Toxic ethics: Environmental genomics and the health of populations

Bioethics

Volumn 18, Issue 6, 2004, Pages 493-514

  Robert, Jason Scott ^a   Smith, Andrea ^b,c  

^a ARIZONA STATE UNIVERSITY   (United States)

^b DALHOUSIE UNIVERSITY   (Canada)

^c DALHOUSIE UNIVERSITY   (Canada)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

CANCER; CANCER EPIDEMIOLOGY; CONFIDENTIALITY; ENVIRONMENTAL EXPOSURE; GENOMICS; HUMAN; HUMAN GENOME; INFORMED CONSENT; MEDICAL ETHICS; PHENOTYPE; PRIVACY; REVIEW;

EID: 7044233400     PISSN: 02699702     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1111/j.1467-8519.2004.00413.x     Document Type: Review

References (108)

1. The story is borrowed from: A. Weston. Toward a Social Critique of Bioethics. J Social Philos 1991; 22: 109-118, at 109; Weston borrowed the story from: I.K. Zola. 1970. Helping - Does it Matter? The Problems and Prospects of Mutual-Aid Groups. Address to the United Ostomy Association. We ought not to forget a common intuition about this parable: though our hero may not be able to save everyone, at least he is able to save some people. Looking too far upstream may be just as problematic as focusing too far downstream.
2. The story is borrowed from: A. Weston. Toward a Social Critique of Bioethics. J Social Philos 1991; 22: 109-118, at 109; Weston borrowed the story from: I.K. Zola. 1970. Helping - Does it Matter? The Problems and Prospects of Mutual-Aid Groups. Address to the United Ostomy Association. We ought not to forget a common intuition about this parable: though our hero may not be able to save everyone, at least he is able to save some people. Looking too far upstream may be just as problematic as focusing too far downstream.
3. Canada. 1974. A New Perspective on the Health of Canadians. Department of National Health and Welfare; M.L. Barer, R.G. Evans & T.R. Marmor, eds. 1994. Why Are Some People Healthy and Others Not? The Determinants of Health of Populations. New York. Aldine de Gruyter; R.G. Wilkinson. 1997. Unhealthy Societies: The Afflictions of Inequality. New York, NY. Routledge; M.G. Marmot & R.G. Wilkinson, eds. 1999. Social Determinants of Health. Oxford. Oxford University Press; T. Schettler, G. Solomon, M. Valenti & A. Huddle. 2000. Generations at Risk: Reproductive Health and the Environment. Cambridge, MA. MIT Press.
4. Canada. 1974. A New Perspective on the Health of Canadians. Department of National Health and Welfare; M.L. Barer, R.G. Evans & T.R. Marmor, eds. 1994. Why Are Some People Healthy and Others Not? The Determinants of Health of Populations. New York. Aldine de Gruyter; R.G. Wilkinson. 1997. Unhealthy Societies: The Afflictions of Inequality. New York, NY. Routledge; M.G. Marmot & R.G. Wilkinson, eds. 1999. Social Determinants of Health. Oxford. Oxford University Press; T. Schettler, G. Solomon, M. Valenti & A. Huddle. 2000. Generations at Risk: Reproductive Health and the Environment. Cambridge, MA. MIT Press.
5. Canada. 1974. A New Perspective on the Health of Canadians. Department of National Health and Welfare; M.L. Barer, R.G. Evans & T.R. Marmor, eds. 1994. Why Are Some People Healthy and Others Not? The Determinants of Health of Populations. New York. Aldine de Gruyter; R.G. Wilkinson. 1997. Unhealthy Societies: The Afflictions of Inequality. New York, NY. Routledge; M.G. Marmot & R.G. Wilkinson, eds. 1999. Social Determinants of Health. Oxford. Oxford University Press; T. Schettler, G. Solomon, M. Valenti & A. Huddle. 2000. Generations at Risk: Reproductive Health and the Environment. Cambridge, MA. MIT Press.
6. Canada. 1974. A New Perspective on the Health of Canadians. Department of National Health and Welfare; M.L. Barer, R.G. Evans & T.R. Marmor, eds. 1994. Why Are Some People Healthy and Others Not? The Determinants of Health of Populations. New York. Aldine de Gruyter; R.G. Wilkinson. 1997. Unhealthy Societies: The Afflictions of Inequality. New York, NY. Routledge; M.G. Marmot & R.G. Wilkinson, eds. 1999. Social Determinants of Health. Oxford. Oxford University Press; T. Schettler, G. Solomon, M. Valenti & A. Huddle. 2000. Generations at Risk: Reproductive Health and the Environment. Cambridge, MA. MIT Press.
7. Canada. 1974. A New Perspective on the Health of Canadians. Department of National Health and Welfare; M.L. Barer, R.G. Evans & T.R. Marmor, eds. 1994. Why Are Some People Healthy and Others Not? The Determinants of Health of Populations. New York. Aldine de Gruyter; R.G. Wilkinson. 1997. Unhealthy Societies: The Afflictions of Inequality. New York, NY. Routledge; M.G. Marmot & R.G. Wilkinson, eds. 1999. Social Determinants of Health. Oxford. Oxford University Press; T. Schettler, G. Solomon, M. Valenti & A. Huddle. 2000. Generations at Risk: Reproductive Health and the Environment. Cambridge, MA. MIT Press.
8. See, for instance: A.S. Daar, H. Thorsteinsdóttir, D.K. Martin, A.C. Smith, S. Nast & P.A. Singer. Top Ten Biotechnologies for Improving Health in Developing Countries. Nat Genet 2002; 32: 229-232.
9. See the report prepared for Representative Henry Waxman by the Democratic Staff of the United States House of Representatives' Government Reform Committee (the Waxman Report). Available at: http://www.house.gov/reform/min/ politicsandscience/report.htm (accessed 15 February, 2004).
10. J. Evans. 2001. Playing God? Human Genetic Engineering and the Rationalization of Public Bioethical Debate. Chicago. University of Chicago Press: Chapter 1.
11. S. Sherwin & the Feminist Health Care Ethics Research Network, eds. 1998. The Politics of Women's Health: Exploring Agency and Autonomy. Philadelphia, PA. Temple University Press.
12. N. Daniels, B. Kennedy & I. Kawachi. 2000. Is Inequality Bad for Our Health. Boston, MA. Beacon Press; D. Brock. Broadening the Bioethics Agenda. Kennedy Inst Ethics J 2000; 10: 21-38; D. Wikler. Bioethics and Social Responsibility. Bioethics 1996; 11: 186-192; D. Callahan. 1999. False Hopes: Overcoming the Obstacles to a Sustainable, Affordable Medicine. New Brunswick, NJ. Rutgers University Press; D.E. Beauchamp & B. Steinbock, eds. 1999. New Ethics for the Public's Health. New York. Oxford University Press; Sherwin & the Feminist Health Care Ethics Research Network, op. cit. note 6; A. Jameton & J. Pierce. Environment and Health: 8. Sustainable Health Care and Emerging Ethical Responsibilities. CMAJ 2001; 164: 365-369.
