Keepers of the secret: Desires to conceal a family member's HIV-positive status in Namibia, Africa

Health Communication

Volumn 24, Issue 5, 2009, Pages 459-472

  Smith, Rachel A ^a   Niedermyer, Angela J ^b  

^a PENNSYLVANIA STATE UNIVERSITY   (United States)

^b UNIVERSITY OF TEXAS   (United States)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

ADOLESCENT; ADULT; AGED; ARTICLE; FAMILY; FEMALE; HUMAN; HUMAN IMMUNODEFICIENCY VIRUS INFECTION; INTERPERSONAL COMMUNICATION; MALE; MIDDLE AGED; NAMIBIA; PRIVACY; PSYCHOLOGICAL ASPECT; SELF DISCLOSURE; SOCIAL SUPPORT;

ADOLESCENT; ADULT; AGED; AGED, 80 AND OVER; FAMILY; FEMALE; HIV SEROPOSITIVITY; HUMANS; MALE; MIDDLE AGED; NAMIBIA; PRIVACY; SELF DISCLOSURE; SOCIAL SUPPORT; TRUTH DISCLOSURE; YOUNG ADULT;

EID: 70350722420     PISSN: 10410236     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1080/10410230903023501     Document Type: Article

References (96)

1. Afifi, T. D., & Olson, L. (2005). The chilling effect in families and the pressure to conceal secrets. Communication Monographs, 72, 192-216.
2. Afifi, T. D., Olson, L. N., & Armstrong, C. (2005). The chilling effect and family secrets: Examining the role of self protection, other protection, and communication efficacy. Human Communication Research, 31, 564-598.
3. Alonzo, A. A., & Reynolds, N. R. (1995). Stigma, HIV and AIDS: An exploration and elaboration of a stigma trajectory. Social Science and Medicine, 41, 303-315.
4. Altman, I. (1975). Environmental and social behavior: Privacy, personal space, territory, and crowding. Monterey, CA: Brooks/Cole.
5. Babcock, J. H. (1998). Involving family and significant others in acute care. In D. M. Aronstein & B. J. Thompson (Eds.), HIV and social work (pp. 101-108). Binghamton, NY: Harrington.
6. Beals, K. P. (2003). Stigma management and well-being: The role of social support, cognitive processing, and suppression: Unpublished doctoral dissertation, University of California, Los Angeles.
7. Bochner, A. P. (1982). On the efficacy of openness in close relationships. In M. Burgoon (Ed.), Communication yearbook 5 (pp. 109-124). New Brunswick, NJ: Transaction Books.
8. Bond, K. C., Valente, T. W., & Kendall, C. (1999). Social network influences on reproductive health behaviors in urban northern Thailand. Social Science and Medicine, 49, 1599-1614.
9. Bok, S. (1984). Secrets: On the ethics of concealment and revelation. New York: Vintage.
10. Bradshaw, J. (1995). Family secrets: What you don't know can hurt you. New York: Bantam.
11. Brashers, D. E., Neidig, J. L., & Goldsmith, D. J. (2004). Social support and the management of uncertainty for people living with HIV or AIDS. Health Communication, 16, 305-331.
12. Brown, L., Macintyre, K., & Trujillo, L. (2003). Interventions to reduce HIV/AIDS stigma: What have we learned? AIDS Education and Prevention, 15, 49-69.
13. Cameron, E. (1993). Legal rights, human rights and AIDS: The first decade. Report from South Africa 2. AIDS Analysis Africa, 3, 3-4.
14. Cameron, E. (2000, January). Breaking the silence. Opening remarks at International Conference on AIDS, Durban, South Africa.
15. Caughlin, J., & Afifi, T. D. (2004). When is topic avoidance unsatisfying? A more complete investigation into the underlying links between avoidance and dissatisfaction in parent-child and dating relationships. Human Communication Research, 30, 479-513.
16. Caughlin, J. P., Golish, T. D., Olson, L. N., Sargent, J. E., Cook, J. S., & Petronio, S. (2000). Intrafamily secrets in various family configurations: A communication boundary management perspective. Communication Studies, 51, 116-134.
17. Chandra, P. S., Deepthivarma, S., & Manjula, V. (2003). Disclosure of HIV in South India: Patterns, reasons and reactions. AIDS Care, 15, 207-215.
18. Chekryn, J. (1989). Families of people with AIDS. Canadian Nurse, 85, 30-32.
19. Cloven, D. H., & Roloff, M. E. (1993). The chilling effect of aggressive potential on the expression of complaints in intimate relationships. Communication Monographs, 60, 199-219.
20. Dago-Akribi, H. A., & Adjoua, M. C. (2004). Psychosexual developments among HIV-positive adolescents in Abidgan, Cote d'Ivoire. Reproductive Health Matters, 12, 19-28.
21. Derlega, V. J., & Grzelak, J. (1979). Appropriateness of self-disclosure. In G. Chelune (Ed.), Self disclosure: Origins, patterns, and implications of openness in interpersonal relationships (pp. 151-176). San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.
