A Wired World: The evolving geography of submarine cables and the shift to Asia

Annals of the Association of American Geographers

Volumn 99, Issue 2, 2009, Pages 360-382

  Malecki, Edward J ^a   Wei, Hu ^b  

^a OHIO STATE UNIVERSITY   (United States)

^b GENERAL MOTORS CORPORATION   (United States)

Author keywords

Global map; History; Submarine cables; Telecommunications

Indexed keywords

ECONOMIC GEOGRAPHY; GLOBAL ECONOMY; INTERNET; MAP; MOBILE COMMUNICATION; SUBMARINE CABLE;

ASIA; EURASIA;

EID: 69949176012     PISSN: 00045608     EISSN: 14678306     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1080/00045600802686216     Document Type: Article

References (193)

1. Al Balooshi, S. 2003. Emirates Internet eXchange. Presentation at the RIPE NCC Regional Meeting, Middle East, Dubai. http://www.ripe.net/meetings/regional/dubai-2003/presentations/emix.pdf (last accessed 28 July 2008).
2. Anchordoguy, A. 2001. Nippon Telegraph and Telephone Company (NTT) and the building of a telecommunications industry in Japan. Business History Review 75:507-41.
3. Aoyama, Y., and E. Sheppard. 2003. The dialectics of geographic and virtual space. Environment and Planning A 35:1151-56.
4. Arnum, E., and S. Conti. 1998. Internet deployment worldwide: The new superhighway follows the old wires, rails, and roads. http://www.isoc.org/inet98/proceedings/5c/5c5.htm (last accessed 28 July 2008).
5. Asheim, B., L. Coenen, and J. Vang. 2007. Face-to-face, buzz, and knowledge bases: Sociospatial implications for learning, innovation, and innovation policy. Environment and Planning C: Government and Policy 25:655-70.
6. Batty, M. 1997. Virtual geography. Futures 29:337-52.
7. Bauer, J. M. 2006. Broadband in the United States. In Global broadband battles: Why the U.S. and Europe lag while Asia leads, ed. M. Fransman, 133-63. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press.
8. Bax, A. 2005. The rise of regional submarine networks. Sub-marine Telecoms Forum 20:19-20.
9. Beaufils, J.-M. 2000. How do submarine networks web the world? Optical Fiber Technology 6:15-32.
10. Beniger, J. R. 1986. The control revolution: Technological and economic origins of the information society. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
11. Bishop, J., and J. Walker. 2006. There is no safety in numbers. . . (James Thurber): The security issues of multiple cable landings. Submarine Telecoms Forum 25:16-18.
12. Bonds, T., M. Mattock, T. Hamilton, C. Rhodes, M. Scheiern, P. M. Feldman, D. Frelinger, and R. Uy. 2000. Employing commercial satellite communications: Wideband investment options for the Department of Defense (MR-1192-AF). Santa Monica, CA: RAND Corporation.
13. Brock, G. W. 2003. The second information revolution. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
14. Brunn, S. D., and T. R. Leinbach, eds. 1991. Collapsing space and time: Geographic aspects of communication and information. New York: HarperCollins Academic.
15. Bryson, J.R., P.W. Daniels, and B. Warf. 2004. Service worlds: People, organisations, technologies. London and NewYork: Routledge.
16. Burbank, J. L., P. F. Chimento, B. K. Haberman, and W. T. Kasch. 2006. Key challenges of military tactical networking and the elusive promise of MANET technology. IEEE Communications Magazine 44 (11): 39-45.
17. Burns, B. 2006. History of the Atlantic Cable & under-sea communications: From the first submarine cable of 1850 to the worldwide fiber optic network. FTL Design. http://www.atlantic-cable.com/ (last accessed 28 July 2008).
18. Campbell, D. 1999. Interception capabilities 2000. Report to the Director General for Research of the European Parliament (Scientific and Technical Options Assessment programme office) on the development of surveillance technology and risk of abuse of economic information. Edinburgh, UK: IPTV Ltd. http://www.fas.org/irp/eprint/ic2000/ic2000.htm (last accessed 28 July 2008).
