The international criminal court and the warrant of arrest for Sudan's president Al-Bashir: A crucial step towards challenging impunity or a political decision?

Nordic Journal of International Law

Volumn 78, Issue 3, 2009, Pages 397-431

  Ssenyonjo, Manisuli ^a  

^a BRUNEL UNIVERSITY   (United Kingdom)

Author keywords

Crimes against humanity; Darfur; Genocide; Immunity; International criminal court; War crimes

Indexed keywords

EID: 70349179468     PISSN: 09027351     EISSN: 15718107     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1163/090273509X12448190941200     Document Type: Article

References (200)

1. UN Security Council Resolution 1593, UN Doc. S/RES/1593 (2005), 31 March 2005, p. 1. For a discussion see M. Happold, 'Darfur, The Security Council, and the International Criminal Court', 55:1 International and Comparative Law Quarterly (2006) pp. 226-236.
2. T.S. 993, 3 Bevans 1153, entered into force 24 October 1945. For a commentary on the Charter see B. Simma (ed.), The Charter of the United Nations: A Commentary, 2nd ed. (Oxford University Press, Oxford, 2002).
3. -2187 UNTS 90. Article 13(b) provides that the ICC may exercise its jurisdiction with respect to a crime within its jurisdiction if "[a] situation in which one or more of such crimes appears to have been committed is referred to the Prosecutor by the Security Council acting under Chapter VII of the Charter of the United Nations". One-hundred and eight states had ratifi ed the Rome Statute by 1 June 2009. The ICC has been subjected to several studies. See e.g. R. Lee (ed.), The International Criminal Court, The Making of the Rome Statute, Issues, Negotiations, Results (Kluwer Law International, The Hague, 1999);
4. A. Cassese, P. Gaeta and John R.W. D. Jones (eds.), The Rome Statute of the International Criminal Court : A Commentary (Oxford University Press, Oxford, 2002);
5. B. Broomhall, International Justice and the International Criminal Court: Between Sovereignty and the Rule of Law (Oxford University Press, Oxford, 2003);
6. O. Bekou and R. Cryer (eds.), The International Criminal Court (Ashgate/Dartmouth, Aldershot, 2004);
7. W. A. Schabas, An Introduction to the International Criminal Court, 3rd ed. (Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 2007);
8. O. Triff ter (ed.), Commentary on the Rome Statute of the International Criminal Court: Observers' Notes. Article by Article, 2nd ed. (Nomos, Baden-Baden, 2008);
9. M. Politi and F. Gioia (eds.), The International Criminal Court and National Jurisdictions (Ashgate, Aldershot, 2008).
10. UN Security Council Resolution 1593, supra note 1.
11. The other three situations -Uganda, Democratic Republic of the Congo (DRC) and Central African Republic (CAR) -were all referred to the ICC prosecutor by the relevant states parties.
12. Application under Article 58 of the Rome Statute, requesting that Pre-Trial Chamber I issue a Warrant of Arrest for Omar Hassan Ahmad Al Bashir, ICC-02/05-151-US-Exp, and its annexes, ICC-02/05-151-US-Exp-Anxl-89; ICC-02/05-151-US-Exp-Corr and its annexes, ICC-02/05-151-US-Exp-Corr-Anxl-2. Public Redacted Version of Prosecution's Application under Article 58 of the Rome Statute filed on 14 July 2008, ICC-02/05-157 and its annex ICC-02/05-157-AnxA (Arrest Application).
13. ICC-02/05-01/09, Decision on the Prosecution's Application for a Warrant of Arrest against Omar Hassan Ahmad Al Bashir, The Prosecutor v. Omar Hassan Ahmad Al Bashir, available at 〈 www2.icc-cpi.int/iccdocs/doc/doc639096.pdf 〉
14. See Warrant of Arrest for Omar Hassan Ahmad Al Bashir, No. ICC-02/05-01/09, 4 March 2009, available at 〈 www.icc-cpi.int/iccdocs/doc/ doc639078.pdf 〉
15. www.icc-cpi.int/iccdocs/doc/doc639078.pdf, Ibid.
16. See ICC-02/05-01/09, Warrant of Arrest for Omar Hassan Ahmad Al Bashir, supra note 8; and discussion in section 3.2 in this article.
17. See ICC, Situations and Cases, available at 〈 www.icc-cpi.int/Menus/ ICC/Situations+and+Cases/〉 See also O. Fiss, 'Within Reach of the State: Prosecuting Atrocities in Africa', 31:1 Human Rights Quarterly (2009) pp. 59-69.