13. N. Daniels, B. Kennedy & I. Kawachi. 2000. Is Inequality Bad for Our Health. Boston, MA. Beacon Press; D. Brock. Broadening the Bioethics Agenda. Kennedy Inst Ethics J 2000; 10: 21-38; D. Wikler. Bioethics and Social Responsibility. Bioethics 1996; 11: 186-192; D. Callahan. 1999. False Hopes: Overcoming the Obstacles to a Sustainable, Affordable Medicine. New Brunswick, NJ. Rutgers University Press; D.E. Beauchamp & B. Steinbock, eds. 1999. New Ethics for the Public's Health. New York. Oxford University Press; Sherwin & the Feminist Health Care Ethics Research Network, op. cit. note 6; A. Jameton & J. Pierce. Environment and Health: 8. Sustainable Health Care and Emerging Ethical Responsibilities. CMAJ 2001; 164: 365-369.
14. N. Daniels, B. Kennedy & I. Kawachi. 2000. Is Inequality Bad for Our Health. Boston, MA. Beacon Press; D. Brock. Broadening the Bioethics Agenda. Kennedy Inst Ethics J 2000; 10: 21-38; D. Wikler. Bioethics and Social Responsibility. Bioethics 1996; 11: 186-192; D. Callahan. 1999. False Hopes: Overcoming the Obstacles to a Sustainable, Affordable Medicine. New Brunswick, NJ. Rutgers University Press; D.E. Beauchamp & B. Steinbock, eds. 1999. New Ethics for the Public's Health. New York. Oxford University Press; Sherwin & the Feminist Health Care Ethics Research Network, op. cit. note 6; A. Jameton & J. Pierce. Environment and Health: 8. Sustainable Health Care and Emerging Ethical Responsibilities. CMAJ 2001; 164: 365-369.
15. N. Daniels, B. Kennedy & I. Kawachi. 2000. Is Inequality Bad for Our Health. Boston, MA. Beacon Press; D. Brock. Broadening the Bioethics Agenda. Kennedy Inst Ethics J 2000; 10: 21-38; D. Wikler. Bioethics and Social Responsibility. Bioethics 1996; 11: 186-192; D. Callahan. 1999. False Hopes: Overcoming the Obstacles to a Sustainable, Affordable Medicine. New Brunswick, NJ. Rutgers University Press; D.E. Beauchamp & B. Steinbock, eds. 1999. New Ethics for the Public's Health. New York. Oxford University Press; Sherwin & the Feminist Health Care Ethics Research Network, op. cit. note 6; A. Jameton & J. Pierce. Environment and Health: 8. Sustainable Health Care and Emerging Ethical Responsibilities. CMAJ 2001; 164: 365-369.
16. N. Daniels, B. Kennedy & I. Kawachi. 2000. Is Inequality Bad for Our Health. Boston, MA. Beacon Press; D. Brock. Broadening the Bioethics Agenda. Kennedy Inst Ethics J 2000; 10: 21-38; D. Wikler. Bioethics and Social Responsibility. Bioethics 1996; 11: 186-192; D. Callahan. 1999. False Hopes: Overcoming the Obstacles to a Sustainable, Affordable Medicine. New Brunswick, NJ. Rutgers University Press; D.E. Beauchamp & B. Steinbock, eds. 1999. New Ethics for the Public's Health. New York. Oxford University Press; Sherwin & the Feminist Health Care Ethics Research Network, op. cit. note 6; A. Jameton & J. Pierce. Environment and Health: 8. Sustainable Health Care and Emerging Ethical Responsibilities. CMAJ 2001; 164: 365-369.
17. N. Daniels, B. Kennedy & I. Kawachi. 2000. Is Inequality Bad for Our Health. Boston, MA. Beacon Press; D. Brock. Broadening the Bioethics Agenda. Kennedy Inst Ethics J 2000; 10: 21-38; D. Wikler. Bioethics and Social Responsibility. Bioethics 1996; 11: 186-192; D. Callahan. 1999. False Hopes: Overcoming the Obstacles to a Sustainable, Affordable Medicine. New Brunswick, NJ. Rutgers University Press; D.E. Beauchamp & B. Steinbock, eds. 1999. New Ethics for the Public's Health. New York. Oxford University Press; Sherwin & the Feminist Health Care Ethics Research Network, op. cit. note 6; A. Jameton & J. Pierce. Environment and Health: 8. Sustainable Health Care and Emerging Ethical Responsibilities. CMAJ 2001; 164: 365-369.
18. N. Daniels, B. Kennedy & I. Kawachi. 2000. Is Inequality Bad for Our Health. Boston, MA. Beacon Press; D. Brock. Broadening the Bioethics Agenda. Kennedy Inst Ethics J 2000; 10: 21-38; D. Wikler. Bioethics and Social Responsibility. Bioethics 1996; 11: 186-192; D. Callahan. 1999. False Hopes: Overcoming the Obstacles to a Sustainable, Affordable Medicine. New Brunswick, NJ. Rutgers University Press; D.E. Beauchamp & B. Steinbock, eds. 1999. New Ethics for the Public's Health. New York. Oxford University Press; Sherwin & the Feminist Health Care Ethics Research Network, op. cit. note 6; A. Jameton & J. Pierce. Environment and Health: 8. Sustainable Health Care and Emerging Ethical Responsibilities. CMAJ 2001; 164: 365-369.
19. Wikler, op. cit. note 7.
20. Callahan, op. cit. note 7.
21. J. Mann. Human Rights and the New Public Health. Health and Human Rights 1995; 1: 229-233.
22. Weston, op. cit. note 1; Wikler, op. cit. note 7; Brock, op. cit. note 7; Sherwin & the Feminist Health Care Ethics Research Network, op. cit. note 6; S. Sherwin. 1992. No Longer Patient. Philadelphia, PA. Temple University Press.
23. Weston, op. cit. note 1; Wikler, op. cit. note 7; Brock, op. cit. note 7; Sherwin & the Feminist Health Care Ethics Research Network, op. cit. note 6; S. Sherwin. 1992. No Longer Patient. Philadelphia, PA. Temple University Press.
24. Weston, op. cit. note 1; Wikler, op. cit. note 7; Brock, op. cit. note 7; Sherwin & the Feminist Health Care Ethics Research Network, op. cit. note 6; S. Sherwin. 1992. No Longer Patient. Philadelphia, PA. Temple University Press.
25. Weston, op. cit. note 1; Wikler, op. cit. note 7; Brock, op. cit. note 7; Sherwin & the Feminist Health Care Ethics Research Network, op. cit. note 6; S. Sherwin. 1992. No Longer Patient. Philadelphia, PA. Temple University Press.
