Submarine Telegraph Cables: Business and Politics, 1838-1939

Business History Review

Volumn 75, Issue 3, 2001, Pages 543-578

  Headrick, Daniel R ^a   Griset, Pascal ^b  

^a ROOSEVELT UNIVERSITY   (United States)

^b Centre de Recherche en Histoire des Sciences et des Techniques   (France)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

EID: 0035605480     PISSN: 00076805     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.2307/3116386     Document Type: Article

References (179)

1. The literature on submarine telegraphy and international telecommunications before the Second World War is surprisingly small. The three most recent books on the subject are: Daniel R. Headrick, The Invisible Weapon: Telecommunications and International Politics, 1851-1945 (New York, 1991); Pascal Griset, Entreprise, Technologie et Souverainteté: Les télécommunications transatlantiques de la France (XIXe-XXe siècles) (Paris, 1996); and Peter J. Hugill, Global Communications since 1844: Geopolitics and Technology (Baltimore, 1999). Of these three, only Griset's stresses the commercial aspects of cables. See also a short popular book by Tom Standage, The Victorian Internet: The Remarkable Story of the Telegraphy and the Nineteenth Century's On-Line Pioneers (New York, 1998), with chapters on submarine telegraphy.
2. The literature on submarine telegraphy and international telecommunications before the Second World War is surprisingly small. The three most recent books on the subject are: Daniel R. Headrick, The Invisible Weapon: Telecommunications and International Politics, 1851-1945 (New York, 1991); Pascal Griset, Entreprise, Technologie et Souverainteté: Les télécommunications transatlantiques de la France (XIXe-XXe siècles) (Paris, 1996); and Peter J. Hugill, Global Communications since 1844: Geopolitics and Technology (Baltimore, 1999). Of these three, only Griset's stresses the commercial aspects of cables. See also a short popular book by Tom Standage, The Victorian Internet: The Remarkable Story of the Telegraphy and the Nineteenth Century's On-Line Pioneers (New York, 1998), with chapters on submarine telegraphy.
3. The literature on submarine telegraphy and international telecommunications before the Second World War is surprisingly small. The three most recent books on the subject are: Daniel R. Headrick, The Invisible Weapon: Telecommunications and International Politics, 1851-1945 (New York, 1991); Pascal Griset, Entreprise, Technologie et Souverainteté: Les télécommunications transatlantiques de la France (XIXe-XXe siècles) (Paris, 1996); and Peter J. Hugill, Global Communications since 1844: Geopolitics and Technology (Baltimore, 1999). Of these three, only Griset's stresses the commercial aspects of cables. See also a short popular book by Tom Standage, The Victorian Internet: The Remarkable Story of the Telegraphy and the Nineteenth Century's On-Line Pioneers (New York, 1998), with chapters on submarine telegraphy.
4. The literature on submarine telegraphy and international telecommunications before the Second World War is surprisingly small. The three most recent books on the subject are: Daniel R. Headrick, The Invisible Weapon: Telecommunications and International Politics, 1851-1945 (New York, 1991); Pascal Griset, Entreprise, Technologie et Souverainteté: Les télécommunications transatlantiques de la France (XIXe-XXe siècles) (Paris, 1996); and Peter J. Hugill, Global Communications since 1844: Geopolitics and Technology (Baltimore, 1999). Of these three, only Griset's stresses the commercial aspects of cables. See also a short popular book by Tom Standage, The Victorian Internet: The Remarkable Story of the Telegraphy and the Nineteenth Century's On-Line Pioneers (New York, 1998), with chapters on submarine telegraphy.
5. Gerald J. Holzmann and Björn Pehrson, The Early History of Data Networks (Los Alamitos, Calif., 1995); Fédération Nationale des Associations de personnel des Postes et Télécommunications pour la Recherche Historique, La Télégraphie Chappe (Jarville-la- Malgrange, France, 1993); Geoffrey Wilson, The Old Telegraphs (London, 1976).
6. Gerald J. Holzmann and Björn Pehrson, The Early History of Data Networks (Los Alamitos, Calif., 1995); Fédération Nationale des Associations de personnel des Postes et Télécommunications pour la Recherche Historique, La Télégraphie Chappe (Jarville-la-Malgrange, France, 1993); Geoffrey Wilson, The Old Telegraphs (London, 1976).
7. Gerald J. Holzmann and Björn Pehrson, The Early History of Data Networks (Los Alamitos, Calif., 1995); Fédération Nationale des Associations de personnel des Postes et Télécommunications pour la Recherche Historique, La Télégraphie Chappe (Jarville-la- Malgrange, France, 1993); Geoffrey Wilson, The Old Telegraphs (London, 1976).
8. There is a rich literature on the origins of land telegraphy. For the United States, the classic work is Robert L. Thompson, Wiring a Continent: The History of the Telegraph Industry in the United States, 1832-1866 (Princeton, 1947); but see also Paul Israel, From Machine Shop to Industrial Laboratory: Telegraphy and the Changing Context of American Invention, 1830-1920 (Baltimore, 1992); and Menachem Blondheim, News Over the Wires: The Telegraph and the Flow of Public Information in America, 1844-1897 (Cambridge, Mass., 1994). This literature, however, says little about the cable business, which was peripheral to the interests of American managers. For Europe, see Patrice Flichy, Une histoire de la communication moderne: Espace public et vie privée (Paris, 1991).
