Multidisciplinary treatment of resectable rectal cancer

Expert Review of Gastroenterology and Hepatology

Volumn 3, Issue 4, 2009, Pages 383-394

  Ayala, Diandra N ^a   Russo, Suzanne M ^b   Blackstock, A William ^a  

^a WAKE FOREST SCHOOL OF MEDICINE   (United States)

^b EAST CAROLINA UNIVERSITY   (United States)

Author keywords

Cancer; Chemotherapy; Radiation; Rectal; Surgery; Targeted therapy

Indexed keywords

BEVACIZUMAB; CAPECITABINE; CETUXIMAB; FLUOROPYRIMIDINE; FLUOROURACIL; FOLINIC ACID; IRINOTECAN; LEVAMISOLE; OXALIPLATIN; PANITUMUMAB; RALTITREXED;

BLOOD TOXICITY; BRACHYTHERAPY; CANCER ADJUVANT THERAPY; CANCER CHEMOTHERAPY; CANCER CONTROL; CANCER RADIOTHERAPY; CANCER RECURRENCE; CANCER RELAPSE; CANCER STAGING; CANCER SURVIVAL; CLINICAL TRIAL; COLORECTAL CANCER; CONTINUOUS INFUSION; DIARRHEA; DISEASE FREE SURVIVAL; DISTANT METASTASIS; DRUG DOSE REDUCTION; HUMAN; METASTASIS POTENTIAL; MICROSURGERY; OVERALL SURVIVAL; QUALITY OF LIFE; RADIATION DOSE FRACTIONATION; RECTUM CANCER; RECTUM SURGERY; REVIEW; SURGICAL APPROACH; TUMOR LOCALIZATION;

ANTINEOPLASTIC COMBINED CHEMOTHERAPY PROTOCOLS; CHEMOTHERAPY, ADJUVANT; DIGESTIVE SYSTEM SURGICAL PROCEDURES; DISEASE-FREE SURVIVAL; HUMANS; NEOADJUVANT THERAPY; NEOPLASM RECURRENCE, LOCAL; NEOPLASM STAGING; PATIENT CARE TEAM; PRACTICE GUIDELINES AS TOPIC; QUALITY OF LIFE; RADIOTHERAPY, ADJUVANT; RECTAL NEOPLASMS; TREATMENT OUTCOME;

EID: 70049100564     PISSN: 17474124     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1586/egh.09.33     Document Type: Review

References (89)

