Urban streams across the USA: Lessons learned from studies in 9 metropolitan areas

Journal of the North American Benthological Society

Volumn 28, Issue 4, 2009, Pages 1051-1069

  Brown, Larry R ^a   Cuffney, Thomas F ^a   Coles, James F ^a   Fitzpatrick, Faith ^b   McMahon, Gerard ^a   Steuer, Jeffrey ^b   Bell, Amanda H ^b   May, Jason T ^a  

^a U S GEOLOGICAL SURVEY   (United States)

^b NATIONAL WILDLIFE HEALTH CENTER   (United States)

Author keywords

Algae; Diatoms; Fishes; Macroinvertebrates; Urban intensity; Urbanization

Indexed keywords

ALGA; BENTHOS; DIATOM; ECOLOGICAL IMPACT; FISH; GEOLOGICAL SURVEY; INSECTICIDE; MACROINVERTEBRATE; METROPOLITAN AREA; STREAMFLOW; URBANIZATION; WATER QUALITY;

NORTH AMERICA; UNITED STATES;

ALGAE; BACILLARIOPHYTA; PISCES;

EID: 70450183334     PISSN: 08873593     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1899/08-153.1     Document Type: Article

References (90)

1. ALLAN, J. D. 2004. Landscapes and riverscapes: the influence of landuse on stream ecosystems. Annual Review of Ecology, Evolution, and Systematics 35:257-284.
2. BARBOUR, M. T., J. GERRITSEN, B. D. SNYDER, AND J. B. STRIBLING. 1999. Rapid bioassessment protocols for use in streams and wadeable rivers: periphyton, benthic macroinvertebrates, and fish. 2nd edition. EPA 841-B-99-1002 Office of Water, US Environmental Protection Agency, Washington, DC.
3. BLUESTONE, B., M. H. STEVENSON, AND R. WILLIAMS. 2008. The urban experience: economics, society, and public policy. Oxford University Press, New York.
4. BOOTH, D. B. 1990. Stream-channel incision following drainage-basin urbanization. Water Resources Research 26:407-417.
5. BOOTH, D. B., AND C. R. JACKSON. 1997. Urbanization of aquatic systems: degradation thresholds, stormwater detection, and the limits of mitigation. Journal of the American Water Resources Association 33:1077-1090.
6. BROWN, L. R. 2000. Fish communities and their associations with environmental variables, lower San Joaquin River drainage, California. Environmental Biology of Fishes 57:251-269.
7. BROWN, L. R., M. B. GREGORY, AND J. T. MAY. 2009. Relation of urbanization to stream fish assemblages and species traits in nine metropolitan areas of the United States. Urban Ecosystems. doi 10.1007/s11252-009-0082-2.
8. BRYANT, W. L., AND S. L. GOODBRED. 2008. The response of hydrophobic organics and potential toxicity in streams to urbanization of watersheds in six metropolitan areas of the United States. Environmental Monitoring and Assessment. doi 10.1007/s10661-008-0546-5.
9. BRYANT, W. L., S. L. GOODBRED, T. L. LEIKER, L. INOUYE, AND B. T. JOHNSON. 2007. Use of chemical analysis and assays of semipermeable membrane devices extracts to assess the response of bioavailable organic pollutants in streams to urbanization in six metropolitan areas of the United States. U.S. Geological Survey Scientific Investigations Report 2007-5113. US Geological Survey, Reston, Virginia.
10. CARLISLE, D. M., C. P. HAWKINS, M. R.MEADOR, M. POTAPOVA, AND J. FALCONE. 2008. Biological assessments of Appalachian streams based on predictive models for fish, macroinvertebrate, and diatom assemblages. Journal of the North American Benthological Society 27:16-37.
11. CARTER, T., C. R. JACKSON, A. ROSEMOND, C. PRINGLE, D. RADCLIFFE, W. TOLLNER, J. MAERZ, D. LEIGH, AND A. TRICE. 2009. Beyond the urban gradient: barriers and opportunities for timely studies of urbanization effects on aquatic ecosystems. Journal of the North American Benthological Society 28:1038-1050.
