The Dubai model: An outline of key development-process elements in Dubai

International Journal of Middle East Studies

Volumn 41, Issue 3, 2009, Pages 397-418

  Hvidt, Martin ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY OF SOUTHERN DENMARK   (Denmark)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

ACADEMIC RESEARCH; DEVELOPMENT STRATEGY; INSTITUTIONAL FRAMEWORK; MASS MEDIA; MODELING;

ASIA; DUBAI [UNITED ARAB EMIRATES]; EURASIA; MIDDLE EAST; UNITED ARAB EMIRATES;

EID: 70350661988     PISSN: 00207438     EISSN: 14716380     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1017/S0020743809091120     Document Type: Article

References (168)

1. Ibrahim Al-Abed and Peter Hellyer, The United Arab Emirates. A New Perspective (London: Trident Press, 2001)
2. Fatma Al-Sayegh, "Merchants' Role in a Changing Society: The Case of Dubai, 1900-90," Middle Eastern Studies 34 (1998): 87-102
3. Christopher M. Davidson, The United Arab Emirates: A Study in Survival (Boulder, Colo.: Lynne Reinner, 2005)
4. Christopher M. Davidson, "The Emirates of Abu Dhabi and Dubai: Contrasting Roles in the International System," Asian Affairs 38 (2007): 33-48
5. Martin Hvidt, "Public-Private Ties and their Contribution to Development: The Case of Dubai," Middle Eastern Studies 43 (2007): 557-77.
6. Jeffrey Sampler and Saeb Eigner, Sand to Silicon: Achieving RapidGrowth Lessons from Dubai (London: Profile Books, 2003).
7. "Late-late" development defines states that entered the development process after World War II. Atul Kohli, State-Directed Development: Political Power and Industrialization in the Global Periphery (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2004), 2.
8. "Late-late" developers usually follow a development pattern that is less spontaneous and more state-led than earlier developers. See, for example, Alice H. Amsden, Asia's Next Giant: South Korea and Late Industrialization (New York: Oxford University Press, 1989), 3
9. Alexander Gerschenkron, Economic Backwardness in Historical Perspective (Cambridge, Mass.: Belknap Press of Harvard University Press, 1966), 7ff
10. Albert O. Hirschman, The Strategy of Economic Development (New Haven, Conn.: Yale University Press, 1958/1969), 7-11
11. Adam Szirmai, The Dynamics of Socio-Economic Development (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2005), 83.
12. International Monetary Fund, United Arab Emirates: Statistical Appendix. IMF Country Report No. 07/348 (Washington, D.C.: IMF, 2007), Table 5.
13. B. Guy Peters, Comparative Politics: Theory and Methods (Houndsmills, U.K.: Macmillan Press, 1998), 62ff.
14. Hvidt, "Public-Private Ties."
15. Martin Hvidt, "Dubai-modellen: Følger Golf-landene i Dubais fodspor?" (The Dubai Model: Are the Gulf Countries Following in the Footsteps of Dubai?), in Et andet nyt Mellemøsten (Another New Middle East), ed. Peter Seeberg and Morten Valbjørn (Odense, Denmark: Odense University Press, 2008), 145-76.
16. Laurids S. Lauridsen, "The Developmental State and the Asian Miracles: An Introduction to the Debate," in Institutions and Industrial Development: Asian Experiences, ed. Laurids S. Lauridsen (Roskilde, Denmark: IDS Roskilde University, 1995): 24-40.
17. Tim Niblock and Monica Malik (The Political Economy of Saudi Arabia [London: Routledge, 2007], 5ff) divide states into minimal states, state-aided capitalism, and state-sponsored capitalism while Kohli in State-Directed Development divides them into neopatrimonial states, cohesive-capitalist states, and fragmented-multiclass states.
18. Kohli, State-Directed Development, 4.
19. Ibid., 6.
20. Martin Hvidt, "Limited Success of the IMF and the World Bank in Middle Eastern Reforms," Journal of Social Affairs 21 (2004): 77-103, 78ff.
21. Michael P. Todaro and Stephen C. Smith, Economic Development, 9th ed. (Harlow, U.K.: Pearson/Addison Wesley, 2006), 537ff.
22. Peter B. Evans, "Predatory, Developmental and Other Apparatuses: A Comparative Political Economy Perspective on the ThirdWorld State," Sociological Forum 4 (1989): 561-87, 581.
23. Evans elaborates the concept of embedded autonomy in idem, Embedded Autonomy: States and Industrial Transformation (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1995).