19. Chesnoy, J., and J. Jerpahagnon. 2002. Introduction to submarine fiber communication. In Undersea fiber communication systems, ed. J. Chesnoy, 3-13. Amsterdam: Academic.
20. Choi, J. H., G. A. Barnett, and B.-S. Chon. 2006. Comparing world city networks: A network analysis of Internet backbone and air transport intercity linkages. Global Networks 6:81-99.
21. Chung, I. 2006. Broadband, the information society, and national systems: The Korean case, in Global broadband battles: Why the U.S. and Europe lag while Asia leads, ed. M. Fransman, 87-108. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press.
22. Clark, G. 2007. A farewell to alms: A brief economic history of the world. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.
23. Collis, D. J., P. W. Bane, and S. P. Bradley. 1997. Winners and losers: Industry structure in the converging world of telecommunications, computing, and entertainment. In Competing in the age of digital convergence, ed. D. B. Yoffie, 159-200. Boston: Harvard Business School Press.
24. Crockett, R. O. 2007. The 21st century meeting. Business Week 26 February:72-79.
25. Cukier, K. 1999. Bandwidth colonialism? The implications of Internet infrastructure on international e-commerce. In INET99 Proceedings.Reston, VA:Internet Society. http:www.isoc.org/inet99/proceedings/1e/1e2.htm (last cessed 28 July 2008).
26. Dai, X. 2000. The digital revolution and governance. Aldershot, UK: Ashgate.
27. Dai, X. 2003. ICTs in China's development strategy. In China and the Internet: Politics of the digital leap forward, ed. C. R. Hughes and G. Wacker, 8-29. London: RoutledgeCurzon.
28. Daily Wireless. 2004. The global grid. http://www.dailywireless.org/2004/12/30/the-global-grid/ (last ac-cessed 28 July 2008).
29. Davis, J. H., N. F. Dinn, and W. E. Falconer. 1992. Technologies for global communications. IEEE Communications Magazine 30 (10): 35-43.
30. Davis, T. 2004. Offshore oil and energy systems: Supporting the need for true high bandwidth systems. Submarine Telecoms Forum 16:35-38.
31. Dean, J. 2006. Asian quake's telecom disruption exposes global networks' fragility. The Wall Street Journal 28 December:A1.
32. DeFanti, T., C. de Laat, J. Mambretti, K. Neggers, and B. St. Arnaud. 2003. TransLight: A global scale LambdaGrid for e-science. Communications of the ACM 46 (11): 35-41.
33. Deibert, R. J., J. G. Palfrey, R. Rohozinski, and J. Zittrain, eds. 2008. Access denied: The practice and policy of global internet filtering. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.
34. De León, C. S. P. 2005. Intra-regional Internet connectivity still an ongoing assignment. Telecommunications Policy 29:367-88.
35. Dicken, P. 2007. Global shift: Mapping the changing contours of the world economy. 5th ed. London: Sage.
36. Diffie, W., and S. Landau. 2007. Privacy on the line: The politics of wiretapping and encryption. Updated and expanded ed. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.
37. Dossani, R., and M. Kenney. 2003. Lift and shift: Moving the back office to India. Information Technologies and International Development 1 (2): 21-37.
38. Doz, Y., J. Santos, and P. Williamson. 2001. From global to metanational: How companies win in the knowledge economy. Boston: Harvard Business School Press.
39. Einhorn, B., and B. Elgin. 2006. The great firewall of China. Business Week 23 January:32-34.
40. Energistics. 2007. Drilling standards (WITSML). http://www.energistics.org/posc/DrillingStds.asp?SnID=99702 (last accessed 28 July 2008).
41. Evans, P. A. 2008. Asia-Pacific submarine cable market moves into new phase. Submarine Telecoms Forum 36:17-21.
42. Evans, P. B., and T. S. Wurster. 1997. Strategy and the new economics of information. Harvard Business Review 75 (5): 71-82.