1. National Cancer Institute. Cancer Topics: Colon and Rectal Cancer US National Institutes Of Health, MA, USA (2008).
2. Wang SJ, Fuller CD, Emery R, Thomas CR, Jr. Conditional survival in rectal cancer: a SEER database analysis. Gastrointest. Cancer. Res. 1(3), 84-89 (2007).
3. Beets-Tan RG, Beets GL. Preoperative staging of rectal tumors: what is the most optimal staging method? Onkologie 31(5), 222-223 (2008).
4. Diagnostic accuracy of preoperative magnetic resonance imaging in predicting curative resection of rectal cancer: prospective observational study. BMJ 333(7572), 779 (2006).
5. O'Neill BD, Salerno G, Thomas K, Tait DM, Brown G. MR vs CT imaging: low rectal cancer tumour delineation for three-dimensional conformal radiotherapy. Br. J. Radiol. 82(978), 509-513 (2009).
6. Puli SR, Bechtold ML, Reddy JB et al. How good is endoscopic ultrasound in differentiating various T stages of rectal cancer? Meta-analysis and systematic review. Ann. Surg. Oncol. 16(2), 254-265 (2008).
7. Tatli S, Mortele KJ, Breen EL, Bleday R, Silverman SG. Local staging of rectal cancer using combined pelvic phased-array and endorectal coil MRI. J. Magn. Reson. Imaging 23(4), 534-540 (2006).
8. Rich T, Ota D, Rosenthal S et al. Management of resectable rectal cancer. American college of radiology. ACR appropriateness criteria. Radiology 215(Suppl.), 1473-1480 (2000).
9. Tepper J, Bader J, Janjan N et al. Locally unresectable rectal cancer. American College of Radiology. ACR Appropriateness Criteria. Radiology 215(Suppl), 1481-1490 (2000).
10. Heald R, Ryall R. Recurrence and survival after total mesorectal excision for rectal cancer. Lancet 1, 1479-1482 (1986).
11. Heald R, Moran B, Ryall R et al. Rectal cancer: the Basingstoke experience of total mesorectal excision, 1978-1997. Arch. Surg. 133, 894-899 (1998).
12. Farid H, O'Connell T. Methods to decrease the morbidity of abdominoperineal resection. Am. Surg. 61, 1061-1064 (1995).
13. Wibe A, Syse A, Andersen E et al. Oncological outcomes after total mesorectal excision for cure for cancer of the lower rectum: anterior vs. abdominoperineal resection. Dis. Colon Rectum 47, 48-58 (2004).
14. Nagtegaal ID, van de Velde CJ, Marijnen CA, van Krieken JH, Quirke P. Low rectal cancer: a call for a change of approach in abdominoperineal resection. J. Clin. Oncol 23(36), 9257-9264 (2005).
15. Solomon M, Pager C, Keshava A et al. What do patients want? Patient preferences and surrogate decision making in the treatment of colorectal cancer. Dis. Colon Rectum 46, 1351-1357 (2003).
16. Endreseth B, Myrvold H, Romundstad P et al. Transanal excision vs. major surgery for T1 rectal cancer. Dis. Colon Rectum 48, 1380-1388 (2005).
17. Minsky B, RichT, Recht A et al. Selection criteria for local excision with or without adjuvant radiation therapy for rectal cancer. Cancer 63, 1421-1429 (1989).
18. Endreseth BH, Wibe A, Svinsas M, Marvik R, Myrvold HE. Postoperative morbidity and recurrence after local excision of rectal adenomas and rectal cancer by transanal endoscopic microsurgery. Colorectal Dis. 7(2), 133-137 (2005).
19. Lezoche E, Guerrieri M, Paganini AM, Feliciotti F. Long-term results of patients with pT2 rectal cancer treated with radiotherapy and transanal endoscopic microsurgical excision. World J Surg. 26(9), 1170-1174 (2002).
20. Goes R, Beart R Jr, Simons A et al. Use of brachytherapy in management of locally recurrent rectal cancer. Dis. Colon Rectum. 40, 1177-1179 (1997).
21. Grimard L, Stern H, Spaans JN. Brachytherapy and local excision for sphincter preservation in T1 and T2 rectal cancer. Int. J. Radiat. Oncol. Biol. Phys. 74(3), 803-809 (2009).