18. See e.g. Amnesty International, 'ICC Issues Arrest Warrant for Sudanese President Al Bashir', 4 March 2009, available at 〈 www.amnesty.org/en/news- and-updates/news/icc-issues-arrest-warrant-sudanese-president-al-bashir- 20090304 〉 Amnesty International's secretary general, Irene Khan, stated that "[t]his announcement [of the ICC warrant of arrest for Al Bashir] is an important signal -both for Darfur and the rest of the world -that suspected human rights violators will face trial, no matter how powerful they are". Human Rights Watch stated that the ICC warrant indicates that "[n]ot even presidents are guaranteed a free pass for horrifi c crimes". See Human Rights Watch, 'ICC: Bashir Warrant Is Warning to Abusive Leaders', 4 March 2009, available at < www.hrw.org/en/news/2009/03/04/icc-bashir-warrant-warning- abusive-leaders
19. For an overview see generally A. H. Idris, Confl ict and Politics of Identity in Sudan (Palgrave Macmillan, New York, 2005);
20. Elnur, Contested Sudan: The Political Economy of War and Reconstruction (Routledge, New York, 2008).
21. I. D.H. Johnson, The Root Causes of Sudan's Civil Wars (James Currey, Oxford, 2003).
22. See e.g. UN High Commissioner for Human Rights, Situation of Human Rights in the Darfur Region of the Sudan, UN Doc. E/CN.4/2005/3, 7 May 2004;
23. Warrant of Arrest for Omar Hassan Ahmad Al Bashir, No. ICC-02/05-01/09 (4 March 2009);
24. Human Rights Committee, Concluding Observations: Sudan, UN Doc. CCPR/C/SDN/CO/3/CRP.1, 26 July 2007, para. 9.
25. See A. de Waal, Famine Th at Kills: Darfur, Sudan (Oxford University Press, Oxford, 2005) p. xiv.
26. M. Mamdani, 'Beware of human rights fundamentalism (Part one)', Daily Monitor, 1 April 2009, available at 〈 www.monitor.co.ug/artman/publish/ opinions/Beware-of-human-rights-fundamentalism-Part-one-82434.shtml 〉.
27. Ibid. noting that "[c]ontemporary scholarship has shown that the Arab tribes of Sudan were not migrants from the Middle East but indigenous groups that became Arabs starting in the 18th century"
28. ICC-02/05-01/09, Decision on the Prosecution's Application for a Warrant of Arrest against Omar Hassan Ahmad Al Bashir, supra note 7, para 70.
29. M. Mamdani, 'Who has been fighting whom in Darfur? (Part Two)', Daily Monitor, 31 March 2009, available at 〈 www.monitor.co.ug/artman/publish/ opinions/Who-has-been-fighting-whom-in-Darfur-Part-Two-82393.shtml 〉.
30. M. Mamdani, 'Who has been fighting whom in Darfur? (Part Two)', Daily Monitor, www.monitor.co.ug/artman/publish/opinions/Who-has-been-fighting-whom- in-Darfur-Part-Two-82393.shtml, Ibid.
31. M. Mamdani, 'Who has been fighting whom in Darfur? (Part Two)', Daily Monitor, www.monitor.co.ug/artman/publish/opinions/Who-has-been-fighting-whom- in-Darfur-Part-Two-82393.shtml, Ibid.
32. Decision on the Prosecution's Application for a Warrant of Arrest against Omar Hassan Ahmad Al Bashir, supra note 7, paras. 61-62, 70.
33. Ibid., 66-67.
34. Ibid., para. 75.
35. Ibid., para. 76.
36. Ibid., para. 77.
37. See Warrant of Arrest for Omar Hassan Ahmad Al Bashir, supra note 8.
38. Decision on the Prosecution's Application for a Warrant of Arrest against Omar Hassan Ahmad Al Bashir, supra note 7, paras. 78 and 109. For Human Rights Watch reports on alleged widespread abuses by the Sudanese military, allied militias and rebel forces in Darfur, see 'Darfur Destroyed', available at 〈hrw.org/reports/2004/sudan0504/〉
39. '"If We Return, We Will Be Killed"', available at 〈hrw.org/backgrounder/africa/darfur1104/〉;
40. and 'Targeting the Fur: Mass Killings in Darfur', available at 〈hrw.org/backgrounder/africa/darfur0105/〉
41. Decision on the Prosecution's Application for a Warrant of Arrest against Omar Hassan Ahmad Al Bashir, supra note 7, para. 221.
42. Ibid., para 222.
43. See A. Abass, 'The United Nations, the African Union and the Darfur Crisis: Of Apology and Utopia', 54:3 Netherlands International Law Review (2007) pp. 415-440.
44. UN Security Council Resolution 1593, UN Doc. S/RES/1593, 2005, para. 2 (emphasis added). For a discussion of the jurisdiction of the ICC over nationals of non-states parties see D. Akande, 'The Jurisdiction of the International Criminal Court over Nationals of Non-Parties: Legal Basis and Limits' 1:3 Journal of International Criminal Justice (2003) pp. 618-650.