43. Federal Communications Commission (FCC). 2006. 2004 international telecommunications data (filed as of Oc-tober 31, 2005), March 2005. Washington, DC: FCC, International Bureau. http://hraunfoss.fcc.gov/edocspublic/attachmatch/DOC-264309A1.pdf (last ac-cessed 28 July 2008).
44. Federal Communications Commission (FCC). 2007. 2005 International telecommunications data (filed as of October 31, 2006), April 2007. Washington, DC: FCC, International Bureau. http://www.fcc.gov/ib/sand/mniab/traffic/files05/CREPOR05.pdf (last accessed 28 July 2008).
45. Ford, P. 2005. Digital India: The underwater connection. Submarine Telecoms Forum 21:21-23.
46. Fransman, M. 2002. Telecoms in the Internet Age: From boom to bust to? Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press.
47. Frieden, R. 2005. Lessons from broadband development in Canada, Japan, Korea and the United States. Telecommunications Policy 29:595-613.
48. Gabel, D. 1996. Private telecommunications networks: An historical perspective. In Private networks public objectives, ed. E. Noam and A. Níshúilleabháin, 35-49. Amsterdam: Elsevier.
49. Gautheron, O., and M. Suyama. 2003. Submarine cable networks. Comptes Rendus Physique 4 (1): 115-26.
50. General Accounting Office. 2003. Satellite communications: Strategic approach needed for DOD's procurement of commercial satellite bandwidth. GAO-04-206. Washington, DC: U.S. General Accounting Office.
51. Giddens, A. 1991. The consequences of modernity. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press.
52. Goddard, J. B. 1991. New technology and the geography of the UK information economy. In Cities of the 21st century: New technologies and spatial systems, ed. J. Brotchie, M. Batty, P. Hall, and P. Newton, 191-213. Melbourne, Australia: Longman Cheshire.
53. Goldman Sachs Global Economics Group. 2007. BRICs and beyond. New York: Goldman Sachs.
54. Gorman, S. P. 2005. Networks, security and complexity: The role of public policy in critical infrastructure protection. Cheltenham, UK: Edward Elgar.
55. Gorman, S. P., and E. J. Malecki. 2000. The networks of the Internet: An analysis of provider networks. Telecommunications Policy 24:113-34.
56. Graham, S. 1999. Global grids of glass: On global cities, telecommunications and planetary urban networks. Urban Studies 36:929-49.
57. Graham, S. 2002. Bridging urban digital divides? Urban polarisation and information and communications technologies (ICTs). Urban Studies 39:33-56.
58. Graham, S. 2004. Excavating the material geographies of cybercities. In The cybercities reader, ed. S. Graham, 138-42. London and New York: Routledge.
59. Guillén, M. F., and S. L. Suárez. 2005. Explaining the global digital divide: Economic, political and sociological drivers of cross-national Internet use. Social Forces 84:681-708.
60. Guislain, P., M. A. Ampah, L. Besançon, C. Niang, and A. Sérot. 2005. Connecting sub-Saharan Africa. Working Paper 51. Washington, DC: World Bank.
61. Hamilton, P., and TeleGeography. 2004. Identifying key regulatory and policy issues to ensure open access to regional backbone infrastructure initiatives in Africa. Washington, DC: World Bank.
62. Hämmerle, H., and N. Crémel. 2004. IHEP launches fast Internet channel. CERN Courier 44 (9): 18.
63. Hao, X., and H. Jia. 2007. China supersizes its science. Science 9 March:1354-56.
64. Hartshorn, D., and M. Jensen. 2004. Open and closed skies: Satellite access in Africa. Horsham, UK: DS Air Limited. http://www.gvf.org/database/regulatoryDB/africaskiesindex.cfm (last accessed 31 January 2008).
65. Harvey, D. 1989. The condition of postmodernity. Oxford, UK: Blackwell.
66. Hatfield, D. N., B. M. Mitchell, and P. Srinagesh. 2005. Emerging network technologies. In Technology evolution and the Internet. Vol. 2 of Handbook of telecommunications economics, ed. S. K. Majumdar, I. Vogelsang, and M. Cave, 31-80. Amsterdam: Elsevier.