26. Weston, op. cit. note 1; Wikler, op. cit. note 7; Brock, op. cit. note 7; Sherwin & the Feminist Health Care Ethics Research Network, op. cit. note 6; S. Sherwin. 1992. No Longer Patient. Philadelphia, PA. Temple University Press.
27. By 'genetics and genomics' we mean to capture a wide range of techniques, from classical Mendelian and molecular genetics through newer tools such as genome-wide scans, DNA microarrays, and other techniques employing whole genome sequence data.
28. M.V. Hayes & J.R. Dunn. 1998. Population Health in Canada: A Systematic Review. CPRN Study No. HO1. Ottawa. Canadian Policy Research Networks.
29. E. Juengst. Prevention and the Goals of Genetic Medicine. Hum Gene Ther 1995; 6:1595-1607.
30. Juengst, op. cit. note 14; see also M.J. Khoury, W. Burke & E. Thomson, eds. 2001. Genetics and Public Health in the 21st Century: Using Genetic Information to Improve Health and Prevent Disease. Oxford. Oxford University Press.
31. Juengst, op. cit. note 14; see also M.J. Khoury, W. Burke & E. Thomson, eds. 2001. Genetics and Public Health in the 21st Century: Using Genetic Information to Improve Health and Prevent Disease. Oxford. Oxford University Press.
32. M.J. Khoury & the Genetics Working Group. From Genes to Public Health: The Applications of Genetic Technology in Disease Prevention. Am J Public Health 1996; 86: 1717-1722.
33. J. Kaiser. Environmental Institute Lays Plans for Gene Hunt. Science 1997; 278: 569-570; F.P. Guengerich. The Environmental Genome Project: Functional Analysis of Polymorphisms. Environ Health Perspect 1998; 106: 365-368; R.R. Sharp & J.C. Barrett. The Environmental Genome Project and Bioethics. Kennedy Inst Ethics J 1999; 9: 175-188; K. Olden & S. Wilson. Environmental Health and Genomics: Visions and Implications. Nat Rev Genet 2000; 1: 149-153; K. Olden, J. Guthrie & S. Newton. A Bold New Direction for Environmental Health Research. Am J Public Health 2001; 91: 1964-1967; R.R. Sharp. The Evolution of Predictive Genetic Testing: Deciphering Gene-Environment Interactions. Jurimetrics 2001; 41: 145-163.
34. J. Kaiser. Environmental Institute Lays Plans for Gene Hunt. Science 1997; 278: 569-570; F.P. Guengerich. The Environmental Genome Project: Functional Analysis of Polymorphisms. Environ Health Perspect 1998; 106: 365-368; R.R. Sharp & J.C. Barrett. The Environmental Genome Project and Bioethics. Kennedy Inst Ethics J 1999; 9: 175-188; K. Olden & S. Wilson. Environmental Health and Genomics: Visions and Implications. Nat Rev Genet 2000; 1: 149-153; K. Olden, J. Guthrie & S. Newton. A Bold New Direction for Environmental Health Research. Am J Public Health 2001; 91: 1964-1967; R.R. Sharp. The Evolution of Predictive Genetic Testing: Deciphering Gene-Environment Interactions. Jurimetrics 2001; 41: 145-163.
35. J. Kaiser. Environmental Institute Lays Plans for Gene Hunt. Science 1997; 278: 569-570; F.P. Guengerich. The Environmental Genome Project: Functional Analysis of Polymorphisms. Environ Health Perspect 1998; 106: 365-368; R.R. Sharp & J.C. Barrett. The Environmental Genome Project and Bioethics. Kennedy Inst Ethics J 1999; 9: 175-188; K. Olden & S. Wilson. Environmental Health and Genomics: Visions and Implications. Nat Rev Genet 2000; 1: 149-153; K. Olden, J. Guthrie & S. Newton. A Bold New Direction for Environmental Health Research. Am J Public Health 2001; 91: 1964-1967; R.R. Sharp. The Evolution of Predictive Genetic Testing: Deciphering Gene-Environment Interactions. Jurimetrics 2001; 41: 145-163.
36. J. Kaiser. Environmental Institute Lays Plans for Gene Hunt. Science 1997; 278: 569-570; F.P. Guengerich. The Environmental Genome Project: Functional Analysis of Polymorphisms. Environ Health Perspect 1998; 106: 365-368; R.R. Sharp & J.C. Barrett. The Environmental Genome Project and Bioethics. Kennedy Inst Ethics J 1999; 9: 175-188; K. Olden & S. Wilson. Environmental Health and Genomics: Visions and Implications. Nat Rev Genet 2000; 1: 149-153; K. Olden, J. Guthrie & S. Newton. A Bold New Direction for Environmental Health Research. Am J Public Health 2001; 91: 1964-1967; R.R. Sharp. The Evolution of Predictive Genetic Testing: Deciphering Gene-Environment Interactions. Jurimetrics 2001; 41: 145-163.
37. J. Kaiser. Environmental Institute Lays Plans for Gene Hunt. Science 1997; 278: 569-570; F.P. Guengerich. The Environmental Genome Project: Functional Analysis of Polymorphisms. Environ Health Perspect 1998; 106: 365-368; R.R. Sharp & J.C. Barrett. The Environmental Genome Project and Bioethics. Kennedy Inst Ethics J 1999; 9: 175-188; K. Olden & S. Wilson. Environmental Health and Genomics: Visions and Implications. Nat Rev Genet 2000; 1: 149-153; K. Olden, J. Guthrie & S. Newton. A Bold New Direction for Environmental Health Research. Am J Public Health 2001; 91: 1964-1967; R.R. Sharp. The Evolution of Predictive Genetic Testing: Deciphering Gene-Environment Interactions. Jurimetrics 2001; 41: 145-163.
38. J. Kaiser. Environmental Institute Lays Plans for Gene Hunt. Science 1997; 278: 569-570; F.P. Guengerich. The Environmental Genome Project: Functional Analysis of Polymorphisms. Environ Health Perspect 1998; 106: 365-368; R.R. Sharp & J.C. Barrett. The Environmental Genome Project and Bioethics. Kennedy Inst Ethics J 1999; 9: 175-188; K. Olden & S. Wilson. Environmental Health and Genomics: Visions and Implications. Nat Rev Genet 2000; 1: 149-153; K. Olden, J. Guthrie & S. Newton. A Bold New Direction for Environmental Health Research. Am J Public Health 2001; 91: 1964-1967; R.R. Sharp. The Evolution of Predictive Genetic Testing: Deciphering Gene-Environment Interactions. Jurimetrics 2001; 41: 145-163.
39. S. Sarkar. 1998. Genetics and Reductionism. New York. Cambridge University Press.
40. Olden & Wilson, op. cit. note 17.
41. Sharp & Barrett, op. cit. note 17.
42. Even single-gene disorders (such as PKU) are remarkably complex developmentally; for an especially enlightening discussion, see: C.R. Scriver & P.J. Waters. Monogenic Traits are Not Simple: Lessons from Phenylketonuria. Trends Genet 1999; 15: 267-272.