9. There is a rich literature on the origins of land telegraphy. For the United States, the classic work is Robert L. Thompson, Wiring a Continent: The History of the Telegraph Industry in the United States, 1832-1866 (Princeton, 1947); but see also Paul Israel, From Machine Shop to Industrial Laboratory: Telegraphy and the Changing Context of American Invention, 1830-1920 (Baltimore, 1992); and Menachem Blondheim, News Over the Wires: The Telegraph and the Flow of Public Information in America, 1844-1897 (Cambridge, Mass., 1994). This literature, however, says little about the cable business, which was peripheral to the interests of American managers. For Europe, see Patrice Flichy, Une histoire de la communication moderne: Espace public et vie privée (Paris, 1991).
10. There is a rich literature on the origins of land telegraphy. For the United States, the classic work is Robert L. Thompson, Wiring a Continent: The History of the Telegraph Industry in the United States, 1832-1866 (Princeton, 1947); but see also Paul Israel, From Machine Shop to Industrial Laboratory: Telegraphy and the Changing Context of American Invention, 1830-1920 (Baltimore, 1992); and Menachem Blondheim, News Over the Wires: The Telegraph and the Flow of Public Information in America, 1844-1897 (Cambridge, Mass., 1994). This literature, however, says little about the cable business, which was peripheral to the interests of American managers. For Europe, see Patrice Flichy, Une histoire de la communication moderne: Espace public et vie privée (Paris, 1991).
11. There is a rich literature on the origins of land telegraphy. For the United States, the classic work is Robert L. Thompson, Wiring a Continent: The History of the Telegraph Industry in the United States, 1832-1866 (Princeton, 1947); but see also Paul Israel, From Machine Shop to Industrial Laboratory: Telegraphy and the Changing Context of American Invention, 1830-1920 (Baltimore, 1992); and Menachem Blondheim, News Over the Wires: The Telegraph and the Flow of Public Information in America, 1844-1897 (Cambridge, Mass., 1994). This literature, however, says little about the cable business, which was peripheral to the interests of American managers. For Europe, see Patrice Flichy, Une histoire de la communication moderne: Espace public et vie privée (Paris, 1991).
12. Sir William Brooke O'Shaughnessy, "Memoranda relative to the experiments on the communication of Telegraphic Signals by induced electricity," Journal of the Asiatic Society of Bengal (September 1839): 713-41; Mel Gorman, "Sir William O'Shaughnessy, Lord Dalhousie and the Establishment of the Telegraph System in India," Technology and Culture 12 (1971): 581-601.
13. Sir William Brooke O'Shaughnessy, "Memoranda relative to the experiments on the communication of Telegraphic Signals by induced electricity," Journal of the Asiatic Society of Bengal (September 1839): 713-41; Mel Gorman, "Sir William O'Shaughnessy, Lord Dalhousie and the Establishment of the Telegraph System in India," Technology and Culture 12 (1971): 581-601.
14. For a detailed and technical account of these early cables by pioneers in the field, see Charles Bright, Submarine Telegraphs: Their History, Construction, and Working (London, 1898), 6-10; and Willoughby Smith, The Rise and Extension of Submarine Telegraphy (London, 1891), 1-19.
15. For a detailed and technical account of these early cables by pioneers in the field, see Charles Bright, Submarine Telegraphs: Their History, Construction, and Working (London, 1898), 6-10; and Willoughby Smith, The Rise and Extension of Submarine Telegraphy (London, 1891), 1-19.
16. "Correspondence Respecting the Establishment of Telegraphic Communications in the Mediterranean and with India," Parliamentary Papers 1857-58 [2406], lx. See also Smith, Rise and Extension, 40-42.
17. "Correspondence Respecting the Establishment of Telegraphic Communications in the Mediterranean and with India," Parliamentary Papers 1857-58 [2406], lx. See also Smith, Rise and Extension, 40-42.
18. See Exposé du développement des services postaux, télégraphiques et téléphoniques en Algérie depuis la conquête (Algiers, 1930), 49-50; Bright, Submarine Telegraphs, 61; Kenneth B. Haigh, Cable Ships and Submarine Cables (Washington, D.C., 1968), 302-4. Siemens Brothers, owned by Werner and William Siemens and managed by William, was affiliated with the German firm of Siemens und Halske until 1880, when it was registered on the London Stock Exchange; after 1890, when Siemens und Halske became a public corporation, the two firms were legally separate, though largely owned by members of the Siemens family; see Georg Siemens, History of the House of Siemens, vol. 1 (Freiburg, 1957), 59, 108-10.
19. See Exposé du développement des services postaux, télégraphiques et téléphoniques en Algérie depuis la conquête (Algiers, 1930), 49-50; Bright, Submarine Telegraphs, 61; Kenneth B. Haigh, Cable Ships and Submarine Cables (Washington, D.C., 1968), 302-4. Siemens Brothers, owned by Werner and William Siemens and managed by William, was affiliated with the German firm of Siemens und Halske until 1880, when it was registered on the London Stock Exchange; after 1890, when Siemens und Halske became a public corporation, the two firms were legally separate, though largely owned by members of the Siemens family; see Georg Siemens, History of the House of Siemens, vol. 1 (Freiburg, 1957), 59, 108-10.
20. See Exposé du développement des services postaux, télégraphiques et téléphoniques en Algérie depuis la conquête (Algiers, 1930), 49-50; Bright, Submarine Telegraphs, 61; Kenneth B. Haigh, Cable Ships and Submarine Cables (Washington, D.C., 1968), 302-4. Siemens Brothers, owned by Werner and William Siemens and managed by William, was affiliated with the German firm of Siemens und Halske until 1880, when it was registered on the London Stock Exchange; after 1890, when Siemens und Halske became a public corporation, the two firms were legally separate, though largely owned by members of the Siemens family; see Georg Siemens, History of the House of Siemens, vol. 1 (Freiburg, 1957), 59, 108-10.
