Anesthetic considerations for electroconvulsive therapy-especially hemodynamic and respiratory management

Current Psychiatry Reviews

Volumn 5, Issue 4, 2009, Pages 276-286

  Kadoi, Yuji ^a   Saito, Shigeru ^a  

^a GUNMA UNIVERSITY   (Japan)

Author keywords

Beta blockers; Electroconvulsive therapy; Hyperventilation; Respiratory

Indexed keywords

ALFENTANIL; ATROPINE; BETA ADRENERGIC RECEPTOR BLOCKING AGENT; CALCIUM CHANNEL BLOCKING AGENT; CLONIDINE; DEXMEDETOMIDINE; DILTIAZEM; ESMOLOL; ETOMIDATE; FENTANYL; GLYCERYL TRINITRATE; GLYCOPYRRONIUM BROMIDE; KETAMINE; LABETALOL; LANDIOLOL; LIDOCAINE; METHOHEXITAL; NICARDIPINE; NIFEDIPINE; NITRATE; OPIATE; PLACEBO; PROPOFOL; PROPRANOLOL; PSYCHOTROPIC AGENT; REMIFENTANIL; THIOPENTAL; TRIMETAPHAN; UNINDEXED DRUG; URAPIDIL;

ABSENCE OF SIDE EFFECTS; ANESTHESIA; ANTICHOLINERGIC EFFECT; ANTIHYPERTENSIVE ACTIVITY; AUTONOMIC NERVOUS SYSTEM; BLOOD PRESSURE; BRADYCARDIA; BRAIN BLOOD FLOW; BREATHING; CLINICAL TRIAL; DIASTOLIC BLOOD PRESSURE; DISEASE DURATION; DISEASE EXACERBATION; DRUG EFFICACY; DRUG HALF LIFE; DRUG POTENCY; ELECTROCONVULSIVE THERAPY; EPILEPSY; FOOD INTAKE; HEART ARREST; HEART ARRHYTHMIA; HEART FUNCTION; HEART MUSCLE ISCHEMIA; HEART MUSCLE OXYGEN CONSUMPTION; HEART RATE; HEMODYNAMICS; HUMAN; HYPERTENSION; HYPOTENSION; MUSCLE RELAXATION; NAUSEA; PRIORITY JOURNAL; REVIEW; SAFETY; SCHIZOPHRENIA; SYSTOLIC BLOOD PRESSURE; TACHYCARDIA; TREATMENT CONTRAINDICATION; VOMITING;

EID: 70449577157     PISSN: 15734005     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.2174/157340009789542150     Document Type: Review

References (137)

1. Thompson JW, Weiner RD, Myeres CP. Use of ECT in the United States in 1975, 1980 and 1986. Am J Psychiatry 1994; 151: 1657-1661
2. Pagnin D, de Queiroz V, Pini S, Cassano GB. Efficacy of ECT in depression: a meta-analytic review. J ECT 2004; 20: 13-20. (Pubitemid 38488810)
3. Kellner CH, Tobias KG, Jakubowski LM, Ali Z, Istafanous RM. Electroconvulsive Therapy for an Urgent Social Indication. J ECT 2009 [Epub ahead of print].
4. Anderson EL, Reti IM. ECT in pregnancy: a review of the literature from 1941 to 2007. Psychosom Med 2009; 71: 235-242 .
5. Ishihara K, Sasa M. Mechanism underlying the therapeutic effects of electroconvulsive therapy (ECT) on depression. Jpn J Pharmacol 1999; 80: 185-189 (Pubitemid 29381085)
6. Wahlund B, von Rosen D. ECT of major depressed patients in relation to biological and clinical variables: a brief overview. Neuropsychopharmacology 2003; 28: S21-S26. (Pubitemid 41185555)
7. Fink M. Convulsive therapy: a review of the first 55 years. J Affect Disord 2001; 63: 1-15. (Pubitemid 32200493)
8. Philibert RA, Richards L, Lynch CF, Winokur G. Effect of ECT on mortality and clinical outcome in geriatric unipolar depression. J Clin Psychiatry 1995; 56: 390-394
9. UK ECT Review Group. Efficacy and safety of electroconvulsive therapy in depressive disorders: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Lancet 2003; 361: 799-808.