12. CHARLES, D. F., C. KNOWLES, AND R. S. DAVIS. 2002. Protocols for the analysis of algal samples collected as part of the U.S. Geological Survey National Water-Quality Assessment Program. Report No. 02-06 Patrick Center for Environmental Research, Philadelphia Academy of Natural Sciences, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania. (Available from: http://diatom.ansp.org/nawqa/pdfs/ ProtocolPublication.pdf)
13. CHIN, A. 2006. Urban transformation of river landscapes in a global context. Geomorphology 79:460-487.
14. CIANFRANI, C. M., W. C. HESSION, AND D. M. RIZZO. 2006. Watershed imperviousness impacts on stream channel condition in southeastern Pennsylvania. Journal of the American Water Resources Association 42:941-956.
15. CLARKE, K. R., AND R. N. GORLEY. 2006. PRIMER user manual/tutorial. Version 6. PRIMER-E, Plymouth, UK.
16. COLES, J. F., A. BELL, B. SCUDDER, AND K. CARPENTER. 2009. The effects of urbanization and other environmental gradients on algal assemblages in nine metropolitan study areas across the United States. U.S. Geological Survey Scientific Investigations Report 2009-5022. US Geological Survey, Reston, Virginia.
17. COLES, J. F., T. F. CUFFNEY, AND G. MCMAHON. 2004. The effects of urbanization on the biological, physical, and chemical characteristics of coastal New England streams. U.S. Geological Survey Professional Paper 1695. US Geological Survey, Reston, Virginia.
18. CUFFNEY, T. F., AND J. F. FALCONE. 2009. Derivation of nationally consistent indices representing urban intensity within and across nine metropolitan areas of the conterminous United States. U.S. Geological Survey Scientific Investigations Report 2008-5095. US Geological Survey, Reston, Virginia.
19. CUFFNEY, T. F., M. E. GURTZ, AND M. R. MEADOR. 1993. Methods for collecting benthic invertebrate samples as part of the National Water-Quality Assessment Program. U.S. Geological Survey Open-File Report 93-406. US Geological Survey, Raleigh, North Carolina.
20. CUFFNEY, T. F., H. ZAPPIA, E. M. P. GIDDINGS, AND J. F. COLES. 2005. Effects of urbanization on benthic macroinvertebrate assemblages in contrasting environmental settings: Boston, Massachusetts; Birmingham, Alabama; and Salt Lake City, Utah. American Fisheries Society Symposium 47:361-407.
21. DOYLE, M. W., J. M. HARBOR, C. F. RICH, AND A. SPACIE. 2000. Examining the effects of urbanization on streams using indicators of geomorphic stability. Physical Geography 21:155-181.
22. DUONG, T. T., A. FEURTET-MAZEL, M. COSTE, D. K. DAN, AND A. BOUDOU. 2007. Dynamics of diatom colonization process in some rivers influenced by urban pollution (Hanoi, Vietnam). Ecological Indicators 7:839-851.
23. EISLER, R. 1987. Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon hazards to fish, wildlife, and invertebrates: a synoptic review. Biological Report 85(1.11). US Fish and Wildlife Service, Laurel, Maryland.
24. ELMORE, A. J., AND S. S. KAUSHAL. 2008. Disappearing headwaters: patterns of stream burial due to urbanization. Frontiers in Ecology and the Environment 6: 308-312.
25. EWING, R., R. PENDALL, AND D. CHEN. 2002. Measuring sprawl and its impact. Smart Growth America, Washington, DC.
26. FALCONE, J., J. STEWART, S. SOBIESZCZYK, J. DUPREE, G. MCMAHON, AND G. BUELL. 2007. A comparison of natural and urban characteristics and the development of urban intensity indices across six geographic settings. U.S. Geological Survey Scientific Investigations Report 2007-5123. US Geological Survey, Reston, Virginia.
27. FALKE, J. A., AND K. B. GIDO. 2006. Effects of reservoir connectivity on stream fish assemblages in the Great Plains. Canadian Journal of Fisheries and Aquatic Sciences 63:480-493.
28. FITZPATRICK, F. A., M. W. DIEBEL, M. A. HARRIS, T. L. ARNOLD, M. A. LUTZ, AND K. D. RICHARDS. 2005. Effects of urbanization on the geomorphology, habitat, hydrology, and fish index of biotic integrity of streams in the Chicago area, Illinois and Wisconsin. American Fisheries Society Symposium 47:87-115.