21. See Exposé du développement des services postaux, télégraphiques et téléphoniques en Algérie depuis la conquête (Algiers, 1930), 49-50; Bright, Submarine Telegraphs, 61; Kenneth B. Haigh, Cable Ships and Submarine Cables (Washington, D.C., 1968), 302-4. Siemens Brothers, owned by Werner and William Siemens and managed by William, was affiliated with the German firm of Siemens und Halske until 1880, when it was registered on the London Stock Exchange; after 1890, when Siemens und Halske became a public corporation, the two firms were legally separate, though largely owned by members of the Siemens family; see Georg Siemens, History of the House of Siemens, vol. 1 (Freiburg, 1957), 59, 108-10.
22. "Correspondence Respecting the Establishment of Telegraphic Communications," and "Further Correspondence Respecting the Establishment of Telegraphic Communications in the Mediterranean and with India," Parliamentary Papers 1860 [2605], lxii; "History of Telegraph Communications with India (1858-1872), and an account of Joint Purse from 1874" (1897), in General Post Office Archives (London), 83/56, pp. 3-23. See Halford Lancaster Hoskins, British Routes to India (New York, 1928), 373-97; and Headrick Invisible Weapon, 19-20.
23. "Correspondence Respecting the Establishment of Telegraphic Communications," and "Further Correspondence Respecting the Establishment of Telegraphic Communications in the Mediterranean and with India," Parliamentary Papers 1860 [2605], lxii; "History of Telegraph Communications with India (1858-1872), and an account of Joint Purse from 1874" (1897), in General Post Office Archives (London), 83/56, pp. 3-23. See Halford Lancaster Hoskins, British Routes to India (New York, 1928), 373-97; and Headrick Invisible Weapon, 19-20.
24. "Correspondence Respecting the Establishment of Telegraphic Communications," and "Further Correspondence Respecting the Establishment of Telegraphic Communications in the Mediterranean and with India," Parliamentary Papers 1860 [2605], lxii; "History of Telegraph Communications with India (1858-1872), and an account of Joint Purse from 1874" (1897), in General Post Office Archives (London), 83/56, pp. 3-23. See Halford Lancaster Hoskins, British Routes to India (New York, 1928), 373-97; and Headrick Invisible Weapon, 19-20.
25. "Correspondence Respecting the Establishment of Telegraphic Communications," and "Further Correspondence Respecting the Establishment of Telegraphic Communications in the Mediterranean and with India," Parliamentary Papers 1860 [2605], lxii; "History of Telegraph Communications with India (1858-1872), and an account of Joint Purse from 1874" (1897), in General Post Office Archives (London), 83/56, pp. 3-23. See Halford Lancaster Hoskins, British Routes to India (New York, 1928), 373-97; and Headrick Invisible Weapon, 19-20.
26. Thomas P. Hughes, Networks of Power: Electrification in Western Society, 1880-1930 (Baltimore, 1983), 14.
27. J. M. Adams, "Development of the Anglo-Indian Telegraph," Engineering Science and Education Journal (August 1997): 140-8. See also Hoskins, British Routes to India, 390-8; and Hugill, Global Communications, 39-41.
28. J. M. Adams, "Development of the Anglo-Indian Telegraph," Engineering Science and Education Journal (August 1997): 140-8. See also Hoskins, British Routes to India, 390-8; and Hugill, Global Communications, 39-41.
29. J. M. Adams, "Development of the Anglo-Indian Telegraph," Engineering Science and Education Journal (August 1997): 140-8. See also Hoskins, British Routes to India, 390-8; and Hugill, Global Communications, 39-41.
30. Vary T. Coates and Bernard Finn, A Retrospective Technology Assessment: Submarine Telegraphy, the Transatlantic Cable of 1866 (San Francisco, 1979), 3. Other, more speculative, cable projects never went beyond the granting of concessions; see Melcior Arcarons, "L'Espagne et les connexions télégraphiques transatlantiques," in Albert Carreras, Andrea Giuntini, and Michèle Merger, eds., EUI Working Papers in History, Working Paper HEC No. 95/1: European Networks/Réseaux européens (Florence, 1995).
31. Vary T. Coates and Bernard Finn, A Retrospective Technology Assessment: Submarine Telegraphy, the Transatlantic Cable of 1866 (San Francisco, 1979), 3. Other, more speculative, cable projects never went beyond the granting of concessions; see Melcior Arcarons, "L'Espagne et les connexions télégraphiques transatlantiques," in Albert Carreras, Andrea Giuntini, and Michèle Merger, eds., EUI Working Papers in History, Working Paper HEC No. 95/1: European Networks/Réseaux européens (Florence, 1995).
32. On the Atlantic cable of 1857, see Coates and Finn, Retrospective Technology Assessment, 1-12; and Hugill, Global Communications, 29-31. On Cyrus Field, see Samuel Carter, Cyrus Field: A Man of Two Worlds (New York, 1968); and Philip B. McDonald, A Saga of the Seas: The Story of Cyrus W. Field and the Laying of the First Atlantic Cable (New York, 1937).