43. Exceptions include: A. Lippman. Led (Astray) by Genetic Maps: The Cartography of the Human Genome and Health Care. Soc Sci Med 1992; 35: 1469-1476; Juengst, op. cit. note 14; L.S. Parker. Ethical Concerns in the Research and Treatment of Complex Disease. Trends Genet 1995; 11: 520-523; J.S. Robert. Moral Truthfulness in Genetic Counseling. Business and Professional Ethics J 1998; 17: 73-93; R. Wachbroit. The Question Not Asked: The Challenge of Pleiotropic Genetic Tests. Kennedy Inst Ethics J 1998; 8: 131-144; Sharp & Barrett, op. cit. note 17; Sharp, op. cit. note 17; D.C. Christiani, R.R. Sharp, G.W. Collman & W.A. Suk. Applying Genomic Technologies in Environmental Health Research: Challenges and Opportunities. J Occup Environ Med 2001; 43: 526-533.
44. Exceptions include: A. Lippman. Led (Astray) by Genetic Maps: The Cartography of the Human Genome and Health Care. Soc Sci Med 1992; 35: 1469-1476; Juengst, op. cit. note 14; L.S. Parker. Ethical Concerns in the Research and Treatment of Complex Disease. Trends Genet 1995; 11: 520-523; J.S. Robert. Moral Truthfulness in Genetic Counseling. Business and Professional Ethics J 1998; 17: 73-93; R. Wachbroit. The Question Not Asked: The Challenge of Pleiotropic Genetic Tests. Kennedy Inst Ethics J 1998; 8: 131-144; Sharp & Barrett, op. cit. note 17; Sharp, op. cit. note 17; D.C. Christiani, R.R. Sharp, G.W. Collman & W.A. Suk. Applying Genomic Technologies in Environmental Health Research: Challenges and Opportunities. J Occup Environ Med 2001; 43: 526-533.
45. Exceptions include: A. Lippman. Led (Astray) by Genetic Maps: The Cartography of the Human Genome and Health Care. Soc Sci Med 1992; 35: 1469-1476; Juengst, op. cit. note 14; L.S. Parker. Ethical Concerns in the Research and Treatment of Complex Disease. Trends Genet 1995; 11: 520-523; J.S. Robert. Moral Truthfulness in Genetic Counseling. Business and Professional Ethics J 1998; 17: 73-93; R. Wachbroit. The Question Not Asked: The Challenge of Pleiotropic Genetic Tests. Kennedy Inst Ethics J 1998; 8: 131-144; Sharp & Barrett, op. cit. note 17; Sharp, op. cit. note 17; D.C. Christiani, R.R. Sharp, G.W. Collman & W.A. Suk. Applying Genomic Technologies in Environmental Health Research: Challenges and Opportunities. J Occup Environ Med 2001; 43: 526-533.
46. Exceptions include: A. Lippman. Led (Astray) by Genetic Maps: The Cartography of the Human Genome and Health Care. Soc Sci Med 1992; 35: 1469-1476; Juengst, op. cit. note 14; L.S. Parker. Ethical Concerns in the Research and Treatment of Complex Disease. Trends Genet 1995; 11: 520-523; J.S. Robert. Moral Truthfulness in Genetic Counseling. Business and Professional Ethics J 1998; 17: 73-93; R. Wachbroit. The Question Not Asked: The Challenge of Pleiotropic Genetic Tests. Kennedy Inst Ethics J 1998; 8: 131-144; Sharp & Barrett, op. cit. note 17; Sharp, op. cit. note 17; D.C. Christiani, R.R. Sharp, G.W. Collman & W.A. Suk. Applying Genomic Technologies in Environmental Health Research: Challenges and Opportunities. J Occup Environ Med 2001; 43: 526-533.
47. Exceptions include: A. Lippman. Led (Astray) by Genetic Maps: The Cartography of the Human Genome and Health Care. Soc Sci Med 1992; 35: 1469-1476; Juengst, op. cit. note 14; L.S. Parker. Ethical Concerns in the Research and Treatment of Complex Disease. Trends Genet 1995; 11: 520-523; J.S. Robert. Moral Truthfulness in Genetic Counseling. Business and Professional Ethics J 1998; 17: 73-93; R. Wachbroit. The Question Not Asked: The Challenge of Pleiotropic Genetic Tests. Kennedy Inst Ethics J 1998; 8: 131-144; Sharp & Barrett, op. cit. note 17; Sharp, op. cit. note 17; D.C. Christiani, R.R. Sharp, G.W. Collman & W.A. Suk. Applying Genomic Technologies in Environmental Health Research: Challenges and Opportunities. J Occup Environ Med 2001; 43: 526-533.
48. Exceptions include: A. Lippman. Led (Astray) by Genetic Maps: The Cartography of the Human Genome and Health Care. Soc Sci Med 1992; 35: 1469-1476; Juengst, op. cit. note 14; L.S. Parker. Ethical Concerns in the Research and Treatment of Complex Disease. Trends Genet 1995; 11: 520-523; J.S. Robert. Moral Truthfulness in Genetic Counseling. Business and Professional Ethics J 1998; 17: 73-93; R. Wachbroit. The Question Not Asked: The Challenge of Pleiotropic Genetic Tests. Kennedy Inst Ethics J 1998; 8: 131-144; Sharp & Barrett, op. cit. note 17; Sharp, op. cit. note 17; D.C. Christiani, R.R. Sharp, G.W. Collman & W.A. Suk. Applying Genomic Technologies in Environmental Health Research: Challenges and Opportunities. J Occup Environ Med 2001; 43: 526-533.
49. Exceptions include: A. Lippman. Led (Astray) by Genetic Maps: The Cartography of the Human Genome and Health Care. Soc Sci Med 1992; 35: 1469-1476; Juengst, op. cit. note 14; L.S. Parker. Ethical Concerns in the Research and Treatment of Complex Disease. Trends Genet 1995; 11: 520-523; J.S. Robert. Moral Truthfulness in Genetic Counseling. Business and Professional Ethics J 1998; 17: 73-93; R. Wachbroit. The Question Not Asked: The Challenge of Pleiotropic Genetic Tests. Kennedy Inst Ethics J 1998; 8: 131-144; Sharp & Barrett, op. cit. note 17; Sharp, op. cit. note 17; D.C. Christiani, R.R. Sharp, G.W. Collman & W.A. Suk. Applying Genomic Technologies in Environmental Health Research: Challenges and Opportunities. J Occup Environ Med 2001; 43: 526-533.