67. Hawkins, E. T., and K. A. Hawkins. 2003. Bridging Latin America's digital divide: Government policies and Internet access. Journalism & Mass Communication Quarterly 80:646-65.
68. Headrick, D. R. 1991. The invisible weapon: Telecommunications and international politics 1851-1945. New York: Oxford University Press.
69. Headrick, D. R., and P. Griset. 2001. Submarine telegraph cables: Business and politics, 1838-1939. Business History Review 75:543-78.
70. Hecht, J. 1999. City of light: The story of fiber optics. New York: Oxford University Press.
71. Heming, R. F. 1996. Impact of information technology on the earth sciences. Technology in Society 18 (3): 297-319.
72. Hepworth, M. E. 1989. Geography of the information economy. London: Belhaven.
73. Hillis, K. 1998. On the margins: The invisibility of communications in geography. Progress in Human Geography 22:543-66.
74. Hottes, K. 1993. Submarine cables in our times-Competition between sea cables and satellites. In Corporate networks, telecommunications and interdependence, ed. H. Bakis, R. Abler, and E. M. Roche, 99-110. London: Belhaven.
75. Hsu, C. 2004. 2003 Section 43.82 circuit status data, December 2004. Washington, DC: Federal Com-munications Commission. http://hraunfoss.fcc.gov/edocspublic/attachmatch/DOC-255737A1.pdf (last accessed 28 July 2008).
76. Hsu, C. 2005. 2004 Section 43.82 circuit status data, December 2005. Washington, DC: Federal Communications Commission. http://hraunfoss.fcc.gov/edocspublic/attachmatch/DOC-262890A1.pdf (last accessed 28 July 2008).
77. Hsu, C. 2007. 2005 Section 43.82 circuit status data, January 2007. Washington, DC: Federal Com-munications Commission. http://fjallfoss.fcc.gov/edocs public/attachmatch/DOC-269605A2.pdf (last accessed 28 July 2008).
78. Hubenko, V. P., R. A. Raines, R. F. Mills, R. O. Baldwin, B. E. Mullins, and M. R. Grimaila. 2006. Improving the Global Information Grid's performance through satellite communications layer enhancements. IEEE Communications Magazine 44 (11): 66-72.
79. Hudson, H. E. 1990. Communication satellites: Their development and impact. New York: Free Press.
80. Hugill, P. J. 1999. Global communications since 1844: Geopolitics and technology. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press.
81. Ida, T. 2006. Broadband, information society, and the national system in Japan. In Global broadband battles: Why the U.S. and Europe lag while Asia leads, ed. M. Fransman, 65-86. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press.
82. Ilyin, V. A. 2004. ICFA SCIC report on the digital divide in Russia. Moscow: Moscow State University, Skobeltsyn InstituteofNuclearPhysics.http://icfa-scic.web.cern.ch/icfa-scic/docs/WorkDocs/20040201-DD-Russia.doc (last accessed 28 July 2008).
83. IMPSAT Fiber Networks. 2006. Form 10-Q for the quarterly period ended March 31, 2006. Washing-ton, DC: U.S. Securities and Exchange Commission. http://www.impsat.com/Archivos/1stQ-2006.pdf (last accessed 28 July 2008).
84. Intelsat. 2006. Form 10-Q for the quarterly period ended June 30, 2006. Washington, DC: U.S. Securities and Exchange Commission. http://www.sec.gov/Archives/edgar/data/1156871/000119312506172794/d10q.htm (last accessed 28 July 2008).
85. International Cable Protection Committee (ICPC). 2005. Submarine cables of the world. London: International Cable Protection Committee. http://www.iscpc.org/cabledb/01CableDatabasePage.htm (last accessed 28 July 2008).
86. International Committee on Future Accelerators-Standing Committee on Interregional Connectivity (ICFA-SCIC). 2005. Mission statement. http://icfa-scic.web.cern.ch/ICFA-SCIC/homepage.htm (last accessed 28 July 2008).
87. International Development Research Centre. 2005. The Acacia atlas 2005: Mapping ICT growth. Ottawa, ON: International Development Research Center. http:// www.idrc.ca/en/ev-113486-201-1-DOTOPIC.html (last accessed 28 July 2008).