10. Duffett R, Lelliott P. Auditing electroconvulsive therapy. The third cycle. Br J Psychiatry 1998; 172: 401-405 (Pubitemid 28204548)
11. Weiner RD, Coffey CD, Fochtmann LJ, et al. (eds). The Practice of Electroconvulsive Therapy; Recommendations for treatment, training and privileging. 2001, 2nd ed., Washington D.C., American Psychiatric Association.
12. Simpson KH, Lynch L. Anesthesia and electroconvulsive therapy. Anesthesia 1998; 53: 615-617
13. Gaines III GY, Rees DI. Anesthetic considerations for electroconvulsive therapy. South Med J 1992; 85: 469-482
14. O'Flaherty D, Husain MM, Moore M, Wolff TR, Sills S, Giescke AH. Circulatory responses during electroconvulsive therapy. The comparative effects of placebo, esmolol and nitroglycerin. Anaesthesia 1992; 563-567
15. Weinger MB, Partridge BL, Hauger R, Mirow A, Brown M. Prevention of the cardiovascular and neuroendocrine response to electroconvulsive therapy: II. Effects of pretreatment regimens on catecholamines, ACTH, vasopressin, and cortisol. Anesth Analg 1991; 73: 563-569
16. Gravenstein JS, Anton AH, Weiner SM, Tetlow AG. Catecholamine and cardiovascular response to electroconvulsive therapy in man. Br J Anesth 1965; 37: 833-839
17. Jones RM, Knight PR. Cardiovascular and humoral responses to electroconvulsive therapy. Anesthesia 1981; 36: 795-799
18. Morley JE, Silver AJ. Nutritional issues in nursing home care. Ann Intern Med 1995; 123: 850-859
19. Harter RL. Intravenous anesthetics. In: White PF (ed) Anesthesia drug manual. WB Saunders Company, Philadelphia, pp 252-258, 1996.
20. Mokriski BK, Nagle SE, Papuchis GC, Cohen SM, Waxman GJ. Electroconvulsive therapy-induced cardiac arrhythmias during anesthesia with methohexital, thiamylal, or thiopental sodium. J Clin Anesth 1992; 4: 208-212
21. Decina P, Malitz S, Sackeim HA, Holzer J, Yudofsky S. Cardiac arrest during ECT modified by beta-adrenergic blockade. Am J Psychiatry 1984; 141: 298-300. (Pubitemid 14180987)
22. Liebowitz NR, el-Mallakh RS. Cardiac arrest during ECT: a cholinergic phenomenon? J Clin Psych 1993; 54: 279-280
23. Gabrielli A, Layon AJ, Cole P, Holbert R, Modell JH. Prolonged cardiopulmonary resuscitation with preservation of cerebral function in an elderly patient with asystole after electroconvulsive therapy. J Clin Anesth 2002; 14: 234-240 (Pubitemid 34556728)
24. Huuhka MJ, Seinela L, Reinikainen P, Leinonen EV. Cardiac arrhythmias induced by ECT in elderly psychiatric patients: experience with 48-hour Holter monitoring. J ECT 2003; 19: 22-25 (Pubitemid 36298277)
25. Bergsholm P, Bleie H, Gran L, d'Elia G. Cardiovascular response and seizure duration as determined by electroencephalography during unilateral electroconvulsive therapy. Acta Psychiatr Scand 1993; 88: 25-28
26. Saito S, Kadoi Y, Nishihara F, Aso C, Goto F. End-tidal carbon dioxide monitoring stabilized hemodynamic changes during ECT. J ECT 2003; 19: 26-30. (Pubitemid 36298278)
27. Swartz CM. Physiological response to ECT stimulus dose. Psychiatry Res 2000; 97: 229-235
28. Yanovski A, Kron RE, Townsend RR, Ford V. The clinical utility of ambulatory blood pressure and heart rate monitoring in psychiatric inpatients. Am J Hypertens. 1998; 11(3 Pt 1): 309-315 (Pubitemid 28186742)
29. Mann JJ, Manevitz AZ, Chen JS, et al. Acute effects of single and repeated electroconvulsive therapy on plasma catecholamines and blood pressure in major depressive disorder. Psychiatry Res 1990; 34: 127-137
30. Knos GB, Sung YF, Cooper RC, Stoudemire A. Electroconvulsive therapy-induced hemodynamic changes unmask unsuspected coronary artery disease. J Clin Anesth 1990; 2: 37-41.