50. Exceptions include: A. Lippman. Led (Astray) by Genetic Maps: The Cartography of the Human Genome and Health Care. Soc Sci Med 1992; 35: 1469-1476; Juengst, op. cit. note 14; L.S. Parker. Ethical Concerns in the Research and Treatment of Complex Disease. Trends Genet 1995; 11: 520-523; J.S. Robert. Moral Truthfulness in Genetic Counseling. Business and Professional Ethics J 1998; 17: 73-93; R. Wachbroit. The Question Not Asked: The Challenge of Pleiotropic Genetic Tests. Kennedy Inst Ethics J 1998; 8: 131-144; Sharp & Barrett, op. cit. note 17; Sharp, op. cit. note 17; D.C. Christiani, R.R. Sharp, G.W. Collman & W.A. Suk. Applying Genomic Technologies in Environmental Health Research: Challenges and Opportunities. J Occup Environ Med 2001; 43: 526-533.
51. Sharp & Barrett, op. cit. note 17, pp. 175-188; R.R. Sharp & J.C. Barrett. The Environmental Genome Project: Ethical, Legal, Social Implications. Envrion Health Perspect 2000; 108: 279-281.
52. Sharp & Barrett, op. cit. note 17, pp. 175-188; R.R. Sharp & J.C. qBarrett. The Environmental Genome Project: Ethical, Legal, Social Implications. Envrion Health Perspect 2000; 108: 279-281.
53. A.V. Diez-Roux. On Genes, Individuals, Society, and Epidemiology. Am J Epidemiol 1998; 148: 1027-1032; N. Krieger. Epidemiology and the Web of Causation: Has Anyone Seen the Spider? Soc Sci Med 1994; 39: 887-903; D. Savitz. The Alternative to Epidemiologic Theory: Whatever Works. Epidemiology 1997; 8: 210-212.
54. A.V. Diez-Roux. On Genes, Individuals, Society, and Epidemiology. Am J Epidemiol 1998; 148: 1027-1032; N. Krieger. Epidemiology and the Web of Causation: Has Anyone Seen the Spider? Soc Sci Med 1994; 39: 887-903; D. Savitz. The Alternative to Epidemiologic Theory: Whatever Works. Epidemiology 1997; 8: 210-212.
55. A.V. Diez-Roux. On Genes, Individuals, Society, and Epidemiology. Am J Epidemiol 1998; 148: 1027-1032; N. Krieger. Epidemiology and the Web of Causation: Has Anyone Seen the Spider? Soc Sci Med 1994; 39: 887-903; D. Savitz. The Alternative to Epidemiologic Theory: Whatever Works. Epidemiology 1997; 8: 210-212.
56. M.C. Inhorn & K.L. Whittle. Feminism Meets the 'New' Epidemiologies: Toward an Appraisal of Antifeminist Biases in Epidemiological Research on Women's Health. Soc Sci Med 2001; 53: 553-567.
57. N. Krieger & S. Zierler. What Explains the Public's Health: A Call for Epidemiological Theory. Epidemiology 1996; 7: 107-109; N. Pearce. Traditional Epidemiology, Modern Epidemiology, and Public Health. Am J Public Health 1996; 86: 678-683; Diez-Roux, op. cit. note 24; Krieger, op. cit. note 24.
58. N. Krieger & S. Zierler. What Explains the Public's Health: A Call for Epidemiological Theory. Epidemiology 1996; 7: 107-109; N. Pearce. Traditional Epidemiology, Modern Epidemiology, and Public Health. Am J Public Health 1996; 86: 678-683; Diez-Roux, op. cit. note 24; Krieger, op. cit. note 24.
59. N. Krieger & S. Zierler. What Explains the Public's Health: A Call for Epidemiological Theory. Epidemiology 1996; 7: 107-109; N. Pearce. Traditional Epidemiology, Modern Epidemiology, and Public Health. Am J Public Health 1996; 86: 678-683; Diez-Roux, op. cit. note 24; Krieger, op. cit. note 24.
60. N. Krieger & S. Zierler. What Explains the Public's Health: A Call for Epidemiological Theory. Epidemiology 1996; 7: 107-109; N. Pearce. Traditional Epidemiology, Modern Epidemiology, and Public Health. Am J Public Health 1996; 86: 678-683; Diez-Roux, op. cit. note 24; Krieger, op. cit. note 24.
61. See, for instance: S. Tesh. 1994. Hidden Arguments: Political Ideology and Disease Prevention Policy. New Brunswick, NJ. Rutgers University Press; J.B. McKinlay & L.D. Marceau. To Boldly Go ... Am J Public Health 2000; 90: 25-33; Inhorn & Whittle, op. cit. note 25; Krieger & Zierler, op. cit. note 26; R. Crawford. You are Dangerous to Your Health: The Ideology and Politics of Victim Blaming. Int J of Health Serv 1977; 7: 663-680.
62. See, for instance: S. Tesh. 1994. Hidden Arguments: Political Ideology and Disease Prevention Policy. New Brunswick, NJ. Rutgers University Press; J.B. McKinlay & L.D. Marceau. To Boldly Go ... Am J Public Health 2000; 90: 25-33; Inhorn & Whittle, op. cit. note 25; Krieger & Zierler, op. cit. note 26; R. Crawford. You are Dangerous to Your Health: The Ideology and Politics of Victim Blaming. Int J of Health Serv 1977; 7: 663-680.
63. See, for instance: S. Tesh. 1994. Hidden Arguments: Political Ideology and Disease Prevention Policy. New Brunswick, NJ. Rutgers University Press; J.B. McKinlay & L.D. Marceau. To Boldly Go ... Am J Public Health 2000; 90: 25-33; Inhorn & Whittle, op. cit. note 25; Krieger & Zierler, op. cit. note 26; R. Crawford. You are Dangerous to Your Health: The Ideology and Politics of Victim Blaming. Int J of Health Serv 1977; 7: 663-680.
64. See, for instance: S. Tesh. 1994. Hidden Arguments: Political Ideology and Disease Prevention Policy. New Brunswick, NJ. Rutgers University Press; J.B. McKinlay & L.D. Marceau. To Boldly Go ... Am J Public Health 2000; 90: 25-33; Inhorn & Whittle, op. cit. note 25; Krieger & Zierler, op. cit. note 26; R. Crawford. You are Dangerous to Your Health: The Ideology and Politics of Victim Blaming. Int J of Health Serv 1977; 7: 663-680.
65. See, for instance: S. Tesh. 1994. Hidden Arguments: Political Ideology and Disease Prevention Policy. New Brunswick, NJ. Rutgers University Press; J.B. McKinlay & L.D. Marceau. To Boldly Go ... Am J Public Health 2000; 90: 25-33; Inhorn & Whittle, op. cit. note 25; Krieger & Zierler, op. cit. note 26; R. Crawford. You are Dangerous to Your Health: The Ideology and Politics of Victim Blaming. Int J of Health Serv 1977; 7: 663-680.
66. See, e.g.: R. Bhargava. 1992. Individualism in Social Science: Forms and Limits of a Methodology. Oxford. Oxford University Press.