22. Derlega, V. J., Metts, S., Petronio, S., & Margulis, S. T. (1993). Self-disclosure. Newbury Park, CA: Sage.
23. Derlega, V. J., Winstead, B. A., & Folk-Barron, L. (2000). Reasons for and against disclosing HIV-seropositive test results to an intimate partner: A functional perspective. In S. Petronio (Ed.), Balancing the secrets of private disclosures. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Inc.
24. Derlega, V. J., Winstead, B. A., Greene, K., Serovich, J., & Elwood, W. N. (2004). Reasons for HIV disclosure/nondisclosure in close relationships: Testing a model of HIV-disclosure decision making. Journal of Social and Clinical Psychology, 23, 747-767.
25. Dindia, K. (2000). Sex differences in self-disclosure, reciprocity of self-disclosure, and self-disclosure and liking: Three meta-analyses reviewed. In S. Petronio (Ed.), Balancing the secrets of private disclosures. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Inc.
26. Dupras, A., Levy, J., & Samson, J. (1989). Homophobia and attitudes about AIDS. Psychological Reports, 62, 236-238.
27. Fife, B. L., & Wright, E. R. (2000). The dimensionality of stigma: A comparison of its impact on the self of persons with HIV/AIDS and cancer. Journal of Health and Social Behavior, 41, 50-67.
28. Fishbein, M., & Ajzen, I. (1975). Belief, attitude, intention and behavior: An introduction to theory and research. Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley.
29. Gardner, C. B. (1991). Stigma and the public self: Notes on communication, self, and others. Journal of Contemporary Ethnography, 20, 251-262.
30. Goffman, E. (1963). Stigma: Notes on the management of spoiled identity. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall.
31. Gold, D. B., & Wegner, D. M. (1995). Origins of ruminative thought- trauma, incompleteness, nondisclosure, and suppression. Journal of Applied Social Psychology, 25, 1245-1261.
32. Granovetter, M. S. (1973). The strength of weak ties. American Journal of Sociology, 78, 1360-1380.
33. Greene, K. (2000). Disclosure of chronic illness varies by topic and target: The role of stigma and boundaries in willingness to disclose. In S. Petronio (Ed.), Balancing the secrets of private disclosures. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Inc.
34. Greene, K., Derlega, V. J., & Mathews, A. (2006). Self-disclosure in personal relationships. In A. Vangelisti (Ed.), The Cambridge handbook of personal relationships (pp. 409-427). New York: Cambridge University Press.
35. Greene, K., Derlega, V. J., Yep, G. A., & Petronio, S. (2003). Privacy and disclosure of HIV in interpersonal relationships: A sourcebook for researchers and practitioners. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Inc.
36. Greene, K., Frey, L. R., & Derlega, V. J. (2002). Interpersonalizing AIDS: Attending to the personal and social relationships of individuals living with HIV and/or Aids. Journal of Social and Personal Relationships, 19, 5-17.
37. Gysels, M., Pool, R., & Bwanika, K. (2001). Truck drivers, middlemen and commercial sex workers: AIDS and the mediation of sex in southwest Uganda. AIDS Care, 13, 373-385.
38. Herek, G. M. (1999). AIDS and stigma. American Behavioral Scientist, 42, 1106-1116.
39. Herek, G. M. (2002). Thinking about AIDS and stigma: A psychologist's perspective. Journal of Law, Medicine and Ethics, 30, 594-607.
40. Hunt, T., & Paine-Gernee, K. (1994). Secrets to tell, secrets to keep. New York: Warner Books.
41. Hunter, J. E., & Gerbing, D. W. (1982). Unidimensional measurement, second order factor analysis, and causal models. In B. M. Staw & L. L. Cummings (Eds.), Research in organizational behavior (Vol. 4, pp. 267-320). Greenwich, CT: JAI.
42. Imber-Black, E. (1998). The secret life of families: Truth-telling, privacy, and reconciliation in a tell-all society. New York: Bantam.
43. Kalichman, S. C. (1995). Understanding AIDS: A guide for mental health professionals. Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.
44. Kalichman, S. C., & Simbayi, L. (2004). Traditional beliefs about the cause of AIDS and AIDS-related stigma in South Africa. AIDS Care, 16, 572-580.
45. Karpel, M. A. (1980). Family secrets: I and II: Conceptual and ethical issues in the relational context. Family Process, 19, 295-306.