24. Evans, Embedded Autonomy, 6.
25. For further insight into the concept of developmental states, see, for example, Bruce Cumings, "Webs with No Spiders, Spiders with NoWebs: The Genealogy of the Developmental State," in The Developmental State ed. Meredith Woo-Cumings (Ithaca, N.Y.: Cornell University Press, 1999), 61-92
26. Geoffrey R. D. Underhill and Ziaoke Zhang, "The Changing State - Market Condominium in East Asia: Rethinking the Political Underpinnings of Development," New Political Economy 10 (2005): 3-26
27. Gordon White, "Constructing a Democratic Developmental State," in The Democratic Developmental State: Politics and Institutional Design ed. Mark Robinson and Gordon White (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1998), 17-51
28. Gordon White and Robert Wade, "Developmental States and Markets in East Asia: An Introduction," in Development States in East Asia, ed. Gordon White (Houndsmills, U.K.: Macmillan Press, 1988), 1-29.
29. Despite the attempts by Evans to define the developmental state, Leftwich argues that the concept remains both insecurely defined and weakly theorized. Adrian Leftwich, "Form of the Democratic Developmental State: Democratic Practices and Developmental Capacity," in The Democratic Developmental State, 52-83.
30. Ibid.
31. Harold R. Kerbo and Robert Slagter, "Thailand, Japan, and the East Asian Development Model: The Asian Economic Crisis in World System Perspective," in The East Asian Development Model: Economic Growth, Institutional Failure, and the Aftermath of the Crisis, ed. Frank-Jürgen Richter (Houndsmills, U.K.: Macmillan Press, 2000), 119-40.
32. Jei Guk Jeon, "Exploring the Three Varieties of East Asia's State-Guided Development Model: Korea, Singapore, and Taiwan," Studies in Comparative International Development 30 (1995): 70-88.
33. Robert Looney, "Thaksinomics: A New Asian Paradigm?" Strategic Insights (Monterey, Calif.: Center for Contemporary Conflict, 2 December 2003).
34. White and Wade, "Developmental States and Markets in East Asia," 24.
35. The two countries have formalized an exchange of ideas and procedures at the state level. There are numerous examples of Dubai adapting policies or copying initiatives that originated in Singapore. One example is the yearly shopping festival, a month combining family entertainment and shopping. Nabil Ali Alyousuf (director general of The Executive Office), interview with the author, 21 December 2006.
36. For an in-depth account of Singapore's development experience, see W. G. Huff, "What Is the Singapore Model of Economic Development?" Cambridge Journal of Economics 19 (1995): 735-59
37. W. G. Huff, The Economic Growth of Singapore: Trade and Development in the Twentieth Century (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1994).
38. For a comparison of the development of Singapore and Hong Kong, see Linda Low, "A Putative East Asian Business Model," International Journal of Social Economics 33 (2006): 512-28
39. Pang Eng Fong, "The Distinctive Features of Two City-States' Development: Hong Kong and Singapore," in In Search of an East Asian Development Model, ed. Peter Berger and Hsin-Huang Michael Hsiao (New Brunswick, N.J.: Transaction Books, 1988), 220-38.
40. Stephan Haggard, Pathway from the Periphery: The Politics of Growth in the Newly Industrializing Countries (Ithaca, N.Y.: Cornell University Press, 1990), 27.
41. Phillip Hookon Park, "A Reflection on the East Asian Development Model: Comparison of the South Korean and Taiwanese Experience," in The East Asian Development Model, 141-68
42. Amsden, Asia's Next Giant, 4
43. Haggard, Pathway from the Periphery, 27
44. Gustav Papanek, "The New Asian Capitalism: An Economic Portrait," in In Search of an East Asian Development Model, 27-80.
45. In his seminal paper, "Modern Economic Growth: Findings and Reflections" (The American Economic Review 63 [1973]: 247-58, 248ff), Simon Kuznets provides an account of structural transformation and the resulting shift from an agricultural to a service society.
46. For a detailed overview over the structural changes normally associated with industrialization, see also Peter Mathias, "The Industrial Revolution: Concept and Reality," in The First Industrial Revolutions, ed. Peter Mathias and John A. Davis (Oxford: Basil Blackwell, 1989): 1-24.
47. For a summary of the key positive effects of industrialization in relation to development, see Szirmai, The Dynamics of Socio-Economic Development, 263.