67. Krieger, op. cit. note 24, p. 892.
68. There is a quite sophisticated literature on reductionism and aggregativity in the philosophy of science; unfortunately, this level of sophistication is lacking in standard accounts of biomedical individualism. For a more satisfactory account than we hint at here, see: W.C. Wimsatt. 1986. Forms of Aggregativity. In Human Nature and Natural Knowledge. A. Donagan, N. Perovich & M. Wedin, eds. Dordrecht. D. Reidel: 259-293; and W.C. Wimsatt. Aggregativity: Reductive Heuristics for Finding Emergence. Philos of Science 1997; 64: supplement. Proceedings of the 1996 Biennial Meetings of the Philosophy of Science Association. Part II: S372-S384.
69. There is a quite sophisticated literature on reductionism and aggregativity in the philosophy of science; unfortunately, this level of sophistication is lacking in standard accounts of biomedical individualism. For a more satisfactory account than we hint at here, see: W.C. Wimsatt. 1986. Forms of Aggregativity. In Human Nature and Natural Knowledge. A. Donagan, N. Perovich & M. Wedin, eds. Dordrecht. D. Reidel: 259-293; and W.C. Wimsatt. Aggregativity: Reductive Heuristics for Finding Emergence. Philos of Science 1997; 64: supplement. Proceedings of the 1996 Biennial Meetings of the Philosophy of Science Association. Part II: S372-S384.
70. There is a quite sophisticated literature on reductionism and aggregativity in the philosophy of science; unfortunately, this level of sophistication is lacking in standard accounts of biomedical individualism. For a more satisfactory account than we hint at here, see: W.C. Wimsatt. 1986. Forms of Aggregativity. In Human Nature and Natural Knowledge. A. Donagan, N. Perovich & M. Wedin, eds. Dordrecht. D. Reidel: 259-293; and W.C. Wimsatt. Aggregativity: Reductive Heuristics for Finding Emergence. Philos of Science 1997; 64: supplement. Proceedings of the 1996 Biennial Meetings of the Philosophy of Science Association. Part II: S372-S384.
71. Diez-Roux, op. cit. note 24, p. 128.
72. G. Rose. Sick Individuals and Sick Populations. Int J Epidemiol 2001; 30: 427-432. (Originally published in 1985; 14: 32-38.)
73. G. Rose. Sick Individuals and Sick Populations. Int J Epidemiol 2001; 30: 427-432. (Originally published in 1985; 14: 32-38.)
74. See, e.g.: G. Davey Smith, M.J. Shipley & G. Rose. Magnitude and Cause of Socioeconomic Differentials in Mortality: Further Evidence from the Whitehall Study. J Epidemiol Community Health 1990; 44: 265-270; Wilkinson, op. cit. note 2; Marmot & Wilkinson, op. cit. note 2.
75. See, e.g.: G. Davey Smith, M.J. Shipley & G. Rose. Magnitude and Cause of Socioeconomic Differentials in Mortality: Further Evidence from the Whitehall Study. J Epidemiol Community Health 1990; 44: 265-270; Wilkinson, op. cit. note 2; Marmot & Wilkinson, op. cit. note 2.
76. See, e.g.: G. Davey Smith, M.J. Shipley & G. Rose. Magnitude and Cause of Socioeconomic Differentials in Mortality: Further Evidence from the Whitehall Study. J Epidemiol Community Health 1990; 44: 265-270; Wilkinson, op. cit. note 2; Marmot & Wilkinson, op. cit. note 2.
77. See also Daniels et al., op. cit. note 7; Brock, op. cit. note 7.
78. See also Daniels et al., op. cit. note 7; Brock, op. cit. note 7.
79. S. Rose, R.C. Lewontin & L.J. Kamin. 1984. Not in Our Genes: Biology, Ideology, and Human Nature. London. Penguin Books: 5-6.
80. Lisa Gannett argues that the emphasis on genetics in disease aetiology is based not on objective empirical grounds but is the result of pragmatic considerations, such as who is asking the research questions, and the nature of the technological means available to answer them. See: L. Gannett. What's in a Cause? The Pragmatic Dimensions of Genetic Explanations. Biol Philos 1999; 14: 349-374. See also: J.S. Robert. 2004. Embryology, Epigenesis, and Evolution: Taking Development Seriously. New York. Cambridge University Press.
81. Lisa Gannett argues that the emphasis on genetics in disease aetiology is based not on objective empirical grounds but is the result of pragmatic considerations, such as who is asking the research questions, and the nature of the technological means available to answer them. See: L. Gannett. What's in a Cause? The Pragmatic Dimensions of Genetic Explanations. Biol Philos 1999; 14: 349-374. See also: J.S. Robert. 2004. Embryology, Epigenesis, and Evolution: Taking Development Seriously. New York. Cambridge University Press.
82. R. Chrisjohn & S. Young. 1992. The Circle Game: Shadows and Substance in the Indian Residential School Experience in Canada. Penticton, BC. Theytus Books: 92-93.
83. A.V. Diez-Roux. Bringing Context Back into Epidemiology: Variables and Fallacies in Multi-Level Analysis. Am J Public Health 1998; 88: 216-222; S. Schwartz. The Fallacy of the Ecological Fallacy: The Potential Misuse of a Concept and the Consequences. Am J Public Health 1994; 84: 819-824.
84. A.V. Diez-Roux. Bringing Context Back into Epidemiology: Variables and Fallacies in Multi-Level Analysis. Am J Public Health 1998; 88: 216-222; S. Schwartz. The Fallacy of the Ecological Fallacy: The Potential Misuse of a Concept and the Consequences. Am J Public Health 1994; 84: 819-824.
85. Weston, op. cit. note 1, p. 113.
86. Actually, two literatures are relevant here: that on community consent, participation, and engagement (e.g.: E. Juengst. Groups as Gate-Keepers in Genetic Research: Conceptually Confusing, Morally Hazardous, and Practically Useless. Kennedy Inst Ethics J 1998; 8: 183-200; C. Weijer. Protecting Communities in Research: Philosophical and Pragmatic Challenges. Camb Q Healthc Ethics 1999; 8: 501-513; D.S. Davis. Groups, Communities, and Contested Identities in Genetic Research. Hastings Cent Rep 2000; 30: 38-45; E. Juengst. What Community Review Can and Cannot Do. J Law Med Ethics 2000; 28: 52-54; C. Weijer & EJ. Emanuel. Protecting Communities in Biomedical Research. Science 2000; 289: 1142-1144) and that on human genome diversity and variability research (e.g.: D.B. Resnik. The Human Genome Diversity Project: Ethical Problems and Solutions. Politics and the Life Sciences 1999; 18: 15-23; K.K. Kidd & J.R. Kidd. Experience and Preliminary Results in Human Genome Diversity Research. Politics and the Life Sciences 1999; 18: 314-316; M. Lock. The HGDP and the Politics of Bioethics. Politics and the Life Sciences 1999; 18: 323-325).