45. Ibid. (emphasis added).
46. See e.g. W. A. Schabas, An Introduction to the International Criminal Court, 3rd ed. (Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 2007) p. 51, noting that the Darfur situation "comes to the Court via a defective Security Council resolution".
47. Reports of the Secretary-General on the Sudan, 5158th Meeting, UN Doc. S/PV.5158, 31 March 2005, available at 〈 www.undemocracy.com/ securitycouncil/meeting-5158 〉
48. Ibid. Philippines' ambassador noted: "We also believe that the International Criminal Court (ICC) may be a casualty of resolution 1593 (2005). Operative paragraph 6 of the resolution is killing its credibility -softly, perhaps, but killing it nevertheless Operative paragraph 6 subtly subsumed the independence of the ICC into the political and diplomatic vagaries of the Security Council."
49. See in particular Geneva Convention for the Amelioration of the Condition of the Wounded and Sick in Armed Forces in the Field, 75 U.N.T.S. 31, entered into force 21 October 1950, Article 49; Geneva Convention for the Amelioration of the Condition of Wounded, Sick and Shipwrecked Members of Armed Forces at Sea, 75 U.N.T.S. 85, entered into force 21 October 1950, Article 50; Geneva Convention relative to the Treatment of Prisoners of War, 75 U.N.T.S. 135, entered into force 21 October 1950, Article 129; Geneva Convention relative to the Protection of Civilian Persons in Time of War, 75 U.N.T.S. 287, entered into force 21 October 1950, Article 146; Convention against Torture and Other Cruel, Inhuman or Degrading Treatment or Punishment, G.A. res. 39/46, (annex, 39 U.N. GAOR Supp. (No. 51) at 197, U.N. Doc. A/39/51 (1984)), entered into force 26 June 1987, Article 5.
50. G. Sluiter, 'Obtaining Cooperation from Sudan -Where is the Law', 6:1 Journal of International Criminal Justice (2008) p. 881.
51. See I. Bantekas and S. Nash, International Criminal Law 3rd ed. (Cavendish, London, Routledge, 2007) p. 100
52. citing, inter alia, Case Concerning the Arrest Warrant of 11 April 2000 (Democratic Republic of Congo v. Belgium), Judgment, 14 February 2002
53. (hereafter " Arrest Warrant case"), ICJ Rep 2002, 3, 41 ILM 536 (2002), paras. 47-55.
54. R. Cryer et al., An Introduction to International Criminal Law and Procedure (Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 2007) p. 422.
55. UN Charter, Articles 24(1), 25, and 103.
56. See ICC-02/05-01/09, Decision on the Prosecution's Application for a Warrant of Arrest against Omar Hassan Ahmad Al Bashir, supra note 7, paras. 40 and 45.
57. See ibid., para. 41.
58. Ibid., para. 42, citing preamble of the Rome Statute, paras. 4 and 5.
59. Ibid., para. 43.
60. See the Statute of the International Criminal Tribunal for the Former Yugoslavia, 32 ILM (1993) 1203, Article 7(2); the Statute of the International Tribunal for Rwanda, 33 ILM 1598, 1600 (1994), Article 6(2); and the Statute of the Special Court for Sierra Leone, 〈 www.sc-sl.org/LinkClick.aspx?fi leticket=uClnd1MJeEw%3d&tabid=200 〉, Article 6(2). These Articles provide that "[t]he official position of any accused person, whether as Head of State or Government or s a responsible Government official, shall not relieve such person of criminal responsibility nor mitigate punishment". See also Charter of the International Military Tribunal, 82 UNTS 280, entered into force 8 August 1945, Article 7, stating that "[t]he official position of defendants, whether as Heads of State or responsible offi cials in Government Departments, shall not be considered as freeing them from responsibility or mitigating punishment".
61. For a discussion of Article 27 of the Rome Statute, see O. Triff terer, 'Article 27: Irrelevance of Offi cial Capacity', in Triff terer, supra note 3, pp. 779-793.
62. See also D. Akande, 'International Law Immunities and the International Criminal Court', 98:3 American Journal of International Law (2004) pp. 419-432.
63. A. Cassese, International Criminal Law 2nd ed. (Oxford University Press, Oxford, 2008) pp. 302-314.
64. Cassese A., International Criminal Law 2nd ed.,Ibid., pp. 302-304.
65. Triff terer, supra note 3, p. 791.
66. See ICC-02/05-01/09, Decision on the Prosecution's Application for a Warrant of Arrest against Omar Hassan Ahmad Al Bashir, supra note 7, para. 45.