22. Russell A, Harris J, Rosenberg P et al. Anal sphincter conservation for patients with adenocarcinoma of the distal rectum: long-term results of radiation therapy oncology group protocol 89-02. Int. J. Radiat. Oncol. Biol. Phys. 46, 313-322 (2000).
23. Steele GD Jr, Herndon J, Bleday R et al. Sphincter-sparing treatment for distal rectal adenocarcinoma. Ann Surg Oncol. 6, 433-441 (1999).
24. Prolongation of the disease-free interval in surgically treated rectal carcinoma. Gastrointestinal Tumor Study Group. N. Engl. J. Med. 312(23), 1465-1472 (1985).
25. Tveit KM, Guldvog I, Hagen S et al. Randomized controlled trial of postoperative radiotherapy and short-term time-scheduled 5-fluorouracil against surgery alone in the treatment of Dukes B and C rectal cancer. Norwegian Adjuvant Rectal Cancer Project Group. Br. J. Surg. 84(8), 1130-1135 (1997).
26. NIH Consensus Conference. Adjuvant therapy for patients with colon and rectal cancer. JAMA 264, 1444-1150 (1990).
27. Wolmark N, Wieand H, Hyams D et al. Randomized trial of postoperative adjuvant chemotherapy with or without radiotherapy for carcinoma of the rectum: National Surgical Adjuvant Breast and Bowel Project Protocol R-02. J. Natl Cancer Inst. 92, 388-396 (2000).
28. Tepper J, O'Connell M, Niedzwiecki D, et al. Adjuvant therapy in rectal cancer: analysis of stage, sex, and local control - final report of intergroup 0114. J. Clin. Oncol. 20, 1744-1750 (2002).
29. Tepper J, O'Connell M, Petroni G, et al. Adjuvant postoperative fluorouracil-modulated chemotherapy combined with pelvic radiation therapy for rectal cancer: initial results of intergroup 0114. J. Clin. Oncol. 15, 2030-2039 (1997).
30. Mitry E, Fields A, Bleiberg H et al. Adjuvant chemotherapy after potentially curative resection of metastases from colorectal cancer: a pooled analysis of two randomized trials. J. Clin. Oncol. 26, 4906-4911 (2008).
31. O'Connell M, Martenson J, Wieand H, et al. Improving adjuvant therapy for rectal cancer by combining protracted-infusion fluorouracil with radiation therapy after curative surgery. N. Engl. J. Med. 331, 502-507 (1994).
32. Smalley S, Benedetti J, Williamson S, et al. Phase III trial of fluorouracil-based chemotherapy regimens plus radiotherapy in postoperative adjuvant rectal cancer: GI INT 0144. J. Clin. Oncol. 24, 3542-3547 (2006).
33. Kurt M, Ozkan L, Kurt E et al. Comparison of protracted infusion 5-fluorouracil and capecitabine in adjuvant chemoradiotherapy for rectal cancer. Hepatogastroenterology 55(85), 1158-1163 (2008).
34. Swedish Rectal Cancer Trial. Improved survival with preoperative radiotherapy in resectable rectal cancer. N. Engl. J. Med. 336, 980-987 (1997).
35. Camma C, Giunta M, Fiorica F, et al. Preoperative radiotherapy for resectable rectal cancer: a meta-analysis. JAMA 284, 1008-1015 (2000).
36. Colorectal Cancer Collaborative Group. Adjuvant radiotherapy for rectal cancer: a systematic overview of 8507 patients from 22 randomised trials. Lancet 358, 1291-1304 (2001).
37. Kapiteijn E, Marijnen C, Nagtegaal I et al. Preoperative radiotherapy combined with total mesorectal excision for resectable rectal cancer. N. Engl. J. Med. 345, 638-646 (2001).
38. Dutch Colorectal Cancer Group. The TME trial after a median follow-up of 6 years. Ann. Surg. 246(5), 693-701 (2007).
39. Peeters KC, Marijnen CA, Nagtegaal ID et al. The TME trial after a median follow-up of 6 years: increased local control but no survival benefit in irradiated patients with resectable rectal carcinoma. Ann Surg, 246(5), 693-701 (2007).