29. FITZPATRICK, F. A., M. A. HARRIS, T. L. ARNOLD, AND K. D. RICHARDS. 2004. Urbanization influences on aquatic communities in northeastern Illinois streams. Journal of the American Water Resources Association 40: 461-475.
30. FITZPATRICK, F. A., AND M. C. PEPPLER. 2007. Changes in aquatic habitat and geomorphic response to urbanization, with implications for assessing habitat degradation in K. C. Kabbes (editor). Restoring Our Natural Habitat. Proceedings of the World Environmental and Water Resources Congress 2007, May 15-19, 2007. American Society of Civil Engineers, Reston, Virginia. (Available on CD-ROM only from: https://secure.asce.org/ ASCEWebSite/BOOKSTORE/ BookDescription.aspx? ProdId=5497)
31. FITZPATRICK, F. A., I. R. WAITE, P. J. D'ARCONTE, M. R.MEADOR, M. A. MAUPIN, AND M. E. GURTZ. 1998. Revised methods for characterizing stream habitat in the National Water- Quality Assessment Program. U.S. Geological Survey Water-Resources Investigations Report 98-4052. US Geological Survey, Raleigh, North Carolina. GEOLYTICS. 2001. Census 2000 and street 2000. GeoLytics, East Brunswick, New Jersey. (Available from: http:// www.geolytics.com/Default.asp)
32. GIDDINGS, E. M. P., A. H. BELL, K. M. BEAULIEU, T. F. CUFFNEY, J. F. COLES, L. R. BROWN, F. A. FITZPATRICK, J. FALCONE, L. A. SPRAGUE, W. L. BRYANT, M. C. PEPPLER, C. STEPHENS, AND G. MCMAHON. 2009. Selected physical, chemical, and biological data used to study urbanizing streams in nine metropolitan areas of the United States, 1999-2004. U.S. Geological Survey Data Series 423. US Geological Survey, Reston, Virginia.
33. GIDDINGS, E., L. R. BROWN, T. M. SHORT, AND M. R. MEADOR. 2006. Relation of fish communities to environmental conditions in urban streams of the Wasatch Front, Utah. Western North American Naturalist 66:155-168.
34. GILLIOM, R. J., J. E. BARBASH, C. G. CRAWFORD, P. A. HAMILTON, J. D. MARTIN, N. NAKAGAKI, L. H. NOWELL, J. C. SCOTT, P. E. STACKELBERG, G. P. THELIN, AND D. M. WOLOCK. 2006. The quality of our nation's waters-pesticides in the nation's streams and ground water, 1992-2001. U.S. Geological Survey Circular 1291. US Geological Survey, Reston, Virginia.
35. GRIMM, N. B., S. H. FAETH, N. E. GOLUBIEWSKI, C. L. REDMAN, J. WU, X. BAI, AND J. M. BRIGGS. 2008. Global change and the ecology of cities. Science 319:756-760.
36. GRIMM, N. B., R. W. SHEIBLEY, C. L. CRENSHAW, C. N. DAHM, W. J. ROACH, AND L. H. ZEGLIN. 2005. N retention and transformation in urban streams. Journal of the North American Benthological Society 24:626-642.
37. GURTZ, M. E. 1993. Design of biological components of the National Water-Quality Assessment (NAWQA) Program. Pages 323-354 in S. L. Loeb and A. Spacie (editors). Biological monitoring of aquatic systems. Lewis Publishers, Boca Raton, Florida.
38. HARDEN, B. 2005. Out west, a paradox: densely packed sprawl. Washington Post, August 11, 2005.
39. HARDING, J. S., E. F. BENFIELD, P. V. BOLSTAD, G. S. HELFMAN, AND E. B. D. JONES. 1998. Stream biodiversity: the ghost of land use past. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America 95:14843-14847.
40. HEATHERLY, T., M. R. WHILES, T. V. ROYER, AND M. B. DAVID. 2007. Relationships between water quality, habitat quality, and macroinvertebrate assemblages in Illinois streams. Journal of Environmental Quality 36: 1653-1660.
41. HWANG, H., AND G. D. FOSTER. 2006. Characterization of polycyclic hydrocarbons in urban stormwater runoff flowing into the tidal Anacostia River, Washington, DC, USA. Environmental Pollution 140:416-426.
42. KAUSHAL, S. S., W. M. LEWIS, JR, AND J. H. MCCUTCHAN. 2006. Land use change and nitrogen enrichment of a Rocky Mountain watershed. Ecological Applications 16: 299-312.