67. Indictment of Milošević and Others, IT-99-137, 24 May 1999, available at 〈 www.un.org/icty/indictment/english/mil-ii990524e.htm 〉 The same indictment also charged Milan Milutinović who, as president of Serbia, was its head of state.
68. Prosecutor v. Charles Taylor, Immunity from Jurisdiction, No. SCSL-03-01-7, 31 May 2004. For a survey see M. Frulli, 'The Question of Charles Taylor's Immunity: Still in Search of a Balanced Application of Personal Immunities?', 2:4 Journal of International Criminal Justice (2004) pp. 1118-1129.
69. Prosecutor v. Charles Taylor, ibid., para. 52.
70. See House of Lords, Regina v. Bow Street Metropolitan Stipendiary Magistrate and Others, Ex Parte Pinochet (No.3) [1999]2 All ER 97; Arrest Warrant case, supra note 40, para. 61.
71. Arrest Warrant case, ibid., para. 61. For a comment see A. Cassese, 'When May Senior State Offi cials Be Tried for International Crimes? Some Comments on the Congo v. Belgium Case', 13:4 European Journal of International Law (2002) pp. 853-875.
72. See also K. R. Gray, 'Case Concerning the Arrest Warrant of 11 April 2000 ( Democratic Republic of the Congo v. Belgium )', 13:3 European Journal of International Law (2002) p. 723.
73. Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide, 78 UNTS 277, entered into force 12 January 1951.
74. Reservations to the Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of Genocide, Advisory Opinion of 28 May 1951, ICJ Reports 1951, 15 at 24.
75. Rome Statute, Articles 19(1), 19(2)(a) and 19(4).
76. For a discussion see F. Jessberger and J. Geneuss, 'On the Application of a Theory of Indirect Perpetration in Al Bashir: German Doctrine at The Hague?', 6:5 Journal of International Criminal Justice (2008) pp. 853-869.
77. See ICC-02/05-01/09, Decision on the Prosecution's Application for a Warrant of Arrest against Omar Hassan Ahmad Al Bashir, supra note 7, para. 211.
78. The Prosecutor v. Germain Katanga and Mathieu Ngudjolo Chui, ICC-01/04-01/07-717, para. 514.
79. See ICC-02/05-01/09, Decision on the Prosecution's Application for a Warrant of Arrest against Omar Hassan Ahmad Al Bashir, supra note 7, para. 213.
80. ICC-01/04-01/07-717, para. 537.
81. See ICC-02/05-01/09, Decision on the Prosecution's Application for a Warrant of Arrest against Omar Hassan Ahmad Al Bashir, supra note 7, para. 214.
82. Ibid., para. 215.
83. Ibid., para. 216.
84. Ibid., paras. 217-220.
85. Ibid., para. 221.
86. Ibid., para. 222.
87. Judge Anita Ušacka dissented and noted: "I do not fi nd any evidence which addresses the issue of the locus of control; it is unclear whether such control indeed rested fully with Omar Al Bashir, or whether it was shared by others such that each person had the power to frustrate the commission of the crime. For this reason, I would decline to fi nd reasonable grounds to believe that Omar Al Bashir was responsible through co-perpetration and instead issue an arrest warrant based only on the mode of liability alleged by the Prosecution, indirect perpetration." See Ušacka dissent, infra note 84, para. 104.
88. ICC-02/05-01/09, Decision on the Prosecution's Application for a Warrant of Arrest against Omar Hassan Ahmad Al Bashir, supra note 7, para. 249.
89. A. Cassese, International Criminal Law 2nd ed. (Oxford University Press, Oxford, 2008) p. 307.
90. A. Cassese, International Criminal Law 2nd ed. p. 307. Ibid.
91. Secretary of State Colin L. Powell, Text of Colin Powell Testimony to Senate Foreign Relations Committee, Washington DC, 9 September 2004, available at 〈 www.voanews.com/english/rchive/2004-09/a-2004-09-09-8-Text.cfm 〉
92. See also S. Totten and E. Marcusen, 'The US Government Darfur Genocide Investigation', 7:2 Journal of Genocide Research (2005) pp. 279-290.
93. UN Doc. S/RES/1564, 18 September 2004, para. 12.
94. See Report of the International Commission of Inquiry on Violations of International Humanitarian Law and Human Rights Law in Darfur to the United Nations Secretary-General -Pursuant to Security Council Resolution 1564 of 18 September 2004, 25 January 2004 UN Doc. S/2005/60, available at 〈www.un.org/News/dh/sudan/com-inq-darfur.pdf〉 (hereafter "Commission of Inquiry). For acomment on this report see C. Byron, 'Comment on the Report of the International Commission ofInquiry on Darfur to the United Nations Secretary-General', 5:2 Human Rights Law Review (2005) pp. 351-360;
95. and the Contributions to the Symposium, 'The Commission of Inquiry on Darfur and its Follow-up: A Critical View', 3:3 Journal of International Criminal Justice (2005) p. 539.