46. Katz, A. (1997). "Mom, I have something to tell you"-disclosing HIV infection. Journal of Advanced Nursing, 25, 139-143.
47. Kelly, G. A. (1955). The psychology of personal constructs (Vols. 1 & 2). New York: Norton.
48. Koerner, A. F., & Fitzpatrick, M. A. (1997). Family type and conflict: The impact of conversation orientation and conformity orientation on conflict in the family. Communication Studies, 48, 59-76.
49. Lane, J. D., & Wegner, D. M. (1995). The cognitive consequences of secrecy. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 69, 237-253.
50. Leary, M. R. & Schreindorfer, L. S. (1998). The stigmatization of HIV and AIDS: Rubbing salt in the wound. In V. J. Derlega & A. P. Barbee (Eds.), HIV and social interaction (pp. 12-29). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
51. Lovejoy, N. C. (1990). AIDS: Impact on the gay man's homosexual and heterosexual families. Marriage and Family Review, 14, 285-316.
52. Major, B., & Gramzow, R. H. (1999). Abortion as stigma: Cognitive and emotional implications of concealment. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 77, 735-745.
53. Makoul, G., & Roloff, M. (1998). The role of efficacy and outcome expectations in the decision to withhold relational complaints. Communication Research, 25, 5-29.
54. Markowitz, F. E. (1998). The effects of stigma on the psychological wellbeing and life satisfaction of persons with mental illness. Journal of Health and Social Behavior, 39, 335-348.
55. Matthews, A. K., Sellergren, S. A., Manfredi, C., & Williams, M. (2002). Factors influencing medical information seeking among African American cancer patients. Journal of Health Communication, 7, 205-219.
56. McDonell, J. R., Abell, N., & Miller, J. (1991). Family members' willingness to care for people with AIDS: A psychosocial assessment model. Social Work, 36, 43-53.
57. Mufune, P. (2005). Myths about condoms and HIV/AIDS in rural northern Namibia. International Social Science Journal, 57, 675-686.
58. Murphy, D. A., Roberts, K. J., & Hoffman, D. (2002). Stigma and ostracism associated with HIV/AIDS: Children carrying the secret of their mothers' HIV+ serostatus. Journal of Child and Family Studies, 11, 191-202.
59. Muula, A. S., & Mfutso-Bengo, J. M. (2005). When is public disclosure of HIV seropositivity acceptable? Nursing Ethics, 12, 288-295.
60. National Planning Commission. (2003). 2001 Population and housing census, Caprivi Region: Basic analysis with highlights. Windhoek, Namibia: National Planning Commission.
61. Nyanzi, S., Nyanzi, B., Kalina, B., & Pool, R. (2004). Mobility, sexual networks and exchange among Bodabodamen in southwest Uganda. Culture, Health and Sexuality, 6, 239-254.
62. Parker, R., & Aggleton, P. (2003). HIV and AIDS-related stigma and discrimination: A conceptual framework and implications for action. Social Science and Medicine, 57, 13-24.
63. Parks, M. R. (1982). Ideology in interpersonal communication: Off the couch and into the world. In M. Burgoon (Ed.), Communication yearbook 5 (pp. 79-107). New Brunswick, NJ: Transaction Books.
64. Pennebaker, J. W., & Chew, C. H. (1985). Behavioral inhibition and electrodermal activity during deception. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 49, 1427-1433.
65. Pennebaker, J. W., Colder, M., & Sharp, L. K. (1990). Accelerating the coping process. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 58, 528-537.
66. Pennebaker, J. W., Hughes, C. F., & O'Heeron, R. C. (1987). The psychophysiology of confession: Linking inhibitory and psychosomatic processes. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 52, 781-793.
67. Petronio, S. (2002). Boundaries of privacy: Dialectics of disclosure. Albany: State University of New York Press.
68. Petronio, S. (2006). Impact of medical mistakes: Navigating work-family boundaries for physicians and their families. Communication Monographs, 73, 462-467.
69. Petronio, S., Ellemers, N., Giles, H., & Gallois, C. (1998). (Mis)communicating across boundaries: Interpersonal and intergroup considerations. Communication Research, 25, 571-595.
70. Petronio, S., & Martin, J. N. (1986). Ramification for revealing private information: A gender gap. Journal of Clinical Psychology, 42, 499-506.
71. Petronio, S., Reeder, H. M., Hecht, M. L., & Roz-Mendoza, T. M. (1996). Disclosure of sexual abuse by children and adolescents. Journal of Applied Communication Research, 24, 181-199.