43. LEOPOLD, L. B., M. G. WOLMAN, AND J. P. MILLER. 1964. Fluvial processes in geomorphology. W. H. Freeman, San Francisco, California.
44. LERNER, D. N. 2002. Identifying and quantifying urban recharge: a review. Hydrogeology Journal 10:143-152.
45. LIGHT, T., AND M. P. MARCHETTI. 2007. Distinguishing between invasions and habitat changes as drivers of diversity loss among California's freshwater fishes. Conservation Biology 21:434-446.
46. LOWE, R. L., AND Y. PAN. 1996. Benthic algal communities as biological monitors. Pages 705-740 in R. J. Stevenson, M. I. Bothwell, R. L. Lowe, and J. H. Thorp (editors). Algal ecology. Freshwater benthic ecosystems. Academic Press, San Diego, California.
47. MAHLER, B. J., P. C. VAN METRE, T. J. BASHARA, G. T. WILSON, AND D. A. JOHNS. 2005. Parking lot sealcoat-an unrecognized source of urban polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons. Environmental Science and Technology 39:5560-5566.
48. MCALLISTER, D. E., S. P. PLATANIA, F. W. SCHUELER, M. E. BALDWIN, AND D. S. LEE. 1986. Ichthyofaunal patterns on a geographic grid. Pages 17-57 in C. H. Hocutt and E. O. Wiley (editors). The zoogeography of North American freshwater fishes. Wiley, New York.
49. MCCARTHY, K. 2006. Assessment of the usefulness of semipermeable membrane devices for long-term monitoring in an urban slough system. Environmental Monitoring and Assessment 118:293-318.
50. MCMAHON, G., J. D. BALES, J. F. COLES, E.M. P. GIDDINGS, AND H. ZAPPIA. 2003. Use of stage data to characterize hydrologic conditions in an urbanizing environment. Journal of the American Water Resources Association 39:1529-1546.
51. MEADOR, M. R., J. F. COLES, AND H. ZAPPIA. 2005. Fish assemblage response to urban intensity gradients in contrasting metropolitan areas: Birmingham, Alabama and Boston, Massachusetts. American Fisheries Society Symposium 47:409-423.
52. MEADOR, M. R., T. F. CUFFNEY, AND M. E. GURTZ. 1993. Methods for sampling fish communities as part of the National Water-Quality Assessment Program. U.S. Geological Survey Open-File Report 93-104. US Geological Survey, Raleigh, North Carolina.
53. MOULTON, S. R., J. L. CARTER, S. A. GROTHEER, T. F. CUFFNEY, AND T. M. SHORT. 2000. Methods of analysis by the U.S. Geological Survey National Water Quality Laboratory - processing, taxonomy, and quality control of benthic macroinvertebrate samples. U.S. Geological Survey Open-File Report 00-212. US Geological Survey, Denver, Colorado.
54. MOULTON, S. R., J. G. KENNEN, R. M. GOLDSTEIN, AND J. A. HAMBROOK. 2002. Revised protocols for sampling algal, invertebrate, and fish communities as part of the National Water-Quality Assessment Program. U.S. Geological Survey Open-File Report 02-150. US Geological Survey, Reston, Virginia.
55. NADKAMI, S., AND P. P. SHENOY. 2004. A causal mapping approach to constructing Bayesian networks. Decision Support Systems 38:259-281.
56. OMERNIK, J. M. 1987. Ecoregions of the conterminous United States. Annals of the Association of American Geographers 77:118-125.
57. OMERNIK, J. M. 2004. Perspectives on the nature and definition of ecological regions. Environmental Management 34(Supplement 1):s27-s38.
58. OURSO, R. T., AND S. A. FRENZEL. 2003. Identification of linear and threshold responses in streams along a gradient of urbanization in Anchorage, Alaska. Hydrobiologia 501: 117-131.
59. PAUL, M. J., AND J. L. MEYER. 2001. Streams in the urban landscape. Annual Review of Ecology and Systematics 32:333-365.
60. PAUL, M. J., D. W. BRESSLER, A. H. PURCELL, M. T. BARBOUR, E. T. RANKING, AND V. H. RESH. 2009. Assessment tools for urban catchments: defining observable biological potential. Journal of the American Water Resources Association 45:320-330.
