Trafficking in human beings: The EU approach between border control, law enforcement and human rights

European Law Journal

Volumn 15, Issue 6, 2009, Pages 775-790

  Krieg, Sarah H ^a  

^a NONE

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EID: 70749097885     PISSN: 13515993     EISSN: 14680386     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1111/j.1468-0386.2009.00490.x     Document Type: Article

References (64)

1. The author is indebted to Susanne Baer, Daniel Thym, Martin Rempe, Tillmann Schneider, Richeza Herrmann, Ryszard Piotrowicz and Jan Klabbers for valuable comments and critique on earlier versions of this article. The usual disclaimer applies.
2. There are several terms for the phenomenon and the lack of terminological clarity might reflect parts of the conceptual diversity. Trafficking in human beings and the abbreviation THB increasingly prevails in academic writing. In order not to transform the issue into a technocratic abbreviation the terms trafficking in human beings, human trafficking, and trafficking in persons will be used interchangeably in this text.
3. Protocol to Prevent, Suppress and Punish Trafficking in Persons, Especially Women and Children (Annex II entered into force on 25 Dec 2003) is one of three Protocols supplementing the United Nations Convention against Transnational Organized Crime (Annex I), adopted by the UN GA Resolution 55/25 of 15 Nov 2000 (UN Doc A/Res/55/25 (2000)).
4. For an overview of international responses cf E Bruch, 'Models Wanted: the Search for an Effective Response to Human Trafficking', (2004) 40 Stanford Journal of International Law 115; A. D. Jordan, 'Human Rights or Wrongs? The Struggle for a Rights-Based Response to Trafficking in Human Beings', (2002) 10(1) Gender and Development 28. For the EU context cf M. Wijers, 'European Union Policies on Trafficking in Women' in M. Rossilli (ed) Gender Policies in the European Union (Peter Lang, New York 2000, at 209
5. Report of the European Expert Group on Trafficking in Human Beings, (2004), 6, 9.
6. J. Fitzpatrick, 'Trafficking as a Human Rights: The Complex Intersection of Legal Frameworks For Conceptualizing and Combating Trafficking', (2003) 24(4) Michigan Journal of International Law 1143, 1147
7. A. Lansink, Interim Report on Women and Migration, International Law Association Conference (Berlin, 2004), 25
8. T. Obokata 'Trafficking of Human Beings from a Human Rights Perspective: Towards a Holistic Approach', (2006) International Studies in Human Rights 89, at166 passim.
9. The term 'EU' is used here in its broader sense comprising all three pillars as defined in Art 1(3) TEU.
10. C. L. Bacchi, Women, Policy and Politics: the Construction of Policy Problems (Sage, 1999), chapters 1-3 passim; M. Verloo, 'Mainstreaming Gender Equality in Europe. A Critical Frame Analysis Approach', 117 The Greek Review of Social Research (National Centre for Social Research) 11.
11. Bacchi, op cit n 8 supra, 59.
12. 'Vermachteter Diskurs', cf S. Baer, 'Rechtswissenschaft' in C. von Braun and I. Stephan (eds), Gender Studies: Eine Einführung (Stuttgart 2000), at 161.
13. Council Framework Decision on Combating Trafficking in Human Beings 2002/629/JHA, [2002] OJ L 203/1.
14. Council Directive on the Residence Permit Issued to Third-Country Nationals Who Are Victims of Trafficking in Human Beings or Who Have Been the Subject of an Action to Facilitate Illegal Immigration, Who Cooperate with the Competent Authorities 2004/81/EC, [2004] OJ L 261/19.
15. For a telling comparison of contemporary discourses on human trafficking with turn of the century discourses about 'white slavery' cf J. Doezema, 'Loose Women or Lost Women? The Re-emergence of the Myth of White Slavery in Contemporary Discourses of Trafficking in Women', (2000) 18 (1) Gender Issues 23. On the fact that the level of organised crime involvement is disputed among analysts cf L. Augustín, 'Migrants in the Mistress's House: Other Voices in the "Trafficking" Debate', (2005) 2(1) Social Politics 96.