31. Nishihara F, Saito S, Tobe M, Harada N, Kadoi Y, Goto F. Hemodynamic changes during electroconvulsive therapy under propofol anesthesia. J Anesth 2002; 16: 332-335 (Pubitemid 36097861)
32. Messina AG, Paranicas M, Katz B, Markowitz J, Yao FS, Devereux BB. Effect of electroconvulsive therapy on the electrocardiogram and echocardiogram. Anesth Analg 1992; 75: 511-514
33. Dolinski SY, Zvara DA. Anesthetic considerations of cardiovascular risk during electroconvulsive therapy. Convul Ther 1997; 13: 157-164 (Pubitemid 27439130)
34. Kadoi Y, Saito S, Seki S, Ide M, Morita T, Goto F. Electroconvulsive therapy impairs systolic performance of the left ventricle. Can J Anesth 2001; 48: 405-408 (Pubitemid 32479401)
35. Kadoi Y, Saito S, Ide M, et al. The comparative effects of propofol versus thiopentone on left ventricular function during electroconvulsive therapy. Anaesth Intens Care 2003; 31: 172-175 (Pubitemid 36503829)
36. Lopez-Gomez D, Sanchez-Corral MA, Cobo JV, Jara F, Esplugas E. Myocardial infarction after electroconvulsive therapy. Rev Esp Cardiol 1999; 52: 536.
37. Ali PB, Tidmarsh MD. Cardiac rupture during electroconvulsive therapy. Anaesthesia 1997; 52: 884-886
38. Zielinski RJ, Roose SP, Devanand DP, Woodring S, Sackeim HA. Cardiovascular complications of ECT in depressed patients with cardiac disease. Am J Psychiat 1993; 150: 904-909 (Pubitemid 23156771)
39. Kramer BA. Anticholinergics and ECT. Convuls Ther 1993; 9: 293-300.
40. Kramer BA, Afrasiabi A, Pollock VE. Intravenous versus intramuscular atropine in ECT. Am J Psychiat 1992; 149: 1258-1260
41. Mayur PM, Shree RS, Gangadhar BN, Subbakrishna DK, Janakiramaiah N, Rao GSU. Atropine premedication and the cardiovascular response to electroconvulsive therapy. Br J Anesth 1998; 81: 466-467 (Pubitemid 28416634)
42. Ding Z, White PF. Anesthesia for electroconvulsive therapy. Anesth Analg. 2002; 94: 1351-1364
43. Kramer BA, Allen RE, Friedman B. Atropine and glycopyrrolate as ECT preanesthesia. J Clin Psychiatry 1986; 47: 199-200.
44. Sommer BR, Satin A, Friedman L, Cole JO. Glycopyrrolate versus atropine in post-ECT amnesia in the elderly. J Geriatr Psychiatry Neurol 1989; 2: 18-21.
45. Kelway B, Simpson KH, Smith RJ, Halsall PJ. Effects of atropine and glycopyrrolate on cognitive function following anesthesia and electroconvulsive therapy. Int Clin Psychopharmacol 1986; 1: 296-302.
46. Petrides G, Maneksha F, Zervas I, Carasiti I, Francis A. Trimethaphan (Arfonad) control of hypertension and tachycardia during electroconvulsive therapy: a double-blind study. J Clin Anesth 1996; 8: 104-109 (Pubitemid 26073972)
47. Weiner RD, Henschen GM, Dellasega M, Baker JS. Propranolol treatment of an ECT-related ventricular arrhythmia. Am J Psychiatry 1979; 136: 1594-1595 (Pubitemid 10206681)
48. Knos GB, Sung YF, Stoudemire A, Gladson M, Cooper R, Markwalter H. Use of labetalol to control cardiovascular responses to electroconvulsive therapy. Anesth Analg 1990; 70: S210.