48. Haggard, Pathway from the Periphery, 27.
49. Hvidt, "Public-Private Ties," 573.
50. Michael Herb, All in the Family. Absolutism, Revolution, and Democracy in the Middle Eastern Monarchies (Albany, N.Y.: State University of New York Press, 1999), 15.
51. Clapham (1985: 47-49) quoted in Ole Therkildsen, Working in Neopatrimonial Settings: Perceptions of Public Sector Staff in Tanzania and Uganda (København: DIIS, 2006), 6.
52. Michael C. Hudson, Arab Politics: The Search for Legitimacy (New Haven, Conn.: Yale University Press, 1977), 25
53. Nazih N. Ayubi, Over-stating the Arab State: Politics and Society in the Middle East (London: I. B. Tauris, 1995), 164-69
54. Davidson, The United Arab Emirates, 19, 73-77
55. Clement M. Henry and Robert Springborg, Globalization and the Politics of Economic Development in the Middle East (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2001), chap. 1.
56. Davidson, The United Arab Emirates, 35-37.
57. Ibid., chap. 2, for a detailed account of the construction of the neopatrimonial structures in the UAE.
58. For further readings on neopatrimonialism, see Max Weber, Economy and Society. An Outline of Interpretive Sociology, ed. Guenther Roth and Claus Wittich (Berkeley, Calif.: University of California Press, 1978), chap. 10
59. Davidson, "The Emirates of Abu Dhabi and Dubai" John W. Fox, Nada Mourtada-Sabbah, and Mohammed al-Mutawa, "The Arab Gulf Region: Traditionalism Globalized or Globalization Traditionalized?" in Globalization and the Gulf, ed. idem (London: Routledge, 2006), 3-59; Hudson, Arab Politics.
60. Hvidt, "Public-Private Ties," 562.
61. See also Hazem Beblawi, "The Rentier State in the Arab World," in The Arab State, ed. Giacomo Luciani (London: Routledge, 1990), 85-98
62. and Giacomo Luciani, "Allocation vs. Production States: A Theoretical Framework," ibid., 65-84.
63. Dubai produces around 240,000 barrels per day (b/d) of oil and substantial quantities of gas from offshore fields, http://www.uae.gov.ae/Government/oil_gas.htm (accessed 25 March 2008). Dubai's oil production peaked in 1991 at 410,000 b/d and has been declining ever since. The country will likely exhaust its oil reserves within twenty years. Gerald Butt, "Oil and Gas in the UAE," in The United Arab Emirates, 231-48.
64. Davidson, The United Arab Emirates, 104.
65. See, for example, Roger Owen, State, Power and Politics in the Making of the Modern Middle East (London: Routledge, 2004), 52.
66. "New Pay Scales for National Employees," Khaleej Times, 16November 2006, http://www.khaleejtimes.com/ DisplayArticleNew.asp?section=theuae&xfile=data/theuae/2006/november/ theuae_november422.xml (accessed 23 November 2006).
67. This view is shared by writers within the research tradition termed "historical institutionalism." See Peter A. Hall and Rosemary C. R. Taylor, "Political Science and the Three New Institutionalisms," Political Studies XLIV (1996): 936-57, 936ff
68. B. Guy Peters, Institutional Theory in Political Science: The 'New Institutionalism' (London: Pinter, 1999), chap. 4.
69. For an elaboration upon the historical, external, location/size, cultural, institutional, and political factors in forming Dubai, see Al-Abed and Hellyer, The United Arab Emirates; Davidson, The United Arab Emirates; Hvidt, "Public-Private Ties" MENA, "The United Arab Emirates," in Middle East and North Africa 2008, vol. 54 (London: Europa Publications, 2007), 1207-41
70. Malcolm C. Peck, The United Arab Emirates. A Venture in Unity (Boulder, Colo.: Westview Press, 1986)
71. Frauke Heard-Bey, From Trucial States to United Arab Emirates (Dubai: Motivate Publishing, 2004).
72. Hvidt, "Public-Private Ties," 559.
73. Ibid., 565.
74. "Sheikh Mohammed Announces Dubai Strategic Plan," 3 February 2007, http://www.sheikhmohammed.ae/vgn-ext-templating/v/ index.jsp?vgnextoid=321b4b7922e44110VgnVCM1000003f14
75. Institutions might be defined as "the formal or informal procedures, routines, norms, and conventions embedded in the organizational structure of the polity or political economy" Hall and Taylor, "Political Science," 938. The institutional structure in Dubai is not static and, on a more formal note, includes the federal level.