61. PICKETT, S. T. A., M. L. CADENASSO, J. M. GROVE, P. M. GROFFMAN, L. E. BAND, C. G. BOONE, W. R. BURCH, C. S. B. GRIMMOND, J. HOM, J. C. JENKINS, N. L. LAW, C. H. NILON, R. V. POUYAT, K. SZLAVECZ, P. S. WARREN, AND M. A. WILSON. 2008. Beyond urban legends: an emerging framework of urban ecology, as illustrated by the Baltimore Ecosystem Study. BioScience 58:139-150.
62. POFF, N. L., B. D. BLEDSOE, AND C. O. CUHACIYAN. 2006. Hydrologic variation with land use across the contiguous United States: geomorphic and ecological consequences for stream ecosystems. Geomorphology 79: 264-285.
63. PORTER, S. G., T. F. CUFFNEY, M. E. GURTZ, AND M. R. MEADOR. 1993. Methods for collecting algal samples as part of the National Water-Quality Assessment Program. U.S. Geological Survey Open-File Report 93-409. US Geological Survey, Raleigh, North Carolina.
64. PROPST, D. L., K. B. GIDO, AND J. A. STEFFERUD. 2008. Natural flow regimes, nonnative fishes, and native fish persistence in arid-land river systems. Ecological Applications 18:1236-1252.
65. PURCELL, A. H., D. W. BRESSLER, M. J. PAUL, M. T. BARBOUR, E. T. RANKIN, J. L. CARTER, AND V. H. RESH. 2009. Assessment tools for urban catchments: developing biological indicators based on benthic macroinvertebrates. Journal of the American Water Resources Association 45: 306-319.
66. ROY, A. H., B. J. FREEMAN, AND M. C. FREEMAN. 2007. Riparian influences on stream fish assemblage structure in urbanizing stream. Landscape Ecology 22:385-402.
67. ROY, A. H., A. D. ROSEMOND, M. J. PAUL, D. S. LEIGH, AND J. B. WALLACE. 2003. Stream macroinvertebrate response to catchment urbanisation (Georgia, U.S.A.). Freshwater Biology 48:329-346.
68. ROY, A. H., A. L. DYBAS, K. M. FRITZ, AND H. R. LUBBERS. 2009. Urbanization affects the extent and hydrologic permanence of headwater streams in a Midwestern US metropolitan area 42:344-359. Journal of the North American Benthological Society 28:911-928.
69. SCHUELER, T. R. 1994. The importance of imperviousness. Watershed Protection Techniques 1:100-111.
70. SONNEMAN, J. A., C. J. WALSH, P. F. BREEN, AND A. K. SHARPE. 2001. Effects of urbanization on streams of the Melbourne Region, Victoria, Australia II: benthic diatom communities. Freshwater Biology 46:553-565.
71. SPRAGUE, L. A., D. A. HARNED, D.W. HALL, L.H. NOWELL, N. J. BAUCH, AND K. D. RICHARDS. 2007. Response of stream chemistry during base flow to gradients of urbanization in selected locations across the conterminous United States, 2002-04. U.S. Geological Survey Scientific Investigations Report 2007-5083. US Geological Survey, Reston, Virginia.
72. SPRAGUE, L. A., AND L. H. NOWELL. 2008. Comparison of pesticide concentrations in streams at low flow in six metropolitan areas of the United States. Environmental Toxicology and Chemistry 27:288-298.
73. STEVENSON, R. J., AND Y. PAN. 1999. Assessing environmental conditions in rivers and streams with diatoms. Pages 11-40 in E. F. Stoermer and J. P. Smol (editors). The diatoms: applications for the environmental and earth sciences. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, UK.
74. TATE, C. M., T. F. CUFFNEY, G. MCMAHON, E. M. P. GIDDINGS, J. F. COLES, AND H. ZAPPIA. 2005. Use of an urban intensity index to assess urban effects on streams in three contrasting environmental settings. American Fisheries Society Symposium 47:291-315.
75. TURNER, B. L., R. E. KASPERSON, P. A.MATSON, J. J.MCCARTHY, R. W. CORELL, L. CHRISTENSEN, N. ECKLEY, J. X. KASPERSON, A. LUERS, M. L. MARTELLO, C. POLSKY, A. PULSIPHER, AND A. SCHILLER. 2003. A framework for vulnerability analysis in sustainability science. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America 100:8074-8079.