16. K. S. Ziegler, 'The Legal Framework of Trafficking and Smuggling in Germany: Victim Protection Emerging from Witness Protection?', in E. Guild and P. Minderhoud (eds), Immigration and Criminal Law in the European Union: The Legal Measures and Social Consequences of Criminal Law in Member States on Trafficking and Smuggling in Human Beings (Martinus Nijhoff Publishers, 2006, at 96
17. Scholars and activists alike have formulated profound critiques. Jo Doezema and Kamala Kempadoo participated in several legal negotiations and formulated a critique as sex worker advocates. For an overview cf J. Doezema, 'Now You See Her, Now You Don't: Sex Workers at the UN Trafficking Protocol Negotiations', (2005) 14 (1) Social and Legal Studies 68. For a compelling analysis of colonial legacies within the archetypical depiction cf R. Kapur, 'The Tragedy of Victimization Rhetoric: Resurrecting the "Native" Subject in International/ Post-Colonial Politics', (2002) 15 Harvard Human Rights Journal 1. Laura Augustín's critique convinces through substantial empirical research, cf Augustín op cit n 14 supra.
18. L. Ihme, 'Europas Gespenster. Frauenhandel, Nation und Supranation' in M. Witkowski and J. Dlugosz (eds) Perspektiven für Europa - Eine neue Öffnung? (Peter Lang, 2006, at 247
19. H. Charlesworth and C. M. Chinkin, The Boundaries of International Law: a Feminist Analysis (Melland Schill Studies in International Law, Juris Pub.; Manchester University Press, 2000, 381
20. An analysis of the German implementation indicates only a slow change of perception, cf S. H. Krieg, 'Neue Gender-Perspektive im deutschen Strafrecht? Die Reform der Menschenhandelstatbestände', in S. Grenz and G. Jähnert (eds), Der involvierte Blick (Bulletin-Texte, Zentrum für transdisziplinäre Geschlechterstudien / Humboldt-Universität zu Berlin, 2008, 76
21. Case C-105/03, Criminal Proceedings against Maria Pupino [2005] ECR I-5283.
22. Joint Cases C-387/02, Silvio Berlusconi, C-391/02, Sergio Aldechi, C-403/02, Marcello dell'Utri and Others [2005] ECR I-3565.
23. A similar observation is made by J. Klabbers, 'Constitutionalism Lite', (2004) 1 International Organizations Law Review 31, 44.
24. cf Bacchi, op cit n 8 supra 20-21, 37.
25. A more general critique has been voiced in M. Koskenniemi, 'The Police in the Temple: Oder, Justice and the UN: A Dialectical View', (1995) 6 European Journal of International Law 325. For a feminist critique cf H. Charlesworth, 'Feminist Methods in International Law', (1999) 93 American Journal of International Law 379, 390.
26. cf also C. Roxin, Strafrecht, Allgemeiner Teil (Beck, 1997), 51.
27. cf Bruch, Jordan, Wijers, op cit n 8 supra.
28. R. Piotrowicz, 'Trafficking of Human Beings and their Human Rights in the Migration Context', in R. Cholewinski (ed), International Migration Law: Developing Paradigms and Key Challenges (TMC Asser, The Hague, NL 2007), 278 passim.
29. ibid, 279.
30. App no 73316/01, Siliadin v France, 2005, VII. (ECtHR)
31. A. D. Jordan, The Annotated Guide to the Complete UN Trafficking Protocol (International Human Rights Law Group, 2002
32. J. G. Raymond, Guide to the UN Trafficking Protocol (Coalition Against Trafficking in Women, 2001
33. For a compelling study of the securitisation of migration and asylum policies in the EU cf J. Huysmans, The Politics of Insecurity: Fear, Migration and Asylum in the EU (The new international relations series, Routledge, 2006). On the 'migration security nexus' cf C. Dauvergne, Making People Illegal: What Globalization Means for Migration and Law (Cambridge University Press, 2008), chapter 6.
34. K. Engle, 'International Human Rights and Feminisms: When Discourses Keep Meeting', in D. Buss (ed), International Law Modern Feminist Approaches (Hart, 2005), at 47