76. Abdulkhaleq Abdullah (political-science professor, United Arab Emirates University), interview with the author, Dubai, 16 November 2006. Approximately 50,000 are employed in the traditional tier, including the police force. Alyousuf, interview.
77. According to my interviews and own experience, The Executive Office is a modern administrative set-up characterized by well-paid, highly educated, and highly motivated staff.
78. In this way, Dubai has copied Singapore, gathering all development initiatives into a few holding companies in order to increase control and coordination of their activities. Huff, "Singapore Model," 744.
79. Thirty percent of Emaar is owned by the Dubai government and 70 percent by private funds. Economist Intelligence Unit, Country Report: United Arab Emirates (2006-2007) (London: Economist Intelligence Unit, 2006), 30.
80. A profile of Emaar can be found in Anil Bhoyrul, "Tower of London," Arabian Business 8 (2007): 32-34.
81. Forbes magazine (2005) listed Shaykh Mohammed as the fourth richest man in the world with a personal fortune of U.S. $14 billion even though the lines between state and personal assets are not clear. The Economist Intelligence Unit's Country Report (15-16) points out that a sizable part of this fortune stemmed from business ventures and not from oil.
82. In every interview respondents singled out fast decision making and fast implementation as key factors behind the success of Dubai.
83. Sampler and Eigner, Sand to Silicon, 24.
84. "Competing Ambitions," Middle East Economy Digest (2007): 37-39, 37ff.
85. Sampler and Eigner, Sand to Silicon, 118.
86. Abdullah, interview.
87. Geoff Taylor (CEO, Dubai Dry Docks), interview with the author, Dubai, 21 December 2006.
88. Sampler and Eigner, Sand to Silicon, 118.
89. Angus Hindley (Gulf editor, Middle East Business Intelligence), interview with the author, Dubai, 7 December 2006.
90. Economist Intelligence Unit, Country Report, 19.
91. Dubai Strategic Plan 2007-2015 (Highlights) (Dubai: The Executive Office, 2007), 18, 23. No statistics reveal the official number of nationals and expatriates in the population. The reported size of the population in Dubai varies considerably among official sources.
92. Mike Davis, "Fear and Money in Dubai," New Left Review 41 (2006): 47-68.
93. The Dubai government has invested in a few major industrial undertakings, such as Dubai Aluminum and Dubai Cable. A relatively modest privately owned industrial sector of a lighter and smaller scale produces construction goods and inputs that would be costly or inefficient to import. Davidson, "The Emirates of Abu Dhabi and Dubai," 39. One thousand international companies maintain industrial production in the Jebel Ali Free Zone, for instance. PowerPoint presentation by Jebel Ali Free Zone Authority, Jebel Ali, JAFZA headquarters, 17 December 2006, slides 11 and 14.
94. In a knowledge economy, the central wealth-creating activity is "productivity" and "innovation," which represent the application of knowledge towork. Peter F. Drucker, Post-Capitalist Society (Oxford: Butterworth-Heinemann, 1993), 7.
95. Jean F. Rischard, "The Knowledge-Based Economy: Worldwide Trends and New Ideas," presentation at the Dubai School of Government, 26 November 2007.
96. Rischard, World Bank vice president for Europe, made similar points in an earlier presentation: http://lnweb18.worldbank.org/mna/mena.nsf/ Attachments/K4D-Rischard/$File/J-F+Rischard+K4D.pdf (accessed 12 May 2008).
97. See the DIFC website, http://www.difc.ae/ (accessed 17 October 2007).
98. During the summer of 2007, Borse Dubai (the name of the stock exchange located in Dubai) and U.S.-based technology Nasdaq were in a bidding contest to acquire the Scandinavian Stock Exchange. "Borse Dubai has $5.3b for OMX," Gulf News, 31 August 2007, http://archive.gulfnews.com/articles/07/08/31/10150350.html (accessed 2 September 2007).
99. Borse Dubai has also initiated negotiations with the Karachi Stock Exchange in Pakistan. "Borse Dubai Eyes Stake in Karachi Exchange," The Peninsula, 28 August 2007, http://thepeninsulaqatar.com/
100. Waleed Abbas Hilmi (city planner, Dubai Municipality), interview with the author, Dubai Municipality, 17 January 2005.
101. C. L. Jose, interview with the author, Dubai, 21 December 2006
102. Σpecial Report: Banking," Middle East Economic Digest 51 (2007): 37-67.