49. Kovac AL, Goto H, Pardo MP, Arakawa K. Comparison of two esmolol bolus doses on the hemodynamic response and seizure duration during electroconvulsive therapy. Can J Anesth 1991; 38: 204-209
50. Stoudemire A, Knos G, Gladson M, et al. Labetalol in the control of cardiovascular responses to electroconvulsive therapy in highrisk depressed medical patients . J Clin Psychiatry 1990; 51: 508-512
51. Howie MB, Bloack HA, Zvara D, McSweeney TD, Martin DJ, Coffman JA. Esmolol reduces automatic hypersensitivity and length of seizures induced by electroconvulsive therapy. Anesth Analg 1990; 71: 384-388
52. Van den Broek WW, Leentjens AFG, Mulder PGF, Kusuma A, Bruijn JA. Low-dose esmolol bolus reduces seizure duration during electroconvulsive therapy: a double-blind, placebo-controlled study. Br J Anesth 1999; 83: 271-274 (Pubitemid 29361139)
53. Castelli I, Steiner LA, Kaufmann MA, et al. Comparative effects of esmolol and labetalol to attenuate hyperdynamic states after electroconvulsive therapy. Anesth Analg 1995; 80: 557-561
54. Iguchi S, Iwamura H, Nishizaki M, et al. Development of a highly cardioselective ultra-short-acting beta-blocker, ONO-1101. Chem Pharm Bull 1992; 40: 1462-1469
55. Atarashi H, Kuruma A, Yashima M, et al. Pharmacokinetics of landiolol hydrochloride, a new ultra-short-acting beta-blocker, in patients with cardiac arrhythmias. Clin Pharmacol Ther 2000; 68: 143-150 (Pubitemid 30659169)
56. Sasao J, Traver SD, Kindscher JD, Taneyama C, Benson KT, Goto H. In rabbits, landiolol, a new ultra-short-acting beta blocker, exerts a more potent negative chronotropic effect and less effect on blood pressure than esmolol. Can J Anesth 2001; 48: 985-989
57. Sakamoto A, Ogawa R, Suzuki H, Kimura M, Okubo Y, Fujiya T. Landiolol attenuates acute hemodynamic responses but does not reduce seizure duration during maintenance electroconvulsive therapy. Psychiatry Clin Neurosci 2004; 58: 630-635 (Pubitemid 40052898)
58. Saito S, Nishihara F, Tomioka A, et al. Landiolol and esmolol prevent tachycardia without altering cerebral blood flow. Can J Anesth 2005; 52: 1027-1034 (Pubitemid 43192556)
59. Nomoto k, Suzuki T, Serada K, Oe K, Yoshida T, Yamada S. Effects of landiolol on hemodynamic response and seizure duration during electroconvulsive therapy. J Anesth 2006; 20: 183-187
60. Hayashi Y, Maze M. Alpha-2 adrenoceptor agonist and anesthesia. Br J Anesth 1993; 71: 108-118
61. Ghignone M, Noe C, Calvillo O, Quintin L. Anesthesia for ophthalmic surgery in the elderly: the effects of clonidine on intraocular pressure, perioperative hemodynamics, and anesthetic requirement. Anesthesiology 1988; 68: 707-716 (Pubitemid 18127491)
62. Fu W, Stool LA, White PF, Husain MM. Is oral clonidine effective in modifying the acute hemodynamic response during electroconvulsive therapy? Anesth Analg 1998; 86: 1127-1130
63. Elliott RL. Case report of a potential interaction between clonidine and electroconvulsive therapy. Am J Psychiatry 1983; 140: 1237-1238
64. Fu W. White PF. Dexmedetomidine failed to block the acute hyperdynamic response to electroconvulsive therapy. Anesthesiology 1999; 90: 422-424 (Pubitemid 29071509)
65. Begec Z, Toprak HI. Demirbilek S, Erdil F, Onal D, Ersoy MO. Dexmedetomidine blunts acute hyperdynamic responses to electroconvulsive therapy without altering seizure duration. Acta Anaesthesiol Scand 2008; 52: 302-306
66. Mizrak A, Koruk S, Ganidagli S, Bulut M, Oner U. Premedication with dexmedetomidine and midazolam attenuates agitation after electroconvulsive therapy. J Anesth 2009; 23: 6-10.
