Unpacking racial socialization: Considering female african american primary caregivers' racial identity

Journal of Marriage and Family

Volumn 71, Issue 4, 2009, Pages 807-818

  Scottham, Krista Maywalt ^a   Smalls, Ciara P ^b  

^a BATES COLLEGE   (United States)

^b University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill   (United States)

Author keywords

Cluster analysis; Family diversity; Family processes; Parent adolescent relations; U.S. families African American

Indexed keywords

EID: 70350520752     PISSN: 00222445     EISSN: 17413737     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1111/j.1741-3737.2009.00636.x     Document Type: Article

References (46)

1. Bowman, P. J., & Howard, C. (1985). Race-related socialization, motivation, and academic achievement: A study of black youths in three-generation families. Journal of the American Academy of Child Psychiatry, 24, 134 141.
2. Brown, T., Tanner-Smith, E., Lesane-Brown, C., & Ezell, M. (2007). Child, parent, and situational correlates of familial ethnic/race socialization. Journal of Marriage and Family, 69, 14 25.
3. Caughy, M. O., O'Campo, P. J., Randlof, S. M., & Nickerson, K. (2002). The influence of racial socialization practices on the cognitive and behavioral competence of African American preschoolers. Child Development, 73, 1611 1625.
4. Caughy, M. O., Randolph, S. M., & O'Campo, P. J. (2002). The Africentric home environment inventory: An observational measure of the racial socialization features of the home environment for African American preschool children. Journal of Black Psychology, 28, 37 52.
5. Chavous, T. M., Bernat, D. H., Schmeelk-Cone, K., Caldwell, C. H., Kohn-Wood, L., & Zimmerman, M. A. (2003). Racial identity and academic attainment among African American adolescents. Child Development, 74, 1076 1090.
6. Coard, S., & Sellers, R. (2005). African American families as a context for racial socialization. In V. C. McLoyd, N. E. Hill, & K. A. Dodge (Eds.), African American family life: Ecological and cultural diversity (pp. 264 284). New York : Guilford.
7. Coard, S., Wallace, S., Stevenson, H., & Brotman, L. (2004). Towards culturally relevant preventive interventions: The consideration of racial socialization in parent training with African American families. Journal of Child and Family Studies, 13, 277 293.
8. Constantine, M., & Blackmon, S. (2002). Black adolescents' racial socialization experiences: Their relations to home, school, and peer self-esteem. Journal of Black Studies, 32, 322 335.
9. Crocker, J., & Luhtanen, R. (1990). Collective self-esteem and ingroup bias. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 58, 60 67.
10. Cross, W., Parham, T., & Helms, J. (1991). The stages of Black identity development: Nigrescence models. Black psychology (3rd ed., pp. 319 338). Berkeley, CA : Cobb & Henry.
11. Cross, W. E. (1971). The Negro-to-Black conversion experience. Black World, July, 13 27.
12. Cross, W. E., Jr. (1991). Shades of black: Diversity in African-American identity. Philadelphia, PA : Temple University Press.
13. Cross, W. E., Jr., & Fhagen-Smith, P. (2001). Patterns of African American identity development: A life span perspective. In B. Jackson & C. Wijeyesinghe (Eds.), New perspectives on racial identity development: A theoretical and practical anthology (pp. 243 270). New York : New York University Press.
14. Demo, D. H., & Hughes, M. (1990). Socialization and racial identity among Black Americans. Social Psychology Quarterly, 53, 364 374.
15. Fischer, A., & Shaw, C. (1999). African Americans' mental health and perceptions of racist discrimination: The moderating effects of racial socialization experiences and self-esteem. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 46, 395 407.
16. Hill, N. E. (1997). Does parenting differ based on social class? African American women's perceived socialization for achievement. American Journal of Community Psychology, 25, 675 697.
17. Hughes, D. (2003). Correlates of African American and Latino caregivers' messages to children about ethnicity and race: A comparative study of racial socialization. American Journal of Community Psychology, 31, 15 33.
18. Hughes, D., & Chen, L. (1997). When and what caregivers tell children about race: An examination of race-related socialization among African American families. Applied Developmental Science, 1, 200 214.
19. Hughes, D., & Chen, L. (1999). The nature of caregivers' race-related communications to children: A developmental perspective. In L. Balter & C. S. Tamis-LeMonda (Eds.), Child psychology: A handbook of contemporary issues (pp. 467 490). New York : Psychology Press.
20. Hughes, D., & Johnson, D. (2001). Correlates in children's experiences of caregivers' racial socialization behaviors. Journal of Marriage and Family, 63, 981 995.
21. Hughes, D., Rodriguez, J., Smith, E. P., Johnson, D. J., & Stevenson, H. C. (2006). Caregivers' ethnic-racial socialization practices: A review of research and directions for future study. Developmental Psychology, 42, 747 770.