103. In regard to the issue of linkages, see Hirschman, The Strategy of Economic Development, 98ff;
104. A. P. Thirlwall, Growth & Development: With Special Reference to Developing Economies (Houndsmills, U.K.: Palgrave Macmillan, 2006), 312ff
105. and David Waldner, State Building and Late Development (Ithaca, N.Y.: Cornell University Press, 1999), 7. Hirschman argues that development strategies should emphasize activities that hold the highest potential for linkages because this will provide the greatest inducement and incentive for other activities to develop.
106. Dubai Strategic Plan, 21.
107. For further information on foreign investments see, for example, Emilie Routledge, "GCC Economic Performance in 2005," in Gulf Year Book 2005-2006, ed. Gulf Research Center (Dubai: Gulf Research Center, 2006), 109-27
108. Economist Intelligence Unit, Country Report, 30
109. and John Sfakianakis and Eckart Woertz, "Strategic Foreign Investments of GCC Countries," in Gulf Geo-Economics, ed. Eckart Woertz (Dubai: Gulf Research Center, 2007), 131-46.
110. "DP World Plans $3.5bn Dubai Initial Share Sale," Gulf Times, 5 October 2007, http://www.gulftimes.com/site/topics/
111. Ibid.
112. However, DP World was forced by American politicians to sell its operations in the United States, which included six ports and stevedoring operations in sixteen locations. "DP World Quits US Business," The Saudi, 19 March 2007, http://www.grc.ae/modules/geogrphicallocations/ view_articles_print.php?frm_pki=2 (accessed 30 August 2007).
113. Concerning Emaar's activities, see http://www.emaar.com/ (accessed 21 May 2008).
114. See http://www.kingabdullahcity.com/en/ (accessed 23 May 2008).
115. See more concerning Emaar's activities at http://www.emaar.com/ (23 May 2008).
116. See also description of various projects: "Emaar to Build $2bn Hill Town," Middle East Economic Digest 51 (2007): 19
117. Economist Intelligence Unit, Country Report.
118. The airport capacity is equal to the combination of Chicago O'Hare and London Heathrow. For further information, see the Dubai World Central website, http://www.dwc.ae/ (accessed 24 May 2008).
119. See "Emirates Seeks $50bn to Expand Fleet," Emirates Today, 24 August 2007, http://corp.gulfinthemedia.com/gulf_media/ view_article_en_print.php?action=print (accessed 30 August 2007) for a review of current plans to invest U.S. $50 billion to expand the fleet so that Emirates Airlines will become the world's largest carrier. At the Dubai Airshow 2007, Emirates Airlines placed $34 billion in orders for new aircraft, mainly from Airbus. Dominic Gates, "Boeing Loses Big Order to Airbus at Air Show," Seattle Times, 12 November 2007, 5.
120. A first-mover advantage may be defined as "a sometimes insurmountable advantage gained by the first significant company to move into a new market," http://www.marketingterms.com (accessed 15 August 2007).
121. Graeme Wilson, Father of Dubai. Sheikh Rashid bin Saed Al-Maktoum (Dubai: Media Prima, 1999), 126, 184.
122. In order to minimize risk, however, most of these megaprojects operate with a phased implementation. The second of the Palm Islands was considered for building only after the first sold out.
123. Sampler and Eigner, Sand to Silicon, 69, 161-62.
124. One example is Dubai Aerospace Enterprises, which was allocated U.S. $15 billion to establish its business in the global market. "Dubai Aerospace Eyeing Airbus Factories," Agence France-Press, 25 August 2007, http://www.gulfinthemedia.com/ index.php?id=337337&news_type=Economy&lang=en (accessed 27 August 2007).
125. Vision 2010: Dubai: Shaping the Future (Dubai: The Executive Office, 2000), 5.
126. It became legal by 14 March 2006 according to the Emirates Network account of the history of Freehold Property in the Emirates, http://realestate.theemiratesnetwork.com/articles/freehold_property.php (accessed 2 June 2008).
127. http://www.dubai-marina.com/ (accessed 25 March 2008).
128. "Dubai Issues List of Freehold Locations," Gulf News, 30 April 2007, http://archive.gulfnews.com/ articles/06/07/16/10053399.html (accessed 17 September 2007).
129. Ahmed Kanna, "Dubai in a Jagged World," Middle East Report 243 (2007) http://merip.org/mer/mer/243/kanna.html (accessed 25 June 2007).
130. Unfortunately, it is impossible to provide exact figures for foreign investments because FDI figures are not published for the UAE or for Dubai. Economist Intelligence Unit, Country Report, 29.