40. Birgisson H, Pahlman L, Gunnarsson U et al. Adverse effects of preoperative radiation therapy for rectal cancer: long-term follow-up of the Swedish Rectal Cancer Trial. J. Clin. Oncol. 23, 8697-8705 (2005).
41. Pollack J, Holm T, Cedermark B et al. Late Adverse Effects of Short Course Preoperative Radiotherapy in Rectal Cancer. Br. J. Surg. 93, 1519-1525 (2006).
42. Improved survival with preoperative radiotherapy in resectable rectal cancer. Swedish Rectal Cancer Trial. N. Engl. J. Med. 336(14), 980-987 (1997).
43. Kapiteijn E, Marijnen CA, Nagtegaal ID et al. Preoperative radiotherapy combined with total mesorectal excision for resectable rectal cancer. N. Engl. J. Med. 345(9), 638-646 (2001).
44. Sauer R, Becker H, Hohenberger W et al. Preoperative versus postoperative chemoradiotherapy for rectal cancer. N. Engl. J. Med. 351(17), 1731-1740 (2004).
45. Sebag-Montefiore D, Stephens RJ, Steele R et al. Preoperative radiotherapy versus selective postoperative chemoradiotherapy in patients with rectal cancer (MRC CR07 and NCIC-CTG C016): a multicentre, randomised trial. Lancet 373(9666), 811-820 (2009).
46. Bujko K, Nowacki MP, Nasierowska-Guttmejer A et al. Long-term results of a randomized trial comparing preoperative short-course radiotherapy with preoperative conventionally fractionated chemoradiation for rectal cancer. Br. J. Surg. 93(10), 1215-1223 (2006).
47. Siegel R, Burock S, Wernecke KD et al. Preoperative short-course radiotherapy versus combined radiochemotherapy in locally advanced rectal cancer: a multicentre prospectively randomised study of the Berlin Cancer Society. BMC Cancer 9, 50 (2009).
48. Collette L, Bosset JF, den Dulk M et al. Patients with curative resection of cT3 - 4 rectal cancer after preoperative radiotherapy or radiochemotherapy: does anybody benefit from adjuvant fluorouracil-based chemotherapy? A trial of the European Organisation for Research and Treatment of Cancer Radiation Oncology Group. J. Clin. Oncol. 25(28), 4379-4386 (2007).
49. Ngan SY, Fisher R, Burmeister BH et al. Promising results of a cooperative group Phase II trial of preoperative chemoradiation for locally advanced rectal cancer (TROG 9801). Dis. Colon Rectum 48(7), 1389-1396 (2005).
50. Roh M, Colangelo L, Wieand S et al. Response to preoperative multimodality therapy predicts survival in patients with carcinoma of the rectum. Proc. Am. Soc. Clin. Oncol., 22 (2004) (Abstr 3505).
51. Hyams D, Mamounas E, Petrelli N et al. A clinical trial to evaluate the worth of preoperative multimodality therapy in patients with operable carcinoma of the rectum: a progress report of National Surgical Breast and Bowel Project Protocol R-03. Dis. Colon Rectum 40, 131-139 (1997).
52. Sauer R, Becker H, Hohenberger W et al. Preoperative versus postoperative chemoradiotherapy for rectal cancer. N. Engl. J. Med. 351, 1731-1740 (2004).
53. Gérard JP, Conroy T, Bonnetain F et al. Preoperative radiotherapy with or without concurrent fluorouracil and leucovorin in T3 - 4 rectal cancers: results of FFCD 9203. J. Clin. Oncol. 24, 4620-4625 (2006).
54. Bosset J, Collette L, Calais G, et al. Chemotherapy with preoperative radiotherapy in rectal cancer. N. Engl. J. Med. 355, 1114-1123 (2006).
55. Koeberle D, Burkhard R, von Moos R et al. Phase II study of capecitabine and oxaliplatin given prior to and concurrently with preoperative pelvic radiotherapy in patients with locally advanced rectal cancer. Br. J. Cancer 98(7), 1204-1209 (2008).
56. Wong J, Winter K, Meropol N et al. RTOG 0247: a randomized Phase II study of neoadjuvant capecitabine and irinotecan versus capecitabine and oxaliplatin with concurrent radiation therapy for locally advanced rectal cancer. J. Clin. Oncol. 26(Suppl. 15), 4021 (2008)