87. Actually, two literatures are relevant here: that on community consent, participation, and engagement (e.g.: E. Juengst. Groups as Gate-Keepers in Genetic Research: Conceptually Confusing, Morally Hazardous, and Practically Useless. Kennedy Inst Ethics J 1998; 8: 183-200; C. Weijer. Protecting Communities in Research: Philosophical and Pragmatic Challenges. Camb Q Healthc Ethics 1999; 8: 501-513; D.S. Davis. Groups, Communities, and Contested Identities in Genetic Research. Hastings Cent Rep 2000; 30: 38-45; E. Juengst. What Community Review Can and Cannot Do. J Law Med Ethics 2000; 28: 52-54; C. Weijer & EJ. Emanuel. Protecting Communities in Biomedical Research. Science 2000; 289: 1142-1144) and that on human genome diversity and variability research (e.g.: D.B. Resnik. The Human Genome Diversity Project: Ethical Problems and Solutions. Politics and the Life Sciences 1999; 18: 15-23; K.K. Kidd & J.R. Kidd. Experience and Preliminary Results in Human Genome Diversity Research. Politics and the Life Sciences 1999; 18: 314-316; M. Lock. The HGDP and the Politics of Bioethics. Politics and the Life Sciences 1999; 18: 323-325).
88. Actually, two literatures are relevant here: that on community consent, participation, and engagement (e.g.: E. Juengst. Groups as Gate-Keepers in Genetic Research: Conceptually Confusing, Morally Hazardous, and Practically Useless. Kennedy Inst Ethics J 1998; 8: 183-200; C. Weijer. Protecting Communities in Research: Philosophical and Pragmatic Challenges. Camb Q Healthc Ethics 1999; 8: 501-513; D.S. Davis. Groups, Communities, and Contested Identities in Genetic Research. Hastings Cent Rep 2000; 30: 38-45; E. Juengst. What Community Review Can and Cannot Do. J Law Med Ethics 2000; 28: 52-54; C. Weijer & EJ. Emanuel. Protecting Communities in Biomedical Research. Science 2000; 289: 1142-1144) and that on human genome diversity and variability research (e.g.: D.B. Resnik. The Human Genome Diversity Project: Ethical Problems and Solutions. Politics and the Life Sciences 1999; 18: 15-23; K.K. Kidd & J.R. Kidd. Experience and Preliminary Results in Human Genome Diversity Research. Politics and the Life Sciences 1999; 18: 314-316; M. Lock. The HGDP and the Politics of Bioethics. Politics and the Life Sciences 1999; 18: 323-325).
89. Actually, two literatures are relevant here: that on community consent, participation, and engagement (e.g.: E. Juengst. Groups as Gate-Keepers in Genetic Research: Conceptually Confusing, Morally Hazardous, and Practically Useless. Kennedy Inst Ethics J 1998; 8: 183-200; C. Weijer. Protecting Communities in Research: Philosophical and Pragmatic Challenges. Camb Q Healthc Ethics 1999; 8: 501-513; D.S. Davis. Groups, Communities, and Contested Identities in Genetic Research. Hastings Cent Rep 2000; 30: 38-45; E. Juengst. What Community Review Can and Cannot Do. J Law Med Ethics 2000; 28: 52-54; C. Weijer & EJ. Emanuel. Protecting Communities in Biomedical Research. Science 2000; 289: 1142-1144) and that on human genome diversity and variability research (e.g.: D.B. Resnik. The Human Genome Diversity Project: Ethical Problems and Solutions. Politics and the Life Sciences 1999; 18: 15-23; K.K. Kidd & J.R. Kidd. Experience and Preliminary Results in Human Genome Diversity Research. Politics and the Life Sciences 1999; 18: 314-316; M. Lock. The HGDP and the Politics of Bioethics. Politics and the Life Sciences 1999; 18: 323-325).
90. Actually, two literatures are relevant here: that on community consent, participation, and engagement (e.g.: E. Juengst. Groups as Gate-Keepers in Genetic Research: Conceptually Confusing, Morally Hazardous, and Practically Useless. Kennedy Inst Ethics J 1998; 8: 183-200; C. Weijer. Protecting Communities in Research: Philosophical and Pragmatic Challenges. Camb Q Healthc Ethics 1999; 8: 501-513; D.S. Davis. Groups, Communities, and Contested Identities in Genetic Research. Hastings Cent Rep 2000; 30: 38-45; E. Juengst. What Community Review Can and Cannot Do. J Law Med Ethics 2000; 28: 52-54; C. Weijer & EJ. Emanuel. Protecting Communities in Biomedical Research. Science 2000; 289: 1142-1144) and that on human genome diversity and variability research (e.g.: D.B. Resnik. The Human Genome Diversity Project: Ethical Problems and Solutions. Politics and the Life Sciences 1999; 18: 15-23; K.K. Kidd & J.R. Kidd. Experience and Preliminary Results in Human Genome Diversity Research. Politics and the Life Sciences 1999; 18: 314-316; M. Lock. The HGDP and the Politics of Bioethics. Politics and the Life Sciences 1999; 18: 323-325).
91. Actually, two literatures are relevant here: that on community consent, participation, and engagement (e.g.: E. Juengst. Groups as Gate-Keepers in Genetic Research: Conceptually Confusing, Morally Hazardous, and Practically Useless. Kennedy Inst Ethics J 1998; 8: 183-200; C. Weijer. Protecting Communities in Research: Philosophical and Pragmatic Challenges. Camb Q Healthc Ethics 1999; 8: 501-513; D.S. Davis. Groups, Communities, and Contested Identities in Genetic Research. Hastings Cent Rep 2000; 30: 38-45; E. Juengst. What Community Review Can and Cannot Do. J Law Med Ethics 2000; 28: 52-54; C. Weijer & EJ. Emanuel. Protecting Communities in Biomedical Research. Science 2000; 289: 1142-1144) and that on human genome diversity and variability research (e.g.: D.B. Resnik. The Human Genome Diversity Project: Ethical Problems and Solutions. Politics and the Life Sciences 1999; 18: 15-23; K.K. Kidd & J.R. Kidd. Experience and Preliminary Results in Human Genome Diversity Research. Politics and the Life Sciences 1999; 18: 314-316; M. Lock. The HGDP and the Politics of Bioethics. Politics and the Life Sciences 1999; 18: 323-325).