67. Blanch J, Martinez-Palli G, Navines R, et al. Comparative hemodynamic effects of urapidil and labetalol after electroconvulsive therapy. J ECT 2001; 17: 275-279 (Pubitemid 33131309)
68. Avramov MN, Stool LA, White PF, Husain MM. Effects of nicardipine and labetalol on the acute hemodynamic response to electroconvulsive therapy. J Clin Anesth. 1998; 10: 394-400. (Pubitemid 28361622)
69. Figiel GS, DeLeo B, Zorumski CF, et al. Combined use of labetalol and nifedipine in controlling the cardiovascular response from ECT. J Geriatr Psychiatry Neurol. 1993; 6: 20-24 (Pubitemid 23050676)
70. Wajima Z, Yoshikawa T, Ogura A, et al. The effects of diltiazem on hemodynamics and seizure duration during electroconvulsive therapy. Anesth Analg 2001; 92: 1327-1330 (Pubitemid 32385967)
71. Villalonga A, Planella T, Castillo J, et al. Nitroglycerin spray in the prevention of hypertension induced by electroconvulsive therapy. Rev Esp Anesthesiol Reanim 1989; 36: 264-266 (Pubitemid 20139238)
72. Parab AL, Chaudhari LS, Apte J. Use of nitroglycerin ointment to prevent hypertensive response during electroconvulsive therapy -a study of 50 cases. J Postgrad Med 1992; 38: 55-57
73. Drop LJ, Bouckoms AJ, Elch CA. Arterial hypertension and multiple cerebral aneurysms in a patient treated with electroconvulsive therapy. J Clin Psychiat 1988; 49: 280-282
74. Levin L, Wambold D, Viguera A, Welch CA, Drop LJ. Hemodynamic responses to ECT in a patient with critical aortic stenosis. J ECT 2000; 16: 52-61.
75. Devanand DP, Malitz S, Sackeim HA. ECT in a patient with aortic aneurysm. J Clin Psychiatry 1990; 51: 255-256
76. Sudha S, Andrade C, Anand A, Guido S, Venkataraman BV. Nitroprusside and ECS-induced retrograde amnesia. J ECT 2001; 17: 41-44
77. Fu W, Stool LA, White PF, Husain MM. Acute hemodynamic responses to electroconvulsive therapy are not related to the duration of seizure activity. J Clin Anesth 1997; 9: 653-657 (Pubitemid 28020985)
78. Wajima Z, Yoshikawa T, Ogura A, Shiga T, Inoue T, Ogawa R. The effects of intravenous lignocaine on hemodynamics and seizure duration during electroconvulsive therapy. Anaesth Intens Care 2002; 30: 742-746 (Pubitemid 35469710)
79. Dinwiddie SH, Isenberg KE. Combined alfentanil-methohexital anesthesia in electroconvulsive therapy. Convuls Ther 1995; 11: 170-176
80. Beresford BJ, Glick D, Dinwiddie SH. Combination propofol-alfentanil anesthesia for electroconvulsive therapy in patients receiving monoamine oxidase inhibitors. J ECT 2004; 20: 120-122 (Pubitemid 38747575)
81. Nguyen TT, Chhibber AK, Lustik SJ, Kokano JW, Dillon PJ, Guttmacher LB. Effect of methohexitone and propofol with or without alfentanil on seizure duration and recovery in electroconvulsive therapy. Br J Anesth 1997; 79: 801-803
82. Andersen FA, Arsland D, Holst-Larsen H. Effects of combined methohexitone-remifentanil anesthesia in electroconvulsive therapy. Acta Anaesthesiol Scand 2001; 45: 830-833 (Pubitemid 32738449)
83. Brodersen P, Paulson OB, Bolwig TG, Rogon ZE, Rafaelsen OJ, Lassen NA. Cerebral hyperemia in electrically induced epileptic seizures. Arch Neurol 1973; 28: 334-338
84. Saito S, Yoshikawa D, Nishihara F, et al. The cerebral hemodynamic response to electrically induced seizures in man. Brain Res 1995; 673: 93-100.