96. Commission of Inquiry, ibid., paras. 489-522, 640-641.
97. on "The Crisis In Darfur" 31:4 Fordham International Law Journal 2008
98. and W. A. Shabas, 'Darfur and the "Odious Scourge: The Commission of Inquiry's Findings on Genocide', 18:4 Leiden Journal of International Law (2005) pp. 871-885.
99. Commission of Inquiry, ibid., para. 569.
100. ICC-02/05-01/09, Decision on the Prosecution's Application for a Warrant of Arrest against Omar Hassan Ahmad Al Bashir, supra note 7, para. 1.
101. See W. A. Schabas, 'Article 6: Genocide', in Triff terer, supra note 3, pp. 143-157.
102. For a comprehensive discussion of genocide in international law see generally W. A. Schabas, Genocide in International Law, 2nd edition (Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 2009).
103. -78 UNTS 277 (1951).
104. See Separate and Partly Dissenting Opinion of Judge Anita Ušacka, ICC-02/05-01/09, 4 March 2009, para. 36 (emphasis aadded), (hereafter "Ušacka dissent").
105. See Rome Statute, Article 6.
106. ICC-02/05-01/09, Decision on the Prosecution's Application for a Warrant of Arrest against Omar Hassan Ahmad Al Bashir, supra note 7, para. 204(v). But see Ušacka dissent, supra note 84, who was satisfi ed that there were reasonable grounds to issue an arrest warrant on the basis of the existence of reasonable grounds to believe that Al Bashir committed the crime of genocide.
107. See ICC-02/05-01/09, ibid., para. 207.
108. See ICC-02/05-01/09, ibid., para. 207.
109. Ibid.
110. Ibid., para. 137.
111. See Ušacka dissent, supra note 84.
112. Ibid., para. 26.
113. Ibid., para. 25.
114. Rome Statute, Article 58(l)(a).
115. Ibid., Article 61(7).
116. Ibid., Article 66(3).
117. Ušacka dissent, supra note 84, paras. 32-34, 84.
118. Ibid., para. 31.
119. Rome Statute, Article 58(1)(a), emphasis added.
120. See The Prosecutor v. Th omas Lubanga Dyilo, Decision on the Prosecutor's Application for a Warrant of Arrest, Article 58, ICC-01/04-01/06-8-Corr, para. 12.
121. Ušacka dissent, supra note 84, para. 76.
122. Ibid., para. 85.
123. See Prosecutor v. Krstić, IT-98-133, Trial Chamber, 2 August 2001; Appeals Chamber Judgment, 19 April 2004.
124. Rome Statute, Article 63(1), provides that "[t]he accused shall be present during the trial".
125. See ICC-02/05-01/09, Decision on the Prosecution's Application for a Warrant of Arrest against Omar Hassan Ahmad Al Bashir, supra note 7, para. 247.
126. In June 2009 there were 108 states parties to the Rome Statute. A list of states parties is available at 〈 www.icc-cpi.int/Menus/ASP/states+parties/ 〉
127. Rome Statute, Article 87(7) states "[w]here a State Party fails to comply with a request to cooperate by the Court contrary to the provisions of this Statute, thereby preventing the Court from exercising its functions and powers under this Statute, the Court may make a finding to that eff ect and refer the matter to the Assembly of States Parties or, where the Security Council referred the matter to the Court, to the Security Council".
128. UN Charter, Articles 41 and 42. Some commentators called for strong military action as early as 2005 "to protect black Africans in western Sudan". See S. J. Udombana, 'When Neutrality is a Sin: The Darfur Crisis and the Crisis of Humanitarian Intervention in Sudan', 27:4 Human Rights Quarterly (2005) p. 1199.
129. Times Online 4 March 2009, available at 〈, quoting the prosecutor to have stated that "[a]s soon as Mr Al-Bashir travels in international airspace his plane could be intercepted and he could be arrested. Th at is what I expect."
130. See e.g. Coalition for the International Criminal Court, ICC Issues Arrest Warrant for Sudanese President Omar Al-Bashir, 4 March 2009, available at 〈/www.iccnow.org/documents/BashirAW-CICC-Media-Advisory-4Mar-eng.pdf 〉
131. ICC-02/05-01/09, Decision on the Prosecution's Application for a Warrant of Arrest against Omar Hassan Ahmad Al Bashir, supra note 7, para. 43.
