.A., Brennan A.B. Engineered antifouling microtopographies - effect of feature size, geometry, and roughness on settlement of zoospores of the green alga Ulva. Biofouling 2007, 23:55-62.
220. Sharma R.N. Cage fish culture in Nepal 1979, 93-96. Tigbauan, Iloilo, Philippines, SEAFDEC.
221. Short J.W., Thrower F.P. Accumulation of butyltin in mussel of Chinook salmon reared in sea pens treated with tri-n-butyltin. Mar Pollut Bull 1986, 17:542-545.
222. Silvert W. Assessing environmental impacts of finfish aquaculture in marine waters. Aquaculture 1992, 107:67-79.
223. Silvert W. Simulation models of finfish farms. J App Ichthyology 1994, 10:349-352.
224. Skolbekken R. Fish farming 2005 2007, Statistics Norway, Oslo.
225. Solberg C.B., Saethre L., Julshamn K. The effect of copper-treated net pens on farmed salmon (Salmo salar) and other marine organisms and sediments. Mar Pollut Bull 2002, 45:126-132.
226. Sorensen E.M. Metal Poisoning in Fish 1991, CRC Press, Boca Raton, Florida.
227. Sunde L.M., Heide M.A., Hagen N., Fredheim A., Forås E., Prestvik Ø Review on technology in the Norwegian aquaculture industry. SINTEF Fisheries and Aquaculture Report STF 80 A034002 2003, 32. Trondheim, Norway.
228. Sutterlin A.M., Merrill S.P. Norwegian salmonid farming. Tech Report Fisheries Marine Services of Canada 1978, 779:47.
229. Svane I., Cheshire A., Barnett J. Test of an antifouling treatment on tuna fish-cages in Boston Bay, Port Lincoln, South Australia. Biofouling 2006, 22:209-219.
230. Swain G.W., Griffith J.R., Bultman J.D., Vincent H.L. The use of barnacle adhesion measurement for the field evaluation of non-toxic foul release surfaces. Biofouling 1992, 6:105-114.
231. Swain G., Herpe S., Ralston E., Tribou M. Short term testing of antifouling surfaces: the importance of colour. Biofouling 2006, 22:425-429.
232. Swift M.R., Fredriksson D.W., Unrein A., Fullerton B., Patursson O., Baldwin K. Drag force acting on biofouled net panels. Aquacult Eng 2006, 35:292-299.
233. Swingle W.E. Alabama's marine cage culture studies. Proceedings of the Third Annual Workshop, World Mariculture Society 1972, 3:75-81.
234. Tan C.K., Nowak B.F., Hodson S.L. Biofouling as a reservoir of Neoparamoeba pemaquidensis (Page, 1970), the causative agent of amoebic gill disease in Atlantic salmon. Aquaculture 2002, 210:49-58.
235. Terlizzi A., Conte E., Zupo V., Mazzella L. Biological succession on silicone fouling release surfaces: long term exposure tests in the harbour of Ischia, Italy. Biofouling 2000, 15:327-342.
236. Terlizzi A., Fraschetti S., Gianguzza P., Faimali M., Boero F. Environmental impact of antifouling technologies: state of the art and perspectives. Aquatic Conserv Mar Freshw Ecosyst 2001, 11:311-317.
237. Thomas K.V. determination of selected antifouling paint booster biocides by high performance liquid chromatography-atmospheric pressure chemical ionization mass spectrometry. J Chromatog A 1998, 825:153-158.
238. Thomas K.V. The environmental fate and behaviour of antifouling paint booster biocides: a review. Biofouling 2001, 17:73-86.
239. Thomas K.V., Benstead R.E., Thain J.E., Waldock M.J. Toxicity characterization of organic contaminants in industrialized UK estuaries and coastal waters. Mar Pollut Bull 1999, 38:925-932.
240. Thomas K.V., Blake S.J., Waldock M.J. Antifouling paint booster biocide contamination in UK marine sediments. Mar Pollut Bull 2000, 40:739-745.
241. Thomas K.V., Fileman T.W., Readman J.W., Waldock M.J. Antifouling paint booster biocides in the UK coastal environment and potential risks of biological effects. Mar Pollut Bull 2001, 42:677-688.
242. Thomas K.V., Mchugh M., Waldock M. Antifouling paint booster biocides in UK coastal waters: Inputs, occurrence and environmental fate. Sci Total Environ 2002, 293:117-127.
243. Thomas K.V., Mchugh M., Hilton M., Waldock M. Increased persistence of antifouling paint biocides when associated with paint particles. Environ Pollut 2003, 123:153-161.
244. Tolosa I., Readman J.W., Blaevoet A., Chilini S., Bartocci J., Horvat M. Contamination of Mediterranean (Cote d'Azur) coastal waters by organotins and Irgarol 1051 used in antifouling paints. Mar Pollut Bull 1996, 32:335-341.