85. Saito S, Miyoshi S, Yoshikawa D, Shimada H, Morita T, Kitani Y. Regional cerebral oxygen saturation during electroconvulsive therapy: monitoring by near-infrared spectrophotometry. Anesth Analg 1996; 83: 726-730 (Pubitemid 26349205)
86. Vollmer-Haase J, Folkerts HW, Haase CG, Deppe M, Ringelstein EB. Cerebral hemodynamics during electrically induced seizures. NeuroReport 1998; 9: 407-410 (Pubitemid 28109196)
87. Fabbi F, Henry ME, Renshaw PF, et al. Bilateral near-infrared monitoring of the cerebral concentration and oxygen-saturation of hemoglobin during right unilateral electro-convulsive therapy. Brain Res 2003; 992: 193-204.
88. Saito S, Kadoi Y, Iriuchijima N, et al. Reduction of cerebral hyperemia with anti-hypertensive medication after electroconvulsive therapy. Can J Anaesth 2000; 47: 767-774 (Pubitemid 30702823)
89. Saito S, Kadoi Y, Nara T, et al. The comparative effects of propofol versus thiopental on middle cerebral artery blood flow velocity during electroconvulsive therapy. Anesth Analg 2000; 91: 1531-1536 (Pubitemid 30943908)
90. Miller AL, Shamban AT, Corddry DH, Kiney CA. Cerebral metabolic responses to electroconvulsive shock and their modification by hypercapnia. J Neurochem 1982; 38: 916-924
91. Barkai AI, Prohovnik I, Young WL, Durkin M, Nelson HD. Alterations of local cerebral blood flow and glucose uptake by electroconvulsive shock in rats. Biol Psychiatry 1991; 30: 269-282
92. Szirmai I, Boldizsar F, Fisher J. Correlation between blood gases, glycolytic enzymes and EEG during electroconvulsive treatment in relaxation. Acta Psychiat Scand 1975; 51: 171-181
93. Hsiao JK, Messenheimer JA, Evans DL. ECT and neurological disorders. Convuls Ther 1987; 3: 121-136
94. MacKenzie RA, Southorn PA, Stensrad PE. Anesthesia at remote locations. In Miller RD (ed) Anesthesia 5th edition. Churchill Livingstone, Philadelphia, pp 2241-2269, 2000.
95. Weisberg LA, Elliott D, Mielke D. Intracerebral hemorrhage following electroconvulsive therapy. Neurology 1991; 41: 1849.
96. Viguera A, Rordorf G, Schouten R, Welch C, Drop LJ. Intracranial haemodynamics during attenuated responses to electroconvulsive therapy in the presence of an intracerebral aneurysm. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiat 1998; 64: 802-805 (Pubitemid 28274419)
97. Kolano JW, Chhibber A, Calalang CC. Use of esmolol to control bleeding and heart rate during electroconvulsive therapy in a patient with an intracranial aneurysm. J Clin Anesth 1997; 9: 493-495 (Pubitemid 27355898)
98. Ogawa-Okamoto C, Saito S, Nishihara F, Yuki N, Goto F. Blood pressure control with glyceryl trinitrate during electroconvulsive therapy in a patient with cerebral aneurysm. Eur J Anaesthesiol 2003; 20: 70-78 (Pubitemid 36077106)