132. Pinochet [1997] 2 WLR 827.
133. I. Brownlie, Principles of Public International Law, 7Thed. (Oxford University Press, Oxford, 2008) p. 603.
134. ICG, The ICC Indictment of Bashir: A Turning Point for Sudan?, available at 〈 www.crisisgroup.org/home/index.cfm?id=5959&l=1 〉
135. See also Justice for Darfur, 'Bashir warrant: a major step towards justice for victims in Darfur',The Hague, 4 March 2009, available at 〈 www.justice4darfur.org/letters/Darfur.J4Dstatement.CAHWC.2009-03-04.pdf 〉
136. ICG, ibid.
137. BBC News, Warrant Issued for Sudan's Leader, 4 March 2009, available at < news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/africa/7923102.stm〉
138. UN Doc. S/RES/1593.
139. Rome Statute, Article 98(1).
140. Abdel Basit Sabdarat told Al-Jazeera "[w]e will not deal with this court It has no jurisdiction, it is a political decision." See Al Jazeera, 'World reacts to Bashir warrant', 5 March 2009, available at 〈english.aljazeera.net/news/africa/2009/03/2009341438156231.html〉
141. Mustafa Othman Ismail told the Sudanese Television that "[t]his decision is exactly what we have been expecting from the court, which was created to target Sudan and to be part of the new mechanism of neo-colonialism". See BBC News, 'Warrant issued for Sudan's leader', 4 March 2009, available at 〈news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/africa/7923102. stm〉
142. Abdel Rahim El Siddig, 'Arrest Warrant Against Sitting Head of State is Abuse of Law', The New Vision, 11 March 2009, available at 〈 www.newvision.co.ug/D/8/20/674250 〉
143. See BBC News, 'Bashir vows to defy Darfur charge', 5 March 2009, available at 〈news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/africa/7925445.stm〉 noting that following the warrant Al Bashir told a rally in the city's Martyrs Square, Sudan: "We are telling the colonialists we are not succumbing; we are not submitting; we will not kneel; we are targeted because we refuse to submit."
144. See 'Bashir Defi es War Crime Arrest Order'. New York Times, 5 March 2009, at 〈 www.nytimes.com/2009/03/06/world/africa/06sudan.html 〉
145. S. McCrummen and C. Lynch, 'Sudan's President: Arrest Warrant a Conspiracy', Washington Post, 5 March 2009, at 〈 www.washingtonpost.com/wp- dyn/content/article/2009/03/05/AR20090 30500190.html?hpid=moreheadlines 〉
146. See e.g. Sixth Report of the Prosecutor of the International Criminal Court to the UN Security Council pursuant to UN Security Council Resolution 1593 (2005), 5 December 2007.
147. See M. Mamdani, Saviors and Survivors: Darfur, Politics and the War on Terror (Pantheon Books, New York, 2009) p. 300.
148. See Declaration by the Presidency on behalf of the EU following the ICC decision concerning the arrest warrant for President Al-Bashir, 5 March 2009, available at 〈 www.eu2009.cz/en/newsand-documents/cfsp-statements/ declaration-by-the-presidency-on-behalf-of-the-eu-following-theicc-decision- concerning-the-arrest-warrant-for-president-al-bashir-11379/〉
149. See e.g. W. A. Schabas, 'United States Hostility to the International Criminal Court: It's All About the Security Council', 15:4 European Journal of International Law (2004) pp. 701-720.
150. See Genocide Intervention Network, ' McCain and Obama Speak out on Darfur and More -Summary', available at 〈 www.askthecandidates.org//files//Obama- McCain-questionnaire.pdf 〉
151. UN Doc. S/PV.5158, p 4. On the US opposition to the ICC see W. A. Schabas, An Introduction to the International Criminal Court, 3rd ed. (Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 2007) pp. 24-32.
152. UN Doc. S/PV.5158, p. 3. See also K. Millis and A. Lott, 'From Rome to Darfur: Norms and Interests in US Policy Toward the International Criminal Court', 6:1 Journal of Human Rights (2007) pp. 497-521.
153. This conclusion finds support in the fact that the US Clinton Administration imposed comprehensive economic and trade sanctions against Sudan since 1997; and that on 20 August 1998, the US attacked Al Shifa Pharmaceutical Industries factory in Khartoum, claiming that the factory was making weapons of mass destruction (chemical weapons), but this was subsequently shown to be false.