33. On the Atlantic cable of 1857, see Coates and Finn, Retrospective Technology Assessment, 1-12; and Hugill, Global Communications, 29-31. On Cyrus Field, see Samuel Carter, Cyrus Field: A Man of Two Worlds (New York, 1968); and Philip B. McDonald, A Saga of the Seas: The Story of Cyrus W. Field and the Laying of the First Atlantic Cable (New York, 1937).
34. On the Atlantic cable of 1857, see Coates and Finn, Retrospective Technology Assessment, 1-12; and Hugill, Global Communications, 29-31. On Cyrus Field, see Samuel Carter, Cyrus Field: A Man of Two Worlds (New York, 1968); and Philip B. McDonald, A Saga of the Seas: The Story of Cyrus W. Field and the Laying of the First Atlantic Cable (New York, 1937).
35. On the Atlantic cable of 1857, see Coates and Finn, Retrospective Technology Assessment, 1-12; and Hugill, Global Communications, 29-31. On Cyrus Field, see Samuel Carter, Cyrus Field: A Man of Two Worlds (New York, 1968); and Philip B. McDonald, A Saga of the Seas: The Story of Cyrus W. Field and the Laying of the First Atlantic Cable (New York, 1937).
36. On the Atlantic cable of 1858, see Donard de Cogan, "Dr. E. O. W. Whitehouse and the 1858 Trans-Atlantic Cable," History of Technology 10 (1985): 1-15; and Coates and Finn, Retrospective Technology Assessment, 13-17.
37. On the Atlantic cable of 1858, see Donard de Cogan, "Dr. E. O. W. Whitehouse and the 1858 Trans-Atlantic Cable," History of Technology 10 (1985): 1-15; and Coates and Finn, Retrospective Technology Assessment, 13-17.
38. Great Britain, Submarine Telegraph Committee, Report of the Joint Committee appointed by the Lords of the Committee of Privy Council for Trade and the Atlantic Telegraph Company to Inquire into the Construction of Submarine Telegraph Cables; together with the Minutes of Evidence and Appendix (London, 1861); also in Parliamentary Papers 1860 [2744], lxii. See also Coates and Finn, Retrospective Technology Assessment, 26-47.
39. Great Britain, Submarine Telegraph Committee, Report of the Joint Committee appointed by the Lords of the Committee of Privy Council for Trade and the Atlantic Telegraph Company to Inquire into the Construction of Submarine Telegraph Cables; together with the Minutes of Evidence and Appendix (London, 1861); also in Parliamentary Papers 1860 [2744], lxii. See also Coates and Finn, Retrospective Technology Assessment, 26-47.
40. Great Britain, Submarine Telegraph Committee, Report of the Joint Committee appointed by the Lords of the Committee of Privy Council for Trade and the Atlantic Telegraph Company to Inquire into the Construction of Submarine Telegraph Cables; together with the Minutes of Evidence and Appendix (London, 1861); also in Parliamentary Papers 1860 [2744], lxii. See also Coates and Finn, Retrospective Technology Assessment, 26-47.
41. Thompson, Wiring, a Continent, 371-2 and 427-35; Hugill, Global Communications, 36-8.
42. Thompson, Wiring, a Continent, 371-2 and 427-35; Hugill, Global Communications, 36-8.
43. On the Atlantic cable of 1866, see Bern Dibner, The Atlantic Cable (Norwalk, Conn., 1959); and Coates and Finn, Retrospective Technology Assessment, 21-5, and passim.
44. On the Atlantic cable of 1866, see Bern Dibner, The Atlantic Cable (Norwalk, Conn., 1959); and Coates and Finn, Retrospective Technology Assessment, 21-5, and passim.
45. Thompson, Wiring a Continent, 434.
46. Donald Read, The Power of News: The History of Reuters (London, 1999), 49-50.
47. On news agencies, see Jonathan Fenby, The International News Services (New York, 1986).
48. On the connections between shipping and cables, see Gerald S. Graham, "Imperial Finance, Trade, and Communications, 1895-1914," in The Cambridge History of the British Empire, vol. 3: The Empire-Commonwealth, 1870-1919, eds. E. A. Benians, James Butler, and C. E. Carrington (Cambridge, U.K., 1959); and Daniel R. Headrick, The Tentacles of Progress: Technology Transfer in the Age of Imperialism, 1850-1940 (New York, 1988), ch. 2.
49. On the connections between shipping and cables, see Gerald S. Graham, "Imperial Finance, Trade, and Communications, 1895-1914," in The Cambridge History of the British Empire, vol. 3: The Empire-Commonwealth, 1870-1919, eds. E. A. Benians, James Butler, and C. E. Carrington (Cambridge, U.K., 1959); and Daniel R. Headrick, The Tentacles of Progress: Technology Transfer in the Age of Imperialism, 1850-1940 (New York, 1988), ch. 2.
50. On cables and colonial control, see Robert Cain, "Telegraph Cables in the British Empire, 1850-1900" (Ph.D. dissertation, Duke University, 1971); Robert V. Kubicek, The Administration of Imperialism: Joseph Chamberlain at the Colonial Office (Durham, N.C., 1969); John W. Cell, British Colonial Administration in the Mid-19th Century: The Policy- Making Process (New Haven, Conn., 1970); and Headrick, Invisible Weapon, ch. 4.
51. On cables and colonial control, see Robert Cain, "Telegraph Cables in the British Empire, 1850-1900" (Ph.D. dissertation, Duke University, 1971); Robert V. Kubicek, The Administration of Imperialism: Joseph Chamberlain at the Colonial Office (Durham, N.C., 1969); John W. Cell, British Colonial Administration in the Mid-19th Century: The Policy- Making Process (New Haven, Conn., 1970); and Headrick, Invisible Weapon, ch. 4.