22. Hughes, M., & Demo, D. H. (1989). Self-perceptions of Black Americans: Self-esteem and personal efficacy. American Journal of Sociology, 95, 132 159.
23. Langeheine, R., Pannekoek, J., & Van de Pol, F. (1996). Bootstrapping goodness-of-fit measures in categorical data analysis. Sociological Methods and Research, 24, 492 516.
24. Lesane-Brown, C. L. (2006). A review of racial socialization within Black families. Developmental Review, 26, 400 426.
25. Lesane-Brown, C. L., Brown, T. N., Caldwell, C. H., & Sellers, R. M. (2005). The comprehensive racial socialization inventory. Journal of Black Studies, 36, 163 190.
26. Lesane-Brown, C. L., Scottham, K. M., Nguyén, H. X., & Sellers, R. M. (2008). Parent-child racial socialization: A new measure for use with African American adolescents. Manuscript in preparation.
27. Luhtanen, R., & Crocker, J. (1992). A collective self-esteem scale: Self-evaluation of one's social identity. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 18, 302 318.
28. Magidson, J., & Vermunt, J. (2004). Latent class models. In D. W. Kaplan (Ed.), The Sage handbook of quantitative methodology for the social sciences (pp. 175 198). Thousand Oaks, CA : Sage.
29. Marshall, S. (1995). Ethnic socialization of African American children: Implications for parenting, identity development, and academic achievement. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 24, 377 396.
30. Neblett, E. W., Philip, C. L., Cogburn, C. D., & Sellers, R. M. (2006). African American adolescents' discrimination experiences and academic achievement: Racial socialization as a cultural protective factor. Journal of Black Psychology, 32, 199 218.
31. Neblett, E. W., White, R. L., Ford, K. R., Philip, C. L., Nguyén, H. X., & Sellers, R. M. (2008). Patterns of racial socialization and psychological adjustment: Can parental communications about race reduce the impact of racial discrimination? Journal of Research on Adolescence, 18, 477 515.
32. Neville, H. A., & Lily, R. L. (2000). The relationship between racial identity cluster profiles and psychological distress among African American college students. Journal of Multicultural Counseling and Development, 28, 194 207.
33. O'Connor, L., Brooks-Gunn, J., & Graber, J. (2000). Black and White girls' racial pocialization for Black girls. Journal of Family Psychology, 14, 510 521.
34. Parke, R. D. (2004). Development in the family. Annual Review of Psychology, 55, 365 399.
35. Phinney, J. S. (1992). The Multigroup Ethnic Identity Measure. A new scale for use with diverse groups. Journal of Adolescent Research, 7, 156 172.
36. Phinney, J. S., & Chavira, V. (1995). Parental ethnic socialization and adolescent coping with problems related to ethnicity. Journal of Research on Adolescence, 1, 31 53.
37. Romero, A. J., Cuellar, I., & Roberts, R. E. (2000). Ethnocultural variables and attitudes toward cultural socialization of children. Journal of Community Psychology, 28, 79 89.
38. Sanders Thompson, V. L. (1994). Socialization to race and its relationship to racial identification among African Americans. Journal of Black Psychology, 20, 175 188.
39. Sellers, R. M., Shelton, J. N., Cooke, D. Y., Chavous, T. M., Rowley, S. A., & Smith, M. A. (1998). A multidimensional model of racial identity: Assumptions, findings, and future directions. In R. L. Jones (Ed.), African American identity development: Theory, research, and intervention (pp. 275 302). Hampton, VA : Cobb & Henry.
40. Sellers, R. M., Smith, M. A., Shelton, J. N., Rowley, S. A., & Chavous, T. M. (1998). Multidimensional model of racial identity: A reconceptualization of African American racial identity. Personality and Social Psychology Review, 2, 18 39.
41. Stevenson, H. C. (1994). Validation of the scale of racial socialization for African American adolescents: Steps toward multidimensionality. Journal of Black Psychology, 20, 445 468.
42. Stevenson, H. C., Reed, J., & Bodison, P. (1996). Kinship social support and adolescent racial socialization beliefs: Extending the self to family. Journal of Black Psychology, 22, 498 508.
43. Stryker, S. (1987). Identity theory: Developments and extensions. In K, Yardley & T. Honess (Eds.), Self and identity: Psychosocial perspectives (pp. 89 103). Oxford, UK : Wiley.
44. Thomas, A., & Speight, S. L. (1999) Racial identity and racial socialization attitudes of African American caregivers. Journal of Black Psychology, 25, 152 170.
45. Thornton, M. C., Chatters, L. M., Taylor, R. J., & Allen, W. R. (1990). Sociodemographic and environmental correlates of racial socialization by Black caregivers. Child Development, 61, 401 409.
46. Vandiver, B. J., Fhagen-Smith, P. E., Cokley, K. O., Cross, W. E., & Worrell, F. C. (2001). Cross's Nigrescence model: From theory to scale to theory. Journal of Multicultural Counseling and Development, 29, 174 200.