99. Salaris S, Szuba MP, Traber K. ECT and intracranial vascular masses. J ECT 2000; 16: 198-203.
100. Hunt SA, Kaplan E. ECT in the presence of a cerebral aneurysm. J ECT 1998; 14: 123-124
101. Gardner MW, Kellner CH. Safe use of ECT with an intracranial aneurysm. J ECT 1998; 14: 290-292 (Pubitemid 29003844)
102. Najjar F, Guttmacher LB. ECT in the presence of intracranial aneurysm. J ECT 1998; 14: 266-271
103. Zhu B, Ishida K, Oritani S, et al. Sudden death following psychiatric electroconvulsive therapy: a case report. Jpn J Legal Med 1998; 52: 149-152 (Pubitemid 28313279)
104. Crawford CD, Butler P, Froese A. Arterial PaO2 and PaCO2 influence seizure duration in dogs receiving electroconvulsive therapy. Can J Anaesth 1987; 34: 437-441
105. Chater SN, Simpson KH. Effect of passive hyperventilation on seizure duration in patients undergoing electroconvulsive therapy. Br J Anaesth 1988; 60: 70-73 (Pubitemid 18053018)
106. Bergsholm P, Bleie H, Gran L, d'Elia G. Cardiovascular response and seizure duration as determined by electroencephalography during unilateral electroconvulsive therapy. Acta Psychiatr Scand 1993; 88: 25-28
107. Nishihara F, Ohkawa M, Hiraoka H, Yuki N, Saito S. Benefits of the laryngeal mask for airway management during electroconvulsive therapy. J ECT 2003; 19: 211-216 (Pubitemid 38018298)
108. Kadar AG, Ing CH, White PF, Wakefield CA, Kramer BA, Clark K. Anesthesia for electroconvulsive therapy in obese patients. Anesth Analg 2002; 94: 360-361 (Pubitemid 34106829)
109. Livingston JC, Johnstone WM Jr, Hadi HA. Electroconvulsive therapy in a twin pregnancy: a case report. Am J Perinatol 1994; 11: 116-118 (Pubitemid 24109167)
110. Walker R, Swartz CM. Electroconvulsive therapy during high-risk pregnancy. Gen Hosp Psychiatry 1994; 16: 348-353
111. Stromgren LS, Dahl J, Fjeldborg N, Thomsen A. Factors influencing seizure duration and number of seizures applied in unilateral electroconvulsive therapy. Anaesthetics and benzodiazepines. Acta Psychiatr Scand 1980; 62: 158-165
112. Boey WK, Lai FO. Comparison of propofol and thiopentone as anaesthetic agents for electroconvulsive therapy. Anaesthesia 1990; 45: 623-628
113. Martensson B, Bartfai A, Hallen B, Hellstrom C, Junthe T, Olander M. A comparison of propofol and methohexital as anesthetic agents for ECT: effects on seizure duration, therapeutic outcome, and memory. Biol Psychiatry 1994; 35: 179-189 (Pubitemid 24078483)
114. Walder B, Seeck M, Tramer MR. Propofol versus methohexital for electroconvulsive therapy: a meta-analysis. J Neurosurg Anesthesiol. 2001; 13: 93-98 (Pubitemid 32244984)
115. Martin BA, Cooper RM, Parikh SV. Propofol anesthesia, seizure duration, and ECT: a case report and literature review. J ECT 1998; 14: 99-108.
116. Geretsegger C, Rochowanski E, Kartnig C, Unterrainer AF. Propofol and methohexital as anesthetic agents for electroconvulsive therapy (ECT): a comparison of seizure-quality measures and vital signs. J ECT 1998; 14: 28-35. (Pubitemid 28257253)
117. Avramov MN, Husain MM, White PF. The comparative effects of methohexital, propofol, and etomidate for electroconvulsive therapy. Anesth Analg 1995; 81: 596-602.
118. Datto C, Rai AK, Ilivicky HJ, Caroff SN. Augmentation of seizure induction in electroconvulsive therapy: a clinical reappraisal. J ECT 2002; 18: 118-125 (Pubitemid 35192424)
119. Werner C. Effects of analgesia and sedation on cerebrovascular circulation, cerebral blood volume, cerebral metabolism and intracranial pressure. Anaesthesist. 1995; 44 Suppl 3: S566-72.