76. USEPA (US ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION AGENCY). 1997. Urbanization and streams: studies of hydrologic impacts. EPA841-R-97-1009 US Environmental Protection Agency, Washington, DC.
77. USEPA (US ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION AGENCY). 2002a. Environmental Monitoring and Assessment Program research strategy. EPA 620/R-02/002. US Environmental Protection Agency, Research Triangle Park, North Carolina.
78. USEPA (US ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION AGENCY). 2002b. Summary of biological assessment programs and biocriteria development for states, tribes, territories, and interstate commissions: streams and wadeable rivers. EPA-822-R-02-048. US Environmental Protection Agency, Washington, DC.
79. USGS (US GEOLOGICAL SURVEY). 2005. National Land Cover Database 2001 (NLCD01). US Geological Survey, Reston, Virginia, (Available from: http://www.mrlc.gov/ mrlc2k-nlcd.asp)
80. VAN METRE, P. C., AND B. J. MAHLER. 2005. Trends in hydrophobic organic contaminants in urban and reference lake sediments across the United States, 1970-2001. Environmental Science and Technology 39:5567-5574.
81. WAITE, I. A., S. SOBIESZCZYK, K. D. CARPENTER, A. J. ARNSBERG, H. M. JOHNSON, C. A. HUGHES, M. J. SARANTOU, AND F. A. RINELLA. 2008. Effects of urbanization on stream ecosystems in the Willamette Valley Ecoregion, Oregon and Washington. U.S. Geological Survey Scientific Investigation Report 2006-5101-D. US Geological Survey, Reston, Virginia.
82. WALKER, C. E., AND Y. PAN. 2006. Using diatom assemblages to assess urban stream conditions. Hydrobiologia 561: 179-189.
83. WALTER, R. C., AND D. J. MERRITTS. 2008. Natural streams and the legacy of water-powered mills. Science 319:299-304.
84. WALSH, C. J., T. D. FLETCHER, AND A. R. LADSON. 2005a. Stream restoration in urban catchments through redesigning stormwater systems: looking to the catchment to save the stream. Journal of the North American Benthological Society 24:690-705.
85. WALSH, C. J., A. H. ROY, J.W. FEMINELLA, P.D. COTTINGHAM, P. M. GROFFMAN, AND R. P. MORGAN. 2005b. The urban stream syndrome: current knowledge and the search for a cure. Journal of the North American Benthological Society 24:706-723.
86. WENGER, S. J., A. H. ROY, C. R. JACKSON, E. S. BERNHARDT, T. L. CARTER, S. FILOSO, C. A. GIBSON, W. C. HESSION, S. S. KAUSHAL, E. MARTÍ, J. L. MEYER, M. A. PALMER, M. J. PAUL, A. H. PURCELL, A. RAMIREZ, A. D. ROSEMOND, K. A. SCHOFIELD, E. B. SUDDUTH, AND C. J. WALSH. 2009. Twentysix key research questions in urban stream ecology: an assessment of the state of the science. Journal of the North American Benthological Society 28:1080-1098.
87. WHITTIER, T. R., J. L. STODDARD, D. P. LARSEN, AND A. T. HERLIHY. 2007. Selecting reference sites for stream biological assessments: best professional judgment or objective criteria. Journal of the North American Benthological Society 26:349-360.
88. WILDE, F. D., D. B. RADTKE, J. GIBS, AND R. T. IWATSUBO (EDITORS). 1999. Collection of water samples. U.S. Geological Survey Techniques of Water-Resources Investigations, book 9, chapter A4. US Geological Survey, Reston, Virginia. (Available from: http:// pubs.water.usgs.gov/twri9A4/)
89. WILDE, F. D., D. B. RADTKE, J. GIBS, AND R. T. IWATSUBO (EDITORS). 2002. Processing of water samples (version 2.1). U.S. Geological Survey Techniques of Water- Resources Investigations, book 9, chapter A5. US Geological Survey, Reston, Virginia. (Available from: http://pubs.water.usgs.gov/twri9A5/)
90. WOLMAN, M. G., AND A. P. SCHICK. 1967. Effects of construction on fluvial sediment, urban and suburban areas of Maryland. Water Resources Research 3: 451-464.