154. This view has been expressed by Ayman Shebana, political science professor at Cairo University's Centre for African Studies. See A. Morrow and K. M. al-Omrani, 'Sudan: Bashir Finds Strong Support', 6 August 2008, available at 〈allafrica.com/stories/printable/200808070003.html〉
155. Human Rights Watch, Sudan, Oil and Human Rights (Human Rights Watch, London, 2003) p. 478, available at 〈 www.hrw.org/reports/2003/sudan1103/ sudanprint.pdf 〉
156. A. Sidahmed, 'Sudan Oil Industry in BP Figures', Sudan Tribune, 18 June 2007, available at 〈 www.sudantribune.com/spip.php?article22437 〉
157. P. Moorcraft, 'Sudan: Africa Suspicious of Court's Motives in Taking On Bashir', Business Day, 6 March 2009, available at 〈 www.businessday.co.za/ articles/opinion.aspx?ID=BD4A953454 〉
158. OIC, ' OIC Secretary General Strongly Rejects the ICC indictment against President of the Sudan', 4 March 2009, available at 〈 www.oic-oci.org/ topic-detail.asp?t-id=1970 〉
159. www.oic-oci.org/topic-detail.asp?t-id=1970 Ibid.
160. See Rome Statute, Article 53; Information on Communications and Referrals at the ICC website, 〈 www.icc-cpi.int/Menus/ICC/Situations+and+Cases/ Referals+and+communications/〉
161. See observations by Judge Akua Kuenyehia, available at 〈 www.iccnow.org/documents/CICCQuestionnaireAkuaKuenyehiaGhanaReply.pdf 〉, para 11.
162. See e.g. African Union, Peace and Security Council, Communique, 175th Meeting, 5 March 2009, PSC/PR/Comm(CLXXV), available at 〈 www.africa-union.org/root/ua/conferences/2009/mars/psc/05mars/ communique%20icc%20arrest%20warrant%20-eng.pdf 〉
163. Ibid., para. 4.
164. See Human Rights Watch, 'Sudan: Expelling Aid Agencies Harms Victims', 5 March 2009, available at 〈 www.hrw.org/en/news/2009/03/05/sudan-expelling- aid-agencies-harms-victims 〉 Human Rights Watch, 'Arab States: Press Sudan on Darfur Aid', 29 March 2009, available at 〈 www.hrw.org/en/news/2009/03/ 29/arab-states-press-sudan-darfur-aid 〉 UN News Centre, 'Latest developments in Darfur focus of UN-African Union meeting', 6 April 2009, available at 〈 www.un.org/apps/news/story.asp?NewsID=30408&Cr= sudan&Cr1= 〉 Amnesty International, 'Millions Face Starvation and Disease as Aid Agencies are Expelled from Darfur', 5 March 2009, available at 〈 www.amnesty.org/en/news-and-updates/news/millions-face-starvation- diseaseaid-agencies-expelled-from-darfur-20090305 〉
165. Human Rights Watch, ibid. Sudan acceded to the ICESCR, 993 UNTS 3, on 18 March 1986. For the analysis of state obligations under the Covenant
166. see M. Ssenyonjo, Economic, Social and Cultural Rights in International Law (Hart Publishing, Oxford, 2009) ch. 2.
167. See e.g. BBC News, 'Arab Leaders Back "Wanted" Bashir', 30 March 2009, available at 〈news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/middle-east/7971624. stm〉
168. Ibid., quoting Syrian President Assad to have stated that those who had "committed massacres and atrocities in Palestine, Iraq and Lebanon should be arrested fi rst".
169. S//RES/1757, 30 May 2007.
170. I. Brownlie, Principles of Public International Law 7Thed. (Oxford University Press, Oxford, 2008) p. 604.
171. See e.g. L. Heard, 'Nothing International about ICC', Arab News, 10 March 2009, available at 〈 www.arabnews.com/?page=7§ion=0&article= 120098&d=10&m=3&y=2009 〉
172. L. Heard, 'Nothing International about ICC', Arab News, www.arabnews.com/?page=7§ion=0&article=120098&d=10&m= 3&y=2009 Ibid.
173. L. Heard, 'Nothing International about ICC', Arab News, www.arabnews.com/?page=7§ion=0&article=120098&d=10&m= 3&y=2009 Ibid.