88. Janelle, D. G. 1969. Spatial reorganization: A model and concept. Annals of the Association of American Geographers 59:348-64.
89. Janelle, D. G., and A. Gillespie. 2004. Space-time constructs for linking information and communication technologies with issues in sustainable transportation. Transport Reviews 24:665-77.
90. Kaplan, R. D. 2006. Hunting the Taliban in Las Vegas. The Atlantic Monthly 298 (2): 81-84.
91. Kaukiainen, Y. 2001. Shrinking the world: Improvements in the speed of information transmission, c. 1820-1870. European Review of Economic History 5:1-28.
92. King, N. 2001. In digital age, U.S. spy agency fights to keep from going deaf. Wall Street Journal 23 May:A1.
93. Kitchin, R. 1998. Cyberspace: The world in the wires. Chichester, UK: Wiley.
94. Koops, B.-J., and R. Bekkers. 2007. Interceptability of telecommunications: Is US and Dutch law prepared for the future? Telecommunications Policy 31:45-67.
95. Kozischek, D. R. 2006a. Fiber, coax or DSL? Meeting customer demand for bandwidth. Broadband Properties 27 (8): 16-22.
96. Kozischek, D. R. 2006b. Fiber, coax or DSL? Meeting customer up-stream bandwidth demand. Broadband Properties 27 (10): 60-65.
97. Krebs, G. 2006. A view of the submarine systems supply industry. Submarine Telecoms Forum 26:18-20.
98. Laborie, R. 2004. Future communications infrastructure to build on new standards, satellites. Offshore 64 (12): 64.
99. Langdale, J. V. 1983. Competition in the United States long distance telecommunications industry. Regional Studies 17:393-409.
100. Langdale, J. V. 1989. The geography of international business telecommunications: Theroleofleasednetworks. Annals of the Association of American Geographers 79:501-22.
101. Lau, T.Y., S.W. Kim, and D. Atkin. 2005.Anexaminationof factorscontributing toSouth Korea's global leadershipin broadband adoption. Telematics and Informatics 22:349-59.
102. Leamer, E. E., and M. Storper. 2001. The economic geography of the Internet age. Journal of International Business Studies 32:641-65.
103. Longcore, T., and P. Rees. 1996. Information technology and downtown restructuring: The case of New York's financial district. Urban Geography 17:354-72.
104. Madsen, W. 1995. Puzzle palace conducting Internet surveillance. Computer Fraud and Security Bulletin 6 (June): 12-13.
105. Malecki, E.J. 2002.TheeconomicgeographyoftheInternet's infrastructure. Economic Geography 78:399-424.
106. Malecki,E.J. 2004. Fibre tracks: Explaining investment in fibre optic backbones. Entrepreneurship and Regional Development 16:21-39.
107. Malecki, E. J., and Moriset, B. 2008. The digital economy: Business organization, production processes and regional developments. London and New York: Routledge.
108. Manock, J. 2005. Submarine cables and the oil & gas industry in West Africa. Submarine Telecoms Forum 22:23-27.
109. Marcus, J.S.2005.IstheU.S.dancingtoadifferentdrummer? Communications and Strategies 60:39-58.
110. Marescaux, J., J. Leroy, M. Gagner, F. Rubino, D. Mutter, M. Vix, S. E. Butner, and M. K. Smith. 2001. Transatlantic robot-assisted telesurgery. Nature 413 (27 September): 379-80.
111. Mariscal, J., and E. Rivera. 2005. New trends in the Latin American telecommunications market: Telefonica & Telmex. Telecommunications Policy 29:757-77.
112. Marsh, J. M., D. N. Witcombe, S. A. Raikes, R. S. Parr, and T. Nash. 2003. BP's increasing systematic use of time-lapse seismic technology. Petroleum Geoscience 9 (1): 7-13.
113. Mauldin, A. 2006. Fueling subsea bandwidth demand: Demand drivers and Internet traffic growth. Submarine Telecoms Forum 28:28-30.
114. McCann, P. 2007. Sketching out a model of innovation, face-to-face interaction and economic geography. Spatial Economic Analysis 2:117-34.