52. On cables and colonial control, see Robert Cain, "Telegraph Cables in the British Empire, 1850-1900" (Ph.D. dissertation, Duke University, 1971); Robert V. Kubicek, The Administration of Imperialism: Joseph Chamberlain at the Colonial Office (Durham, N.C., 1969); John W. Cell, British Colonial Administration in the Mid-19th Century: The Policy-Making Process (New Haven, Conn., 1970); and Headrick, Invisible Weapon, ch. 4.
53. On cables and colonial control, see Robert Cain, "Telegraph Cables in the British Empire, 1850-1900" (Ph.D. dissertation, Duke University, 1971); Robert V. Kubicek, The Administration of Imperialism: Joseph Chamberlain at the Colonial Office (Durham, N.C., 1969); John W. Cell, British Colonial Administration in the Mid-19th Century: The Policy- Making Process (New Haven, Conn., 1970); and Headrick, Invisible Weapon, ch. 4.
54. There has been little work on telegraphy and diplomacy, apart from a few celebrated incidents like the Ems Telegram of July 1870 and the Zimmennann Telegram of 1917. But see David Paull Nickles, "Telegraph Diplomats: The United States' Relations with France in 1848 and 1870," Technology and Culture 40 (Jan. 1999); 1-25; and Stephen Kern, The Culture of Time and Space, 1880-1918 (Cambridge, Mass., 1983), 263-76.
55. There has been little work on telegraphy and diplomacy, apart from a few celebrated incidents like the Ems Telegram of July 1870 and the Zimmennann Telegram of 1917. But see David Paull Nickles, "Telegraph Diplomats: The United States' Relations with France in 1848 and 1870," Technology and Culture 40 (Jan. 1999); 1-25; and Stephen Kern, The Culture of Time and Space, 1880-1918 (Cambridge, Mass., 1983), 263-76.
56. This is the theme of Paul M. Kennedy, "Imperial Cable Communications and Strategy, 1879-1914," English Historical Review 86 (1971): 728-52; Headrick, The Invisible Weapon, chs 5, 6, and 8; and Hugill, Global Communications, 39-51.
57. This is the theme of Paul M. Kennedy, "Imperial Cable Communications and Strategy, 1879-1914," English Historical Review 86 (1971): 728-52; Headrick, The Invisible Weapon, chs 5, 6, and 8; and Hugill, Global Communications, 39-51.
58. This is the theme of Paul M. Kennedy, "Imperial Cable Communications and Strategy, 1879-1914," English Historical Review 86 (1971): 728-52; Headrick, The Invisible Weapon, chs 5, 6, and 8; and Hugill, Global Communications, 39-51.
59. On the manufacture of cables, see Bright, Submarine Telegraphs; G. L. Lawford and R. L. Nicholson, The Telcon Story, 1850, 1959 (London, 1950); and Alfred Gay, Lea câbles sous-marins, vol. 1: Fabrication (Paris, 1902).
60. On the manufacture of cables, see Bright, Submarine Telegraphs; G. L. Lawford and R. L. Nicholson, The Telcon Story, 1850, 1959 (London, 1950); and Alfred Gay, Lea câbles sous-marins, vol. 1: Fabrication (Paris, 1902).
61. On the manufacture of cables, see Bright, Submarine Telegraphs; G. L. Lawford and R. L. Nicholson, The Telcon Story, 1850, 1959 (London, 1950); and Alfred Gay, Lea câbles sous-marins, vol. 1: Fabrication (Paris, 1902).
62. On cable ships, see Haigh, Cableships and Submarine Cables, 17-25; and Gerald R. M. Garratt, One Hundred Years of Submarine Cables (London, 1950).
63. On cable ships, see Haigh, Cableships and Submarine Cables, 17-25; and Gerald R. M. Garratt, One Hundred Years of Submarine Cables (London, 1950).
64. Bright, Submarine Telegraphs, 164.
65. Frank J. Brown, The Cable and Wireless Communications of the World: A Survey of Present-Day Means of Communication by Cable and Wireless, Containing Chapters on Cable and Wireless Finance (London, 1927), 37-8.
66. Gerald R. M. Garratt, One Hundred Years of Submarine Cables (London, 1950), 40.
67. The Erlanger family, bankers in Frankfurt, had helped Julius Reuter to start his news agency in London in 1851. The Baron Emile d'Erlanger, a French member of the family, cooperated with Reuter in founding the SCTF, a company that was nominally French but in fact was owned and controlled by London financiers. See Bright, Submarine Telegraphs, 107; Read, The Power of News, 13, 54; and Griset, Lea télécommunications, 50-4.
68. The Erlanger family, bankers in Frankfurt, had helped Julius Reuter to start his news agency in London in 1851. The Baron Emile d'Erlanger, a French member of the family, cooperated with Reuter in founding the SCTF, a company that was nominally French but in fact was owned and controlled by London financiers. See Bright, Submarine Telegraphs, 107; Read, The Power of News, 13, 54; and Griset, Lea télécommunications, 50-4.
69. The Erlanger family, bankers in Frankfurt, had helped Julius Reuter to start his news agency in London in 1851. The Baron Emile d'Erlanger, a French member of the family, cooperated with Reuter in founding the SCTF, a company that was nominally French but in fact was owned and controlled by London financiers. See Bright, Submarine Telegraphs, 107; Read, The Power of News, 13, 54; and Griset, Lea télécommunications, 50-4.