174. M. K. Mayanja, 'Bashir Indictment is Colonial Conspiracy', The Weekly Observer, 12 March 2009.
175. M. K. Mayanja, 'Bashir Indictment is Colonial Conspiracy', The Weekly Observer, 2009. Ibid.
176. M. K. Mayanja, 'Bashir Indictment is Colonial Conspiracy', The Weekly Observer, 2009. Ibid.
177. See Security Council Minutes, 5158th Meeting, 31 March 2005, UN Doc S/PV.5158, at 12.
178. ICG, supra note 114.
179. Ibid. For a background to Sudan's Comprehensive Peace Agreement between the government of Sudan and the Sudan's People's Liberation Movement/Army (SPLM/A) and the text of this Agreement, see United Nations Mission in Sudan, Comprehensive Peace Agreement, available at 〈 www.unmis.org/English/cpa.htm 〉
180. See FARS News Agency, 'D'Escoto: Bush Should Stand Trial', 7 March 2009, available at 〈english.farsnews.com/newstext.php?nn=8712171148〉
181. See M. Bergsmo and J. Pejic, 'Article 16: Deferral of Investigation or Prosecution', in Triff terer, supra note 3, p. 598. For a limited interpretation of Article 16, see D. Scheff er, 'The Security Council's Struggle over Darfur and International Justice', Jurist, 20 August 2008, available at 〈jurist.law.pitt.edu/forumy/2008/08/security-councils-struggle-over-darfur. php〉
182. Security Council Resolution 1422 (2002), UN Doc. S/RES/1422, 12 July 2002, operative para. 1.
183. See e.g. Amnesty International, The Unlawful Attempt by the Security Council to Give US Citizens Permanent Impunity from International Justice, Index No. IOR 40/006/2003, 30 April 2003, available at 〈 www.amnesty.org/en/ library/info/IOR40/006/2003〉
184. C. Stahn, 'The Ambiguities of Security Council Resolution 1422 (2002)', 14:1 European Journal of International Law (2003) pp. 85-104.
185. Security Council Resolution 1487 (2003), UN Doc. S/RES/1487, 12 June 2003, operative para. 1.
186. African Union, Peace and Security Council, Communique, 175th Meeting, 5 March 2009, PSC/PR/Comm(CLXXV).
187. See the following Security Council Resolutions: Resolution 808 (1993), UN Doc. S/RES/808, 22 February 1993, preamble para. 9; Resolution 827 (1993), UN Doc. S/RES/827, 25 May 1993, preamble para. 6; Resolution 955 (1994), UN Doc. S/RES/955, 8 November 1994, preamble para. 7.
188. Human Rights Watch, 'Arab States: Press Sudan on Darfur Aid', supra note 142.
189. See Agreement of Good Will and Confidence Building, signed in Doha on 17 February 2009 between the government of Sudan and the Justice and Equality Movement.
190. See e.g. A. Shahine, 'Darfur: Rebels Cancel Plans for Talks with Sudan Government', Reuters, 20 March 2009.
191. See Assembly of the African Union, 'Decision on the Report of the Commission on the Abuse of the Principle of Universal Jurisdiction', 30 June and 1 July 2008, Doc EX.CL/411 (XIII), paras. 1-4, available at 〈 www.taylor-report.com/Documents/DECISION-ON-THE-REPORT-OF-THE-COMMISSION-ON-THE- ABUSE-OF-THE-PRINCIPLE-OF-UNIVERSAL-JURISDICTION.doc 〉
192. See also Communiquè of the 142nd meeting of the Peace and Security Council of the African Union, PSC/MIN/Comm (CXLII), 21 July 2008, para. 3, available at 〈 www.iccnow.org/documents/AU-142-communique-eng.pdf 〉
193. See Statement attributable to the Spokesperson for the Secretary-General on the announcement of the dates for national elections in Sudan, New York, 3 April 2009, available at 〈 www.un.org/apps/sg/sgstats.asp?nid=3770 〉
194. ICG, Supra note 114.
195. See 'China Regretful, Worried about Sudan President Arrest Warrant', 5 March 2009, available at 〈news.xinhuanet.com/english/2009-03/05/content- 10946492.htm〉 On China's interests in Sudan see R. P. McAleavey, 'Pressuring Sudan: The Prospect of an Oil-for-Food Program for arfur', 31:4 Fordham International Law Journal (2008) pp. 1060-1073.
196. See United Nations, Security Council Decides to Extend Mandate of African Union-United Nations Hybrid Operation in Darfur by 14 Votes in Favour, 1 Abstention, SC/9412 (31 July 2008), available at 〈 www.un.org/News/Press/ docs/2008/sc9412.doc.htm 〉
197. M. Simons and N. Macfarquhar, 'Court Issues Arrest Warrant for Sudan's Leader', The New York Times, 4 March 2009, available at 〈 www.nytimes.com/2009/03/05/world/africa/05court.html 〉
198. See BBC News, 'Arrest Warrant Draws Sudan Scorn', 5 March 2009, available at 〈news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/africa/7924982.stm〉 quoting Sudanese Presidential Aide Mustafa Othman Ismail.
199. See full transcript of Lindsey Hilsum's interview with Omar al-Bashir, president of Sudan, 17 October 2008, Channel Four News, available at 〈 www.channel4.com/news/articles/politics/international-politics/ interview+omar+albashir/2562362 〉
200. A. de Waal, 'Darfur, the Court and Khartoum: The Politics of State Non-Cooperation', in N. Waddell and P. Clark (eds.), Courting Conflict? Justice, Peace and the ICC in Africa (The Royal African Society, London, March 2008) p. 34.