115. McCusker, J. J. 2005. The demise of distance: The business press and the origins of the information revolution in the early modern Atlantic world. American Historical Review 110:295-319.
116. Melody, W. 1991. New telecommunications networks and the spatial characteristics of markets. In Cities of the 21st century: New technologies and spatial systems, ed. J. Brotchie, M. Batty, P. Hall, and P. Newton, 65-72. Melbourne, Australia: Longman Cheshire.
117. Mitchell, W. 1995. City of bits: Space, place and the infobahn. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.
118. Moss, M. L. 1987. Telecommunications, world cities, and urban policy. Urban Studies 24:534-46.
119. Moss, M. L. 1991. The information city in the global economy. In Cities of the 21st century: New technologies and spatial systems, ed.J.Brotchie,M.Batty,P.Hall,andP.Newton, 181-89. Melbourne, Australia: Longman Cheshire.
120. Mulvenon, J. C. 2003. Chinese C4I modernization: An experiment in open-source analysis. In A poverty of riches: New challenges and opportunities in PLA research, ed. J. C. Mulvenon and A. N. D. Yang, 193-208. Santa Monica, CA: RAND Corporation.
121. Nathan, E. 2004. Satellite communications key to costeffective support of remote operations. Offshore 64 (5): 46.
122. NEPAD e-Africa Commission. 2004. Backbone telecommunications infrastructure development initiatives in Southern and East Africa. Washington, DC: World Bank.
123. Neto, I., C. Niang, and M. Ampah. 2005. Fostering procompetitive regional connectivity in sub-Saharan Africa. Washington, DC: World Bank.
124. Newman, H. B. 2005. Global networks for high en-ergy physics. Presentation at the ICFA meeting at CERN, Daegu, Korea. http://ultralight.caltech.edu/web-site/common/presentations/2005/09SCICICFA/SCIC ReportICFASeminarhbn093005.ppt (last accessed 29 July 2008).
125. Nikolopoulos, N., and T. Kassay. 2005. Fiber optic cables vs. fixed satellite services. Submarine Telecoms Forum 18:17-19.
126. Nuechterlein, J. E., and P. J. Weiser. 2005. Digital crossroads: American telecommunications policy in the Internet age. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.
127. Odlyzko, A. 2000. The Internet and other networks: Utilization rates and their implications. Information Economics and Policy 12:341-65.
128. Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development. 2005. OECD communications outlook 2005. Paris: Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development.
129. Paltridge, S. 1999a. Building infrastructure capacity for electronic commerce: Leased line developments and pricing. Paris: Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development.
130. Paltridge, S. 1999b. OECD regulatory and statistical update. Telecommunications Policy 23:683-86.
131. Paltridge, S. 2002. Internet traffic exchange and the development of end-to-end international telecommunication competition. Paris: Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development.
132. Park, G. D. 2006. Internet wiretaps: Applying the Communications Assistance for Law Enforcement Act to broad-band services. I/S: A Journal of Law and Policy 2:599-626.
133. Parker, E.B. 2000.ClosingthedigitaldivideinruralAmerica. Telecommunications Policy 24:281-90.
134. Parthasarathy, B., and Y. Aoyama. 2006. From software services to R&D services: Local entrepreneurship in the software industry in Bangalore, India. Environment and Planning A 38:1269-85.
135. Partnership for Higher Education in Africa. 2006. The bandwidth consortium: Opening the power of the Internet to African universities. New York: Partnership for Higher Education in Africa. http://www.foundation-partnership.org/index.php?sub=pr&pr=2 (last accessed 28 July 2008).
136. Pasztor, A. 2006. European satellite rivals form mobile venture. The Wall Street Journal 31 October:D3.
137. Pasztor, A. 2007. Iridium weighs upgrade of satellites. The Wall Street Journal 15 February:B3.
138. Patrick, A. O. 2007. The race to get TV shows overseas. The Wall Street Journal 29 March: B1.
139. Perfiliev, Y. 2002. Development of the Internet in Russia: Preliminary observations on its spatial and institutional characteristics. Eurasian Geography and Economics 43:411-21.