57. Gunnlaugsson A et al. Multicentre Phase II trial of capecitabine and oxaliplatin in combination with radiotherapy for unresectable colorectal cancer: The CORGI-L study. Eur. J. Cancer 45(5), 807-813 (2008).
58. Willett C, Badizadegan K, Ancukiewicz M. Prognostic factors in stage T3N0 rectal cancer: do all patients require postoperative pelvic irradiation and chemotherapy? Dis. Colon Rectum 42, 167-173 (1999).
59. Gunderson L, Sargent D, Tepper J et al. Impact of T and N stage and treatment on survival and relapse in adjuvant rectal cancer: a pooled analysis. J. Clin Oncol. 22(10), 1785-1796 (2004).
60. Tepper JE, O'Connell MJ, Niedzwiecki D et al. Impact of number of nodes retrieved on outcome in patients with rectal cancer. J. Clin. Oncol. 19(1), 157-163 (2001).
61. Gosens MJ, Klaassen RA, Tan-Go I et al. Circumferential margin involvement is the crucial prognostic factor after multimodality treatment in patients with locally advanced rectal carcinoma. Clin Cancer Res. 13(22 Pt 1), 6617-6623 (2007).
62. Wang C, Zhou ZG, Yu YY et al. Occurrence and prognostic value of circumferential resection margin involvement for patients with rectal cancer. Int. J. Colorectal Dis. 24(4), 385-390 (2009).
63. National Cancer Institute. Bevacizumab (Avastin™) for Treatment of Solid Tumors: Questions and Answers. National Cancer Institute Fact Sheet, MA, USA (2005)
64. Willett CG, Boucher Y, di Tomaso E et al. Direct evidence that the VEGF-specific antibody bevacizumab has antivascular effects in human rectal cancer. Nat. Med. 10(2), 145-147 (2004).
65. Hurwitz H, Fehrenbacher L, Novotny W et al. Bevacizumab plus irinotecan, fluorouracil, and leucovorin for metastatic colorectal cancer. N. Engl. J. Med. 350(23), 2335-2342 (2004).
66. Czito B, Bendell J, Willett C et al. Bevcizumab, oxaliplatin, and capecitabine with radiationtherapy in rectal cancer: Phase I trial results. Int. J. Rad. Oncol. Bio. Phys. 68(2), 472-478 (2007).
67. Willett C, Duda D, di Tomaso E et al. Complete pathological response to bevacizumab and chemoradiation in advanced rectal cancer. Nat. Clin. Pract. Oncol. 4(5), 316-321 (2007).
68. Willett CG, Duda DG, di Tomaso E et al. Efficacy, safety, and biomarkers of neoadjuvant bevacizumab, radiation therapy, and fluorouracil in rectal cancer: a multidisciplinary Phase II study. J. Clin. Oncol. 27(18), 3020-3026 (2009)
69. US FDA. FDA Approves Erbitux For Colorectal Cancer. US FDA, MD, USA (2004).
70. Saltz L, Rubin M, Hochster H et al. Cetuximab (IMC-C225) Plus irinotecan (cpt-11) is active in cpt-11-refractory colorectal cancer (crc) that expresses epidermal growth factor receptor (EGFR). In: ASCO Annual Meeting. Proc. Am. Soc. Clin. Oncol. 20, 31 (2001) (Abstract 7).
71. Machiels J, Sempoux C, Scalliet P et al. Phase I/II study of preoperative cetuximab, capecitabine, and external beam radiotherapy in patients with rectal cancer. Ann. Oncol. 18(4), 738-744 (2007).
72. Bengala C, Bettelli S, Bertolini F et al. Epidermal growth factor receptor gene copy number, K-ras mutation and pathological response to preoperative cetuximab, 5-FU and radiation therapy in locally advanced rectal cancer. Ann. Oncol 20(3), 469-474 (2008).
73. Van Cutsem E, Lang I, Dhaens G et al. KRAS status and efficacy in the first-line treatment of patients with metastatic colorectal cancer (mCRC) treated with FOLFIRI with or without cetuximab: the CRYSTAL experience. J. Clin. Oncol. 26(Suppl.) (2008) (Abstract 2).