70. Minutes of evidence taken before the Inter-Departmental Committee on Cable Communications (London, 1902), cited in Griset, Les télécommunications, 671, nn. 29-30, 34.
71. Minutes of evidence taken before the Inter-Departmental Committee on Cable Communications (London, 1902), cited in Griset, Les télécommunications, 671, nn. 29-30, 34.
72. "Conseil d'administration P.Q.," in Archives Nationales, Paris, cited in Griset, Les télécommunications, 59-71.
73. Ibid., in Griset, Les télécommunications, 76-81. On Jay Gould, see Maury Klein, The Life and Legend of Jay Gould (Baltimore, 1986).
74. Ibid., in Griset, Les télécommunications, 76-81. On Jay Gould, see Maury Klein, The Life and Legend of Jay Gould (Baltimore, 1986).
75. "Conseil d'administration P.Q.," in Archives Nationales, Paris, cited in Griset, Les télécommunications, 85-97.
76. "Conseil d'administration C.F.C.T.," Archives Nationales, Paris, cited in Griset, Les télécommunications, 113-23, 236-9.
77. The most important source on the German telegraph cables is Artur Kunert, Geschichte der deutschen Fernmeldekabel, vol. 2: Telegraphen-Seekabel (Cologne-Mülheim, 1962). See also Thomas Lenschau, Das Weltkabelnetz (Frankfurt, 1908); and Charles Lesage, La rivalité anglo-germanique. Les câbles sous-marins allemands (Paris, 1915). See also Headrick, Invisible Weapon, 81-2.
78. The most important source on the German telegraph cables is Artur Kunert, Geschichte der deutschen Fernmeldekabel, vol. 2: Telegraphen-Seekabel (Cologne-Mülheim, 1962). See also Thomas Lenschau, Das Weltkabelnetz (Frankfurt, 1908); and Charles Lesage, La rivalité anglo-germanique. Les câbles sous-marins allemands (Paris, 1915). See also Headrick, Invisible Weapon, 81-2.
79. The most important source on the German telegraph cables is Artur Kunert, Geschichte der deutschen Fernmeldekabel, vol. 2: Telegraphen-Seekabel (Cologne-Mülheim, 1962). See also Thomas Lenschau, Das Weltkabelnetz (Frankfurt, 1908); and Charles Lesage, La rivalité anglo-germanique. Les câbles sous-marins allemands (Paris, 1915). See also Headrick, Invisible Weapon, 81-2.
80. The most important source on the German telegraph cables is Artur Kunert, Geschichte der deutschen Fernmeldekabel, vol. 2: Telegraphen-Seekabel (Cologne-Mülheim, 1962). See also Thomas Lenschau, Das Weltkabelnetz (Frankfurt, 1908); and Charles Lesage, La rivalité anglo-germanique. Les câbles sous-marins allemands (Paris, 1915). See also Headrick, Invisible Weapon, 81-2.
81. Kunert, Geschichte der deutschen Fernmeldekabel, 203-6, 228-53, 292-301. See also August Röper, Die Unterseekabel (Leipzig, 1910); and Hugo Thurn, Die Seekabel unter besonderer Berücksichtigung der deutschen Seekabeltelegraphie. In technischer, handelswirtschaftlicher, verkehrspolitischer und strategischer Beziehung dargestellt (Leipzig, 1909).
82. Kunert, Geschichte der deutschen Fernmeldekabel, 203-6, 228-53, 292-301. See also August Röper, Die Unterseekabel (Leipzig, 1910); and Hugo Thurn, Die Seekabel unter besonderer Berücksichtigung der deutschen Seekabeltelegraphie. In technischer, handelswirtschaftlicher, verkehrspolitischer und strategischer Beziehung dargestellt (Leipzig, 1909).
83. Kunert, Geschichte der deutschen Fernmeldekabel, 203-6, 228-53, 292-301. See also August Röper, Die Unterseekabel (Leipzig, 1910); and Hugo Thurn, Die Seekabel unter besonderer Berücksichtigung der deutschen Seekabeltelegraphie. In technischer, handelswirtschaftlicher, verkehrspolitischer und strategischer Beziehung dargestellt (Leipzig, 1909).
84. Colonel Henry Archibald Mallock, Report on the Indo-European Telegraph Department, being a History of the Department from 1863 to 1888 and a Description of the Country through which the Line Passes, 2nd ed. (Calcutta, 1890); Frederick J. Goldsmid, Telegraph and Travel: A Narrative of the Formation and Development of Telegraphic Communication between England and India (London, 1874); J. C. Parkinson, The Ocean Telegraph to India: A Narrative and a Diary (Edinburgh, 1870).
85. Colonel Henry Archibald Mallock, Report on the Indo-European Telegraph Department, being a History of the Department from 1863 to 1888 and a Description of the Country through which the Line Passes, 2nd ed. (Calcutta, 1890); Frederick J. Goldsmid, Telegraph and Travel: A Narrative of the Formation and Development of Telegraphic Communication between England and India (London, 1874); J. C. Parkinson, The Ocean Telegraph to India: A Narrative and a Diary (Edinburgh, 1870).
86. Colonel Henry Archibald Mallock, Report on the Indo-European Telegraph Department, being a History of the Department from 1863 to 1888 and a Description of the Country through which the Line Passes, 2nd ed. (Calcutta, 1890); Frederick J. Goldsmid, Telegraph and Travel: A Narrative of the Formation and Development of Telegraphic Communication between England and India (London, 1874); J. C. Parkinson, The Ocean Telegraph to India: A Narrative and a Diary (Edinburgh, 1870).