140. Pfeifenberger, J. P., and H. S. Houthakker. 1998. Competition to international satellite communications services. Information Economics and Policy 10:403-30.
141. Poon, J. P. H. 2003. Hierarchical tendencies of capital markets among international financial centers. Growth and Change 34:135-56.
142. Press, L., W. Foster, P. Wolcott, and W. McHenry. 2003. The Internet in India and China. Information Technologies and International Development 1:41-60.
143. Rantanen, T. 1997. The globalization of electronic news in the 19th century. Media, Culture & Society 19:605-20.
144. Read, B. 2006. Can technology save the developing world? Chronicle of Higher Education 21 July: A27-A29.
145. Rhoads, C. 2008. Internet logjams spur cable boom. The Wall Street Journal 8 February:A1.
146. Ruderman, K. 2005. Scientific submarine cable projects. Submarine Telecoms Forum 23:15-17.
147. Rutherford, J., A. Gillespie, and R. Richardson. 2004. The territorialityof pan-European telecommunications back-bone networks. Journal of Urban Technology 11 (3): 1-34.
148. Salomon, I. 1996. Telecommunications, cities and technological opportunism. Annals of Regional Science 30:75-90.
149. Santoro, A. 2004. Digital divide: An update from Brazil. Geneva, Switzerland: CERN. http://icfa-scic.web.cern.ch/ICFA-SCIC/docs/Documents/20040808-DDBrazil-AS.ppt (last accessed 28 July 2008).
150. Sassen, S. 2006. Cities in a world economy. 3rd ed. Thousand Oaks, CA: Pine Forge Press.
151. Saunders, R. J., J. J. Warford, and B. Wellenius. 1994. Telecommunications and economic development. 2nd ed. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press.
152. Schiller, D. 1999. Digital capitalism: Networking the global market system. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.
153. Sinai, T., and J. Waldfogel. 2004. Geography and the Internet: Is the Internet a substitute or a complement for cities? Journal of Urban Economics 56:1-24.
154. Standage, T. 2006. Your television is ringing: A survey of telecoms convergence. The Economist 14 October:1-20.
155. Steiner, R., A. Tirivayi, N. Tirivayi, M. Jensen, P. Hamilton, and J. Buechler. 2005. Promoting African research and education networking. Ottawa, ON: International Development Research Centre. http://www.idrc.ca/uploads/user-S/11083295861PARENReportv15.doc (last accessed 28 July 2008).
156. Storper, M., and A. J. Venables. 2004. Buzz: Face-to-face contact and the urban economy. Journal of Economic Geography 4:351-70.
157. Stubbings, C. 2004. Which way round the world? Submarine Telecoms Forum 17:29-32.
158. Taylor, P. J. 2004. World city network: A global urban analysis. London and New York: Routledge.
159. TeleGeography. 2000. TeleGeography 2001. Washington, DC: TeleGeography, Inc.
160. TeleGeography. 2002. Global Internet geography 2003. Washington, DC: TeleGeography, Inc.
161. TeleGeography Research. 2004a. Global Internet geography 2005. Washington, DC: PriMetrica.
162. TeleGeography Research. 2004b. Submarine networks. Vol. 1 of International bandwidth 2004. Washington, DC: PriMetrica.
163. TeleGeography Research. 2005. International bandwidth 2005. Washington, DC: PriMetrica.
164. TeleGeography Research. 2006a. Global bandwidth 2006. Washington, DC: PriMetrica.
165. TeleGeography Research. 2006b. Global Internet geography 2007. Washing-ton, DC: PriMetrica.
166. Teligen. 2005. Report on telecoms price developments from 1998 to 2005. Brussels, Belgium: Commission of the European Communities.
167. Thrift, N. 1996. Spatialformations. ThousandOaks, CA: Sage.
168. Trischitta, P. R., and W. C. Marra. 1998. Applying WDM technology to undersea cable networks. IEEE Communications Magazine 36 (2): 62-66.