120. Wajima Z, Shiga T, Yoshikawa T, Ogura A, Inoue T, Ogawa R. Propofol alone, sevoflurane alone, and combined propofol-sevoflurane anaesthesia in electroconvulsive therapy. Anaesth Intens Care 2003; 31: 396-400. (Pubitemid 37038510)
121. Tanaka N, Saito Y, Hikawa Y, Nakazawa K, Yasuda K, Amaha K. Effects of thiopental and sevoflurane on hemodynamics during anesthetic management of electroconvulsive therapy (in Japanese with English abstract). Masui (Jpn J Anesthesiol) 1997; 46: 1575-1579
122. Calarge CA, Crowe RR, Gergis SD, Arndt S, From RP. The comparative effects of sevoflurane and methohexital for electroconvulsive therapy. J ECT 2003; 19: 221-225 (Pubitemid 38018300)
123. Sackeim HA, Devanand DP, Prudic J. Stimulus intensity, seizure threshold, and seizure duration: impact on the efficacy and safety of electroconvulsive therapy. Psychiatric Clinics of North America 1991; 14: 803-843
124. Fredman B, d'Etienne J, Smith I, Husain MM, White PF. Anesthesia for electroconvulsive therapy: effects of propofol and methohexital on seizure activity and recovery. Anesth Analg 1994; 79: 75-79
125. Selvin BL. Electroconvulsive therapy - 1987. Anesthesiology. 1987; 67: 367-385
126. Stanski DR. Monitoring depth of anesthesia. In Miller RD (ed) Anesthesia 5th edition. Churchill Livingstone, Philadelphia, pp 1087-1116, 2000.
127. Reves JG, Glass PSA, Lubarsky DA. Nonbarbiturate intravenous anesthetics. In Miller RD (ed) Anesthesia 5th edition. Churchill Livingstone, Philadelphia, pp 228-272, 2000.
128. Tanabe T, Sakai T, Mi WD, Matsuki A. Electroconvulsive therapy decreased bispectral index - a case report (in Japanese with English abstract). Masui (Jpn J Anesthesiol) 1998; 47: 1096-1098
129. Gunawardane PO, Murphy PA, Sleigh JW. Bispectral index monitoring during electroconvulsive therapy under propofol anaesthesia. Br J Anaesth 2002; 88: 184-187 (Pubitemid 34144995)
130. Nishihara F, Saito S. Pre-ictal bispectral index has a positive correlation with seizure duration during electroconvulsive therapy. Anesth Analg 2002; 94: 1249-1252 (Pubitemid 34441845)
131. White PF, Rawal S, Recart A, Thornton L, Litle M, Stool L. Can the bispectral index be used to predict seizure time and awakening after electroconvulsive therapy? Anesth Analg 2003; 96: 1636-1639
132. Lemmens HJ, Levi DC, Debattista C, Brock-Utne JG. The timing of electroconvulsive therapy and bispectral index after anesthesia induction using different drugs does not affect seizure duration. J Clin Anesth 2003; 15: 29-32. (Pubitemid 36349110)
133. Kadar AG, Kramer BA, Barth MC, White PF. Rapacuronium: an alternative to succinylcholine for electroconvulsive therapy. Anesth Analg 2001; 92: 1171-1172
134. Cheam EW, Critchley LA, Chui PT, Yap JC, Ha VW. Low dose mivacurium is less effective than succinylcholine in electroconvulsive therapy. Can J Anaesth 1999; 46: 49-51.
135. Kelly D, Brull SJ. Neuroleptic malignant syndrome and mivacurium: a safe alternative to succinylcholine? Can J Anaesth 1994; 41: 845-849
136. Matsumoto N, Tomioka A, Sato T, Kawasaki M, Kadoi Y, Saito S. Relationship between cardiac output and onset of succinylcholine chloride action in electroconvulsive therapy. J ECT 2009 (in press).
137. Nishijima K, Ishiguro T. Electroconvulsive therapy for the treatment of neuroleptic malignant syndrome with psychotic symptoms: a report of five cases. J ECT 1999; 15: 158-163 (Pubitemid 30012233)