74. Bokemeyer C, Bondarenko I, Hartmann JT et al. KRAS status and efficacy of first-line treatment of patients with metastatic colorectal cancer (mCRC) with FOLFOX with or without cetuximab: The OPUS experience. J. Clin. Oncol. 26(Suppl), 4000 (2008) (Abstract 4000).
75. Amado RG, Wolf M, Peeters M et al. Wild-type KRAS is required for panitumumab efficacy in patients with metastatic colorectal cancer. J. Clin. Oncol. 26(10), 1626-1634 (2008).
76. Khambata-Ford S, Garrett CR, Meropol NJ et alxpression of epiregulin and amphiregulin and K-ras mutation status predict disease control in metastatic colorectal cancer patients treated with cetuximab. J. Clin. Oncol. 25(22), 3230-3237 (2007).
77. Lievre A, Bachet JB, Boige V et al. KRAS mutations as an independent prognostic factor in patients with advanced colorectal cancer treated with cetuximab. J. Clin. Oncol. 26(3), 374-379 (2008).
78. Cengel KA, Voong KR, Chandrasekaran S et al. Oncogenic K-Ras signals through epidermal growth factor receptor and wild-type H-Ras to promote radiation survival in pancreatic and colorectal carcinoma cells. Neoplasia 9(4), 341-348 (2007).
79. McKenna WG, Muschel RJ, Gupta AK, Hahn SM, Bernhard EJ. The RAS signal transduction pathway and its role in radiation sensitivity. Oncogene, 22(37), 5866-5875 (2003).
80. Czito BG, Bendell JC, Willett CG et al. Bevacizumab, oxaliplatin, and capecitabine with radiation therapy in rectal cancer: Phase I trial results. Int. J. Radiat. Oncol. Biol. Phys. 68(2), 472-478 (2007).
81. Willett CG, Duda DG, di Tomaso E et al. Complete pathological response to bevacizumab and chemoradiation in advanced rectal cancer. Nat Clin Pract Oncol. 4(5), 316-321 (2007).
82. Avallone A, Delrio P, Pecori B et al. Phase II study of two different schedules of bevacizumab (BEV) with oxaliplatin (OXA), raltitrexed, levo-folinic acid (LFA) and fluorouracil (5FU) during pelvic RT in high-risk locally advanced rectal cancer (LARC) patients (pts). Presented at: Gastrointestinal Cancers Symposium, CA, USA (2009) (Abstract 466).
83. Marijnen CA, Rutten H, de Wilt H et al. Preoperative chemoradiotherapy regimen with capecitabine and bevacizumab in locally advanced rectal cancer: A feasibility study of the Dutch Colorectal Cancer Group (DCCG). J. Clin. Oncol. 26(Suppl. 15), 15040 (2008) (Abstract 15040).
84. DiPetrillo TA, Pricolo V, Sikov WM et al. Neoadjuvant bevacizumab, oxaliplatin, 5-fluorouracil, and radiation in clinical stage II-III rectal cancer. J. Clin. Oncol. 26(Suppl. 15S), 15041 (2008) (Abstract 15041).
85. Crane CH, Eng C, Feig BW et al. Phase II trial of neoadjuvant bevacizumab (BEV), capecitabine (CAP), and radiotherapy (XRT) for locally advanced rectal cancer. J. Clin. Oncol. 26(Suppl. 15S), 4091 (2008) (Abstract 4091).
86. Machiels JP, Sempoux C, Scalliet P et al. Phase I/II study of preoperative cetuximab, capecitabine, and external beam radiotherapy in patients with rectal cancer. Ann. Oncol. 18(4), 738-744 (2007).
87. Horisberger K, Treschl A, Mai S et al. Cetuximab in combination with capecitabine, irinotecan, and radiotherapy for patients with locally advanced rectal cancer: results of a Phase II MARGIT Trial. Int. J. Radiat. Oncol. Biol. Phys. (2009).
88. Rodel C, Arnold D, Hipp M et al. Phase I-II trial of cetuximab, capecitabine, oxaliplatin, and radiotherapy as preoperative treatment in rectal cancer. Int. J. Radiat. Oncol. Biol. Phys., 70(4), 1081-1086 (2008).
89. Pinto C, Di Fabio F, Di Bisceglie M et al. Panitumumab, 5-fluorouracil, and oxaliplatin with concurrent radiotherapy in locally advanced rectal cancer: Preliminary safety results of the StarPan-STAR-02 Study. Presented at: Gastrointestinal Cancers Symposium. CA, USA, 15-17 January 2009 (Abstract 472).