169. United Nations. 2005. UN atlas of the oceans: Uses: Transportation and telecommunication: submarine cables. http://www.oceansatlas.com/unatlas/uses/transportation telecomm/marinetel/subcables/ (last accessed 28 July 2008).
170. van Geenhuizen, M. 2004. Cities and cyberspace: New en-trepreneurial strategies.Entrepreneurship and Regional Development 16:5-19.
171. Villarreal Ramos, R. A., and R. P. Villarreal Arranbide. 2006. Connectivity strategies to enhance competitiveness: The Mexican and Korean experiences and lessons for Latin America. In The global information technology report 2005-2006: Leveraging ICT for development, ed. S. Dutta, A. Lopez-Claros, and I. Mia, 119-33. London: Palgrave Macmillan.
172. Wacker, G. 2003. The Internet and censorship in China. In China and the Internet: Politics of the digital leap forward, ed. C. R. Hughes and G. Wacker, 58-82. London: RoutledgeCurzon.
173. Wallace, B., J. Duberg, and J. Kirkley. 2003. Dynamics of the oil and gas industry in the Gulf of Mexico: 1980-2000. Final report, OCS Study MMS 2003-004. New Orleans, LA: U.S. Department of the Interior, Minerals Management Service.
174. Warf, B. 1989. Telecommunications and the globalization of financial services. The Professional Geographer 41:257-71.
175. Warf, B. 1995. Telecommunications and the changing geographies of knowledge transmission in the late 20th century. Urban Studies 32:361-78.
176. Warf, B. 1998. Reach out and touch someone: AT&T'sglobal operations in the 1990s. The Professional Geographer 50:255-67.
177. Warf, B. 2001. Segueways into cyberspace: Multiple geographies of the digital divide. Environment and Planning B: Planning and Design 28:3-19.
178. Warf, B. 2002. Tailored for Panama: Offshore banking at the crossroads of the Americas. Geografiska Annaler 84B:33-47.
179. Warf, B. 2006. International competition between satellite and fiber optic carriers: A geographic perspective. The Professional Geographer 58:1-11.
180. Warf, B. 2007. Geopolitics of the satellite industry. Tijdschrift voor Economische en Sociale Geografie 98:385-97.
181. Wellenius, B. 2006. Extending communication and information services: Principles and practical solutions. In 2006 information and communications for development: Global trends and policies, 41-55. Washington, DC: World Bank.
182. Whalen, D. J. n.d. Communications satellites: Making the global village possible. http://www.hq.nasa.gov/office/pao/History/satcomhistory.html (last accessed 28 July 2008).
183. Wheeler, D. C., and M. E. O'Kelly. 1999. Network topology and city accessibility of the commercial Internet. The Professional Geographer 51:327-39.
184. Wheelon, A. D. 1988. The role of satellite communications in the 1990s. International Journal of Technology Management 3:667-73.
185. Whistle-blower's evidence, uncut. 2006. Wired News 22 May. http://www.wired.com/news/technology/1,70944-0.html (last accessed 28 July 2008).
186. Wills, E. 2006. 5 colleges and 53 miles of fiber-optic cable. Chronicle of Higher Education 27 January:B3.
187. Winder, G. M. 2006. Webs of enterprise 1850-1914: Applying a broad definition of FDI. Annals of the Association of American Geographers 96:788-806.
188. Woods Hole. 2007. Regional cabled observatories. http://www.whoi.edu/page.do?pid=24396 (last accessed 28 July 2008).
189. Wyckoff, A., and A. Colecchia. 1999. The economic and so-cial impact of electronic commerce: Preliminary findings and research agenda. Paris: Organisation for Economic Cooperation and Development.
190. Yan, X., and D. Pitt. 2002. Chinese telecommunications policy. Boston: Artech House.
191. Yuan, L. 2006. Big phone firms delve undersea for Asian growth. The Wall Street Journal 18 December: A1.
192. Zhang, J. 2006. Market transition, state connections and Internet geography in China. The China Review 6: 93-123.
193. Zook, M. 2006. The geographies of the Internet. In Annual review of information science and technology, vol. 40, ed. B. Cronin, 53-78. Medford, NJ: Information Today.