87. There are two corporate histories of the Eastern and Associated Companies (now called Cable & Wireless); K. C. Baglehole, A Century of Service: A Brief History of Cable & Wireless Ltd., 1868-1968 (Welwyn Garden City, 1970); and Hugh Barty-King, Girdle Round the Earth: The Story of Cable and Wireless and its Predecessors to Mark the Group's Jubilee, 1929-1979 (London, 1979). See also Headrick, Invisible Weapon, 35-40.
88. There are two corporate histories of the Eastern and Associated Companies (now called Cable & Wireless); K. C. Baglehole, A Century of Service: A Brief History of Cable & Wireless Ltd., 1868-1968 (Welwyn Garden City, 1970); and Hugh Barty-King, Girdle Round the Earth: The Story of Cable and Wireless and its Predecessors to Mark the Group's Jubilee, 1929-1979 (London, 1979). See also Headrick, Invisible Weapon, 35-40.
89. There are two corporate histories of the Eastern and Associated Companies (now called Cable & Wireless); K. C. Baglehole, A Century of Service: A Brief History of Cable & Wireless Ltd., 1868-1968 (Welwyn Garden City, 1970); and Hugh Barty-King, Girdle Round the Earth: The Story of Cable and Wireless and its Predecessors to Mark the Group's Jubilee, 1929-1979 (London, 1979). See also Headrick, Invisible Weapon, 35-40.
90. Barty-King, Girdle Round the Earth, 25, 53-4, 80. Headrick, Invisible Weapon, 36-7.
91. Barty-King, Girdle Round the Earth, 25, 53-4, 80. Headrick, Invisible Weapon, 36-7.
92. On the Pacific cable, see Graham M. Thompson, "Sandford Fleming and the Pacific Cable: The Institutional Politics of Nineteenth-Century Telecommunications," in Canadian Journal of Communications 15 (1990): 64-75; George Johnson, ed., The All-Red Line: The Annals and Aims of the Pacific Cable Project (Ottawa, 1903); and Hugill, Global Communications, 45-6,
93. On the Pacific cable, see Graham M. Thompson, "Sandford Fleming and the Pacific Cable: The Institutional Politics of Nineteenth-Century Telecommunications," in Canadian Journal of Communications 15 (1990): 64-75; George Johnson, ed., The All-Red Line: The Annals and Aims of the Pacific Cable Project (Ottawa, 1903); and Hugill, Global Communications, 45-6,
94. On the Pacific cable, see Graham M. Thompson, "Sandford Fleming and the Pacific Cable: The Institutional Politics of Nineteenth-Century Telecommunications," in Canadian Journal of Communications 15 (1990): 64-75; George Johnson, ed., The All-Red Line: The Annals and Aims of the Pacific Cable Project (Ottawa, 1903); and Hugill, Global Communications, 45-6,
95. Store Nordiske Telegraf-Selskab, The Great Northern Telegraph Company: An Outline of the Company's History, 1869-1969 (Copenhagen, 1969); Jorma Ahvenainen, The Far Eastern Telegraphs: The History of Telegraphic Communications between the Far East, Europe and America before the First World War (Helsinki, 1981), 21-46.
96. Store Nordiske Telegraf-Selskab, The Great Northern Telegraph Company: An Outline of the Company's History, 1869-1969 (Copenhagen, 1969); Jorma Ahvenainen, The Far Eastern Telegraphs: The History of Telegraphic Communications between the Far East, Europe and America before the First World War (Helsinki, 1981), 21-46.
97. James A. Scrymser, Personal Reminiscences of James A. Scrymser, in Times of Peace and War (Easton, Penn., 1915), 92-7; "Submarine Cable Communications in Time of War: Incidents during the Spanish-American War," report from the General Post Office to the War Office (Apr. 1899), in Public Record Office (Kew) WO106/291, 30-1; Edward W. C. Sandes, The Royal Engineers in Egypt and the Sudan (Chatham, 1937), 279-87, 415-16; Paul Kennedy, "Imperial Cable Communications and Strategy, 1870-1914," English Historical Review 86 (1971); and Headrick, Invisible Weapon, 82-9.
98. James A. Scrymser, Personal Reminiscences of James A. Scrymser, in Times of Peace and War (Easton, Penn., 1915), 92-7; "Submarine Cable Communications in Time of War: Incidents during the Spanish-American War," report from the General Post Office to the War Office (Apr. 1899), in Public Record Office (Kew) WO106/291, 30-1; Edward W. C. Sandes, The Royal Engineers in Egypt and the Sudan (Chatham, 1937), 279-87, 415-16; Paul Kennedy, "Imperial Cable Communications and Strategy, 1870-1914," English Historical Review 86 (1971); and Headrick, Invisible Weapon, 82-9.
99. James A. Scrymser, Personal Reminiscences of James A. Scrymser, in Times of Peace and War (Easton, Penn., 1915), 92-7; "Submarine Cable Communications in Time of War: Incidents during the Spanish-American War," report from the General Post Office to the War Office (Apr. 1899), in Public Record Office (Kew) WO106/291, 30-1; Edward W. C. Sandes, The Royal Engineers in Egypt and the Sudan (Chatham, 1937), 279-87, 415-16; Paul Kennedy, "Imperial Cable Communications and Strategy, 1870-1914," English Historical Review 86 (1971); and Headrick, Invisible Weapon, 82-9.