92. Actually, two literatures are relevant here: that on community consent, participation, and engagement (e.g.: E. Juengst. Groups as Gate-Keepers in Genetic Research: Conceptually Confusing, Morally Hazardous, and Practically Useless. Kennedy Inst Ethics J 1998; 8: 183-200; C. Weijer. Protecting Communities in Research: Philosophical and Pragmatic Challenges. Camb Q Healthc Ethics 1999; 8: 501-513; D.S. Davis. Groups, Communities, and Contested Identities in Genetic Research. Hastings Cent Rep 2000; 30: 38-45; E. Juengst. What Community Review Can and Cannot Do. J Law Med Ethics 2000; 28: 52-54; C. Weijer & EJ. Emanuel. Protecting Communities in Biomedical Research. Science 2000; 289: 1142-1144) and that on human genome diversity and variability research (e.g.: D.B. Resnik. The Human Genome Diversity Project: Ethical Problems and Solutions. Politics and the Life Sciences 1999; 18: 15-23; K.K. Kidd & J.R. Kidd. Experience and Preliminary Results in Human Genome Diversity Research. Politics and the Life Sciences 1999; 18: 314-316; M. Lock. The HGDP and the Politics of Bioethics. Politics and the Life Sciences 1999; 18: 323-325).
93. Actually, two literatures are relevant here: that on community consent, participation, and engagement (e.g.: E. Juengst. Groups as Gate-Keepers in Genetic Research: Conceptually Confusing, Morally Hazardous, and Practically Useless. Kennedy Inst Ethics J 1998; 8: 183-200; C. Weijer. Protecting Communities in Research: Philosophical and Pragmatic Challenges. Camb Q Healthc Ethics 1999; 8: 501-513; D.S. Davis. Groups, Communities, and Contested Identities in Genetic Research. Hastings Cent Rep 2000; 30: 38-45; E. Juengst. What Community Review Can and Cannot Do. J Law Med Ethics 2000; 28: 52-54; C. Weijer & EJ. Emanuel. Protecting Communities in Biomedical Research. Science 2000; 289: 1142-1144) and that on human genome diversity and variability research (e.g.: D.B. Resnik. The Human Genome Diversity Project: Ethical Problems and Solutions. Politics and the Life Sciences 1999; 18: 15-23; K.K. Kidd & J.R. Kidd. Experience and Preliminary Results in Human Genome Diversity Research. Politics and the Life Sciences 1999; 18: 314-316; M. Lock. The HGDP and the Politics of Bioethics. Politics and the Life Sciences 1999; 18: 323-325).
94. E. Juengst. 25 October, 2002. Science, Ethics, and Public Health. Presentation in a Session on Environmental Genomics. Baltimore. American Society for Bioethics and Humanities. Baltimore.
95. We acknowledge that the determination of toxicity itself is complicated, convoluted, and contested terrain. See, e.g.: S.N. Tesh. 2000. Uncertain Hazards: Environmental Activists and Scientific Proof. Ithaca, NY. Cornell University Press: 24-39; see also S. Krimsky. 2001. Hormonal Chaos: The Scientific and Social Origins of the Environmental Endocrine Hypothesis. Baltimore. The Johns Hopkins University Press.
96. We acknowledge that the determination of toxicity itself is complicated, convoluted, and contested terrain. See, e.g.: S.N. Tesh. 2000. Uncertain Hazards: Environmental Activists and Scientific Proof. Ithaca, NY. Cornell University Press: 24-39; see also S. Krimsky. 2001. Hormonal Chaos: The Scientific and Social Origins of the Environmental Endocrine Hypothesis. Baltimore. The Johns Hopkins University Press.
97. For related comments about the Human Genome Project, see: Lippman, op. cit. note 22; see also L. Gannett. Tractable Genes, Entrenched Social Structures. Biol Philos 1997; 12: 403-419.
98. For related comments about the Human Genome Project, see: Lippman, op. cit. note 22; see also L. Gannett. Tractable Genes, Entrenched Social Structures. Biol Philos 1997; 12: 403-419.
99. Tesh, op. cit. note 27, p. 154 citing. W. Ryan. 1976. Blaming the Victim. New York. Vintage Books: 23-24. The story of lead illustrates this point further, with industry's resistance and government's reluctance to remove the neurotoxic metal from gasoline, a common mechanism of urban exposure; see D. Davis. 2002. When Smoke Ran Like Water: Tales of Environmental Deception and the Battle Against Pollution. New York. Basic Books.
100. Tesh, op. cit. note 27, p. 154 citing. W. Ryan. 1976. Blaming the Victim. New York. Vintage Books: 23-24. The story of lead illustrates this point further, with industry's resistance and government's reluctance to remove the neurotoxic metal from gasoline, a common mechanism of urban exposure; see D. Davis. 2002. When Smoke Ran Like Water: Tales of Environmental Deception and the Battle Against Pollution. New York. Basic Books.
101. Tesh, op. cit. note 27, p. 154 citing. W. Ryan. 1976. Blaming the Victim. New York. Vintage Books: 23-24. The story of lead illustrates this point further, with industry's resistance and government's reluctance to remove the neurotoxic metal from gasoline, a common mechanism of urban exposure; see D. Davis. 2002. When Smoke Ran Like Water: Tales of Environmental Deception and the Battle Against Pollution. New York. Basic Books.
102. Levins and Lopez maintain that while it is not true either that 'we are responsible for our own health' or that 'health is socially determined', it is true both that 'we are responsible for our own health' and that 'health is socially determined'; see R. Levins & C. Lopez. Toward an Ecosocial View of Health. Int J Health Serv 1999; 29: 261-293, at 270, 281.
103. Tesh, op. cit. note 27, p. 156.
104. R. Ottman. 1995. Gene-Environment Interaction and Public Health. Am J Hum Genet 1995; 56: 821-823, at 822. See also: P.A. Baird. 1994. The Role of Genetics in Population Health. Why are Some People Healthy and Others Not? In The Determinants of Health of Populations. R.G. Evans, M.L. Barer & T.R. Marmor, eds. New York. Aldine de Gruyter: 133-159; and P.A. Baird. Identification of Genetic Susceptibility to Common Diseases: The Case for Regulation. Perspect Biol Med 2002; 45: 516-528.
105. R. Ottman. 1995. Gene-Environment Interaction and Public Health. Am J Hum Genet 1995; 56: 821-823, at 822. See also: P.A. Baird. 1994. The Role of Genetics in Population Health. Why are Some People Healthy and Others Not? In The Determinants of Health of Populations. R.G. Evans, M.L. Barer & T.R. Marmor, eds. New York. Aldine de Gruyter: 133-159; and P.A. Baird. Identification of Genetic Susceptibility to Common Diseases: The Case for Regulation. Perspect Biol Med 2002; 45: 516-528.
106. R. Ottman. 1995. Gene-Environment Interaction and Public Health. Am J Hum Genet 1995; 56: 821-823, at 822. See also: P.A. Baird. 1994. The Role of Genetics in Population Health. Why are Some People Healthy and Others Not? In The Determinants of Health of Populations. R.G. Evans, M.L. Barer & T.R. Marmor, eds. New York. Aldine de Gruyter: 133-159; and P.A. Baird. Identification of Genetic Susceptibility to Common Diseases: The Case for Regulation. Perspect Biol Med 2002; 45: 516-528.
107. Olden, Guthrie & Newton, op. cit. note 17, p. 1966.
108. L. Wittgenstein. 1980. Culture and Value. Oxford. Basil Blackwell: 62.