35. For a US-German comparative analysis cf M. D. Dubber, 'Positive Generalprävention und Rechtsgutstheorie: Amerikanische Überlegungen zu zwei zentralen Errungenschaften der deutschen Strafrechtswissenschaft', (2005) 117 (11) Zeitschrift für die Gesamte Strafrechtswissenschaft 485
36. cf ibid, 499; P. Sina, Die Dogmengeschichte des strafrechtlichen Begriffs 'Rechtsgut' (Basler Studien zur Rechtswissenschaft, Helbing, Lichtenhahn, 1962
37. cf Dubber, op cit n 33 supra, 495
38. Mainly sex worker rights organisations voiced opposition to a 'trafficking framework' and any further legislation on the issue, cf Doezema, op cit n 16 supra, 68
39. Council Framework Decision on Standing of Victims in Criminal Proceedings, [2001] OJ L82/ 1.
40. Case 176/03, Commission v Council, sanctions for the environment [2005] ECR I-7879, para 45.
41. Communication from the Commission to the European Parliament and the Council on the Implications of the Court's Judgment of 13 September 2005 (Case C 176/03 Commission v Council), COM (2005) 0583 final.
42. The Protocol was signed by the Community in 2000 and approved in 2006 through Council Decisions 2006/618/EC and 2006/619/EC of 24 July 2006.
43. Tampere European Council 15 and 16 October 1999, Presidency Conclusions, para 23.
44. Comprehensive Plan to Combat Illegal Immigration and Trafficking of Human Beings in the European Union (2002/C 142/02), [2002] OJ C 142/23.
45. Communication from the Commission on Policy Priorities in the Fight Against Illegal Immigration of Third-Country Nationals, COM (2006) 402 final, para 28-30.
46. Dir 2004/81/EC, cf op cit n 22 supra.
47. Explanatory Memorandum to the Proposal for the Short-Term Residence Permit Directive, COM (2002) 71 final, 6 et seq.
48. For a comprehensive EU wide comparative analysis cf E. Guild and P. Minderhoud (eds), Immigration and Criminal Law in the European Union: the Legal Measures and Social Consequences of Criminal Law in Member States on Trafficking and Smuggling in Human Beings (Martinus Nijhoff Publishers, 2006
49. A. L. Herz, Menschenhandel: eine empirische Untersuchung zur Strafverfolgungspraxis (Schriftenreihe des Max-Planck-Instituts für Ausländisches und Internationales Strafrecht, Duncker Humboldt, 2005, 136
50. The Framework Decision 2002/946/JHA on the Strengthening of the Penal Framework to Prevent the Facilitation of Unauthorised Entry, Transit and Residence is affected by the EJC judgement in the sanctions for the environment case, cf op cit n 39 supra, Annex.
51. K. S. Ziegler, op cit n 15 supra, at 71.
52. For a discussion of the distinction between trafficking in persons and human smuggling in different EU Member States cf Guild and Minderhoud (eds), op cit n 45 supra.
53. cf op cit n 3 supra.
54. cf Doezema, op cit n 16 supra, 66-68.
55. For the German debate cf Ziegler, op cit n 15 supra 93, 94.
56. cf Krieg, op cit n 19 supra, 80
57. As refined by the Council Directive 2004/83/EC on Minimum Standards for the Qualification and Status of Third Country Nationals or Stateless Persons as Refugees or as Persons who Otherwise Need International Protection and the Content of the Protection Granted, [2004] OJ L 304/12. cf R. Piotrowicz, 'Victims of Trafficking and Entitlement to International Protection', (2005) 24 Australian Year Book of International Law 159.
58. B. Pieters, 'Dutch Criminal and Administrative Law Concerning Trafficking in and Smuggling of Human Beings: The blurred Legal Position of Smuggled and Trafficked Persons: Victims, Instigators or Illegals?', in E. Guild and P. Minderhoud (eds), op cit n 45 supra, at 232
59. On gendered dichotomies in international law cf Charlesworth, op cit n 25 supra, 382.
60. A similar conclusion is drawn for the US war on crime by Dubber, Victims in the War on Crime: The Use and Abuse of Victims' Rights (New York University Press, 2006
61. W. Chapkis, 'Trafficking, Migration, and the Law - Protecting Innocents, Punishing Immigrants', (2003) 17 Gender & Society 923, 924
62. cf op cit n 36 supra.
63. cf op cit n 43 supra.
64. cf op cit n 44 supra, para 2.3.