72. Petronio, S., Sargent, J., Andea, L., Reganis, P., & Cichockl, D. (2004). Family and friends as healthcare advocates: Dilemmas of confidentiality and privacy. Journal of Social and Personal Relationships, 21, 33-52.
73. Reyland, S. A., Higgins-D'Alessandro, A., & McMahon, T. J. (2002). Tell them you love them because you never know when things could change: Voices of adolescents living with HIV-positive mothers. AIDS Care, 14, 285-294.
74. Rosenfeld, L. B. (1979). Self-disclosure avoidance: Why I am afraid to tell you who I am. Communication Monographs, 46, 63-74.
75. Ruiz-Casares, M. (2006). Strengthening the capacity of child-headed households in Namibia to meet their own needs: A social networks approach. Unpublished dissertation, Cornell University.
76. Siegel, K., & Freund, B. (1994). Parental loss and latency age children. In B. O. Dane & C. Levine (Eds.), AIDS and the new orphans (pp. 43-58). Westport, CT: Auburn House.
77. Simkins, L., & Kushner, A. (1986). Attitudes toward AIDS, herpes II, and toxic shock syndrome: Two years later. Psychological Reports, 59, 883-891.
78. Smart, L., & Wegner, D. M. (1999). Covering up what can't be seen: Concealable stigma and mental control. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 77, 474-486.
79. Smith, R. A., Ferrara, M., & Witte, K. (2007). Social sides of health risks: Stigma and collective efficacy. Health Communication, 21, 1-10.
80. Steele, R., Tripp, G., Kotchick, B. A., Summer, P., & Forehand, R. (1997). Family members' uncertainty about parental chronic illness: The relationship of hemophilia and HIV infection to child functioning. Pediatric Psychology, 22, 577-591.
81. Stein, J. A., & Nyamathi, A. (2000). Gender differences in behavioural and psychosocial predictors of HIV testing and return for test results in a high-risk population. AIDS Care, 12, 343-356.
82. Stulberg, I., & Buckingham, S. L. (1988). Parallel issues for AIDS patients, families, and others: Social casework. The Journal of Contemporary Social Work, 69, 355-359.
83. Thomas, F. (2006). Stigma, fatigue and social breakdown: Exploring the impacts of HIV/AIDS on patient and carer well-being in the Caprivi Region, Namibia. Social Science & Medicine, 63, 3174-3187.
84. Tjaronda, W. (2004, May, 10). Red Cross day focuses on stigma. New Era. Retrieved September 4, 2007, from: http://www.newera.com.na/archives.php?id=1624&date=2004-05-10
85. UNAIDS. (2002). Report on the global AIDS epidemic. Geneva, Switzerland: Author.
86. UNAIDS. (2004). Namibia: Epidemiological fact sheets on HIV/AIDS and sexually transmitted infections. Joint United Nations Programme on HIV/AIDS.
87. Vangelisti, A. L. (1994). Family secrets: Forms, functions and correlates. Journal of Social and Personal Relationships, 11, 113-135.
88. Vangelisti, A. L., & Caughlin, J. P. (1997). Revealing family secrets: The influence of topic, function, and relationships. Journal of Social and Personal Relationships, 14, 679-705.
89. Vangelisti, A. L., Caughlin, J. P., & Timmerman, L. (2001). Criteria for revealing family secrets. Communication Monographs, 68, 14.
90. Vrij, A., Nunkoosing, K., Paterson, B., Oosterwegel, A., & Soukara, S. (2002). Characteristics of secrets and the frequency, reasons, and effects of secret keeping and disclosure. Journal of Community and Applied Social Psychology, 12, 56-70.
91. Webster, H. (1991). Family secrets: How telling and not telling affects our children, our relationships, and our lives. Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley.
92. Wegner, D. M., & Erber, R. (1992). The hyperaccessibility of suppressed thoughts. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 63, 903-912.
93. Wegner, D. M., Lane, J. D., & Dimitri, S. (1994). The allure of secret relationships. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 66, 287-300.
94. Weitz, R. (1990). Living with the stigma of AIDS. Qualitative Sociology, 13, 23-38.
95. Yep, G. A. (2000). Disclosure of HIV infection in interpersonal relationships: A communication boundary management approach. In S. Petronio (Ed.), Balancing the secrets of private disclosures (pp. 83-96). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Inc.
96. Zuckerman, G. L., & Gordon, C. (1988). Meeting the psychosocial and legal needs of women with AIDS and their families. New York State Journal of Medicine, 88, 619-620.