100. James A. Scrymser, Personal Reminiscences of James A. Scrymser, in Times of Peace and War (Easton, Penn., 1915), 92-7; "Submarine Cable Communications in Time of War: Incidents during the Spanish-American War," report from the General Post Office to the War Office (Apr. 1899), in Public Record Office (Kew) WO106/291, 30-1; Edward W. C. Sandes, The Royal Engineers in Egypt and the Sudan (Chatham, 1937), 279-87, 415-16; Paul Kennedy, "Imperial Cable Communications and Strategy, 1870-1914," English Historical Review 86 (1971); and Headrick, Invisible Weapon, 82-9.
101. James A. Scrymser, Personal Reminiscences of James A. Scrymser, in Times of Peace and War (Easton, Penn., 1915), 92-7; "Submarine Cable Communications in Time of War: Incidents during the Spanish-American War," report from the General Post Office to the War Office (Apr. 1899), in Public Record Office (Kew) WO106/291, 30-1; Edward W. C. Sandes, The Royal Engineers in Egypt and the Sudan (Chatham, 1937), 279-87, 415-16; Paul Kennedy, "Imperial Cable Communications and Strategy, 1870-1914," English Historical Review 86 (1971); and Headrick, Invisible Weapon, 82-9.
102. G. Saward, Deep-sea Telegraphs: Their Past History and Future Progress (London, 1861); Griset, Les télécommunications, 44-6; Headrick, Invisible Weapon, 15-16; Exposé du développement des services postaux, télégraphiques et téléphoniques en Algérie (Algiers, 1930), 49-50; Charles Bright, Submarine Telegraphs, 66.
103. G. Saward, Deep-sea Telegraphs: Their Past History and Future Progress (London, 1861); Griset, Les télécommunications, 44-6; Headrick, Invisible Weapon, 15-16; Exposé du développement des services postaux, télégraphiques et téléphoniques en Algérie (Algiers, 1930), 49-50; Charles Bright, Submarine Telegraphs, 66.
104. G. Saward, Deep-sea Telegraphs: Their Past History and Future Progress (London, 1861); Griset, Les télécommunications, 44-6; Headrick, Invisible Weapon, 15-16; Exposé du développement des services postaux, télégraphiques et téléphoniques en Algérie (Algiers, 1930), 49-50; Charles Bright, Submarine Telegraphs, 66.
105. G. Saward, Deep-sea Telegraphs: Their Past History and Future Progress (London, 1861); Griset, Les télécommunications, 44-6; Headrick, Invisible Weapon, 15-16; Exposé du développement des services postaux, télégraphiques et téléphoniques en Algérie (Algiers, 1930), 49-50; Charles Bright, Submarine Telegraphs, 66.
106. G. Saward, Deep-sea Telegraphs: Their Past History and Future Progress (London, 1861); Griset, Les télécommunications, 44-6; Headrick, Invisible Weapon, 15-16; Exposé du développement des services postaux, télégraphiques et téléphoniques en Algérie (Algiers, 1930), 49-50; Charles Bright, Submarine Telegraphs, 66.
107. "Conseil d'administration" and "Assemblée générale, S.F.T.S.M., 1889-1894," "Assemblée générale P.Q., 1895," and "Conseil general C.F.T.C., 1897-1900," Archives Nationales, Paris, cited in Griset, Les télécommunications, 103-16, 238-9; P. Charbon, "Développement et declin des réseaux télégraphiques, 1840-1940," in Recherches sur l'histoire des télécommunications 1 (Nov. 1986); J. C. Allain, "L'indépendence câblière de la France au début du XXème siècle," in Guerres mondiales et conflits contemporains 166 (1992), 116-31.
108. "Conseil d'administration" and "Assemblée générale, S.F.T.S.M., 1889-1894," "Assemblée générale P.Q., 1895," and "Conseil general C.F.T.C., 1897-1900," Archives Nationales, Paris, cited in Griset, Les télécommunications, 103-16, 238-9; P. Charbon, "Développement et declin des réseaux télégraphiques, 1840-1940," in Recherches sur l'histoire des télécommunications 1 (Nov. 1986); J. C. Allain, "L'indépendence câblière de la France au début du XXème siècle," in Guerres mondiales et conflits contemporains 166 (1992), 116-31.
109. "Conseil d'administration" and "Assemblée générale, S.F.T.S.M., 1889-1894," "Assemblée générale P.Q., 1895," and "Conseil general C.F.T.C., 1897-1900," Archives Nationales, Paris, cited in Griset, Les télécommunications, 103-16, 238-9; P. Charbon, "Développement et declin des réseaux télégraphiques, 1840-1940," in Recherches sur l'histoire des télécommunications 1 (Nov. 1986); J. C. Allain, "L'indépendence câblière de la France au début du XXème siècle," in Guerres mondiales et conflits contemporains 166 (1992), 116-31.
110. Scrymser, Personal Reminiscences, 67-70; Ludwell Denny, America Conquers Britain: A Record of Economic War (London and New York, 1930), 369-70; Keith Clark, International Communications: The American Attitude (Ph.D. thesis, Columbia University, New York, 1931), 151.
111. Scrymser, Personal Reminiscences, 67-70; Ludwell Denny, America Conquers Britain: A Record of Economic War (London and New York, 1930), 369-70; Keith Clark, International Communications: The American Attitude (Ph.D. thesis, Columbia University, New York, 1931), 151.
112. Scrymser, Personal Reminiscences, 67-70; Ludwell Denny, America Conquers Britain: A Record of Economic War (London and New York, 1930), 369-70; Keith Clark, International Communications: The American