245. Tomi W., Naiki K., Yamada Y. Investigations into technical development of mariculture on commercial scale applied to offshore region. Proceedings of the Japan-Soviet Joint Symposium on Aquaculture 1979, 7:111-120.
246. Tóth S., Becker-Van Slooten K., Spack L., De Alencastro L.F., Tarradellas J. Irgarol 1051, an antifouling compound in freshwater sediment, and biota of Lake Geneva. Bull Environ Contam Toxicol 1996, 57:426-433.
247. Tseng W.Y., Yuen K.H. Studies on fouling organisms on mariculture nets and cages in Hong Kong. Proc Aquatic Environment in Pacific Region 1979, 151-159. Taipei, China.
248. Turley P.A., Fenn R.J., Ritter J.C. Pyrithiones as antifoulants: Environmental chemistry and preliminary risk assessment. Biofouling 2000, 15:175-182.
249. Turley P.A., Fenn R.J., Ritter J.C., Callow M.E. Pyrithiones as antifoulants: Environmental fate and loss of toxicity. Biofouling 2005, 21:31-40.
250. Voulvoulis N., Scrimshaw M.D., Lester J.N. Alternative antifouling biocides. Appl Organomet Chem 1999, 13:135-143.
251. Voulvoulis N., Scrimshaw M.D., Lester J.N. Analytical methods for the determination of 9 antifouling paint booster biocides in estuarine water samples. Chemosphere 1999, 38:3503-3516.
252. Voulvoulis N., Scrimshaw M.D., Lester J.N. Occurrence of four biocides utilized in antifouling paints, as alternatives to organotin compounds, in waters and sediments of a commercial estuary in the UK. Mar Pollut Bull 2000, 40:938-946.
253. Voulvoulis N., Scrimshaw M.D., Lester J.N. Comparative environmental assessment of biocides used in antifouling paints. Chemosphere 2002, 47:789-795.
254. Voulvoulis N., Scrimshaw M.D., Lester J.N. Partitioning of selected antifouling biocides in the aquatic environment. Mar Environ Res 2002, 53:1-16.
255. Wahl M. Marine epibiosis. I. Fouling and antifouling: some basic aspects. Mar Ecol Prog Ser 1989, 58:175-189.
256. Wahl M., Kröger K., Lenz M. Non-toxic protection against epibiosis. Biofouling 1998, 12:205-226.
257. Waldock M.J., Miller D. The determination of tributyltin in sea water and oysters in areas of high pleasure craft activity 1983, . Int Coun Expl Sea, Stat Meeting CM 1983/E:12.
258. Wee K.L. Ventilation of floating cages 1979, 42. MSc Thesis, University of Stirling.
259. Who Food Safety Issues Associaited with Products from Aquaculture 1999, WHO, Geneva, Report of a Joint FAO/NACA/WHO Study Group, WHO Technical Report Study Series 883.
260. Wildish D.J., Keizer P.D., Wilson A.J., Martin J.L. Seasonal changes of dissolved oxygen and plant nutrients in seawater near salmonid net pens in the macrotidal Bay of Fundy. Can J Fish Aquat Sci 1993, 50:303-311.
261. Willemsen P.R., Ferrari G.M. The use of anti-fouling compounds from sponges in anti-fouling paints. Surface Coat Int 1993, 10:423-427.
262. Willinsky M.D., Robson D.R., Vangool W.J., Fournier R.A., Allen J.H. Design of a spherical, submersible, self-cleaning aquaculture system for exposed sites 1991, 317-336. Honolulu, USA. G.N. Hirata (Ed.).
263. Yebra D.M., Kiil S., Dam-Johansen K. Antifouling technology - past, present and future steps towards efficient and environmentally friendly antifouling coatings. Prog Organic Coatings 2004, 50:75-104.
264. Young N.D., Crosbie P.B.B., Adams M.B., Nowak B.F., Morrison R.N. Neoparamoeba perurans n. sp., an agent of amoebic gill disease of Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar). Int J Parasitol 2007, 37:1469-1481.
265. Young N.D., Snekvik I., Nowak B.F., Morrison R.N. Neoparamoeba perurans is a cosmopolitan aetiological agent of amoebic gill disease. Dis Aquat Organ 2008, 78:217-223.
266. Zhu H., Kumar A., Ozkan J., Bandara R., Ding A., Perera I., Steinberg P., Kumar N., Lao W., Griesser S.S., Britcher L., Griesser H.J., Willcox M.D.P. Fimbrolide-coated antimicrobial lenses: Their in vitro and in vivo effects. Optometry Vision Sci 2008, 85:292-300.