131. For an estimate, seeWasseem Mina, "FDI Performance and the Influence of Location Factors in the GCC Countries," Woertz, Gulf Geo-Economics 107-29.
132. Institute of International Finance, Tracking GCC Petrodollars: How and Where They Are Being Invested around the World (Washington D.C.: Institute of International Finance, Inc., 2007).
133. Greg Hunt (journalist residing in Dubai), interview with the author, Dubai, 20 December 2006.
134. Peter Folton (generalmanager,DubaiGrand Hyatt Hotel), interviewwith the author,Dubai, 19 December 2006.
135. Ahmed A. al-Tunaiji (manager, Dubai Chamber of Tourism and Commerce Marketing), interview with the author, 6 December 2006.
136. "Nakheel Designs 1km-High Tower," Middle East Economic Digest 51 (2007): 16.
137. Anna Klingmann, Brandscapes: Architecture in the Experience Economy (Cambridge, Mass.: MIT Press, 2007), 4.
138. Ibid., 2.
139. A cluster of hospitals and private clinics aim to provide high-level medical services to people from the Gulf region and Asia with the intent to promote medical tourism. See the website of Dubai Health Care City, http://www.dhcc.ae/ (accessed 13 May 2008).
140. Nabil Ali Alyousuf (director, Government Excellence Programme), interview with the author, Dubai, The Executive Office, 27 January 2005.
141. Folton, interview.
142. Amsden, Asia's Next Giant, 4.
143. This is true in general, butDubai levies a 10 percent sales tax on hotel bills and on bank profits. Economist Intelligence Unit, Country Report United Arab Emirates, August 2006 (London: Economist Intelligence Unit, 2006), 18.
144. JAFZA, presentation.
145. The Excellence Programme was started in 1997 to improve government efficiency. All staff is trained in an American management model, and all departments are evaluated yearly by acclaimed assessors in compliance with this model. The program entails visits to all departments by a "mystery shopper" who rates departments' and directors' performance. Alyousuf, interview, 2005.
146. One reason for the profitability of the Dubai Water and Electricity Authority is that it has been politically acceptable to set the fees at a realistic level. Nationals are compensated for such fees through allowances in their salary, and the vast foreign population is not in a political position to resist such fees. Hindley, interview.
147. Folton, interview.
148. See n. 33.
149. Dubai Strategic Plan, 19.
150. Economist Intelligence Unit, Country Report... 2006, 9.
151. Taylor, interview.
152. "In recent years, much of the emirate's wealth has been generated by selling land plots to wealthy developers from neighbors such as Saudi Arabia and Kuwait." Economist Intelligence Unit, Country Report... 2006, 15.
153. Hindley, interview.
154. Ibid.
155. Dubai Strategic Plan, 17.
156. See the home page of the Gulf News for an updated listing of the megaprojects in Dubai: http://archive.gulfnews.com/megaprojects/ index.html (accessed 22 May 2008).
157. "Emirates Seeks $50bn to Expand Fleet" "DP World Plans $3.5bn Dubai Initial Share Sale" "Why Is DP World Going Public?" Middle East Economic Digest 51 (2007): 34-36.
158. Hvidt, "Public-Private Ties" JAFZA, presentation.
159. Zeyad Almajed (assistant manager, Dubai Development and Investment Authority), interview with the author, Dubai, 25 January 2005. Numerous respondents claim that they know of government start-up firms that have actually terminated business.
160. Hindley, interview.
161. The Economist Intelligence Unit estimates that rent roughly doubled in Dubai from 2004 to 2006. Country Report... 2006.
162. Davidson, "The Emirates of Abu Dhabi and Dubai," 33.
163. The successor of Shaykh Muhammed is his son Shaykh Hamdan bin Mohammed bin Rashid Al Maktoum, who was appointed crown prince of Dubai on 1 February 2008. For a discussion of family rule, see, for example, Owen, State, Power and Politics, 3.
164. Global Footprint Network, Ecological Footprint and Biocapacity, www.footprintnetwork.org (accessed 3 June 2008).
165. Democracy versus economic development is often debated. See, for example, Georg Sørensen, Democracy, Dictatorship, and Development: Economic Development in Selected Regimes of the Third World (Houndsmills, U.K.: Macmillan Press, 1991), 164
166. Waldner, State Building and Late Development, 31ff
167. Szirmai, The Dynamics of Socio-Economic Development, 476ff.
168. Sampler and Eigner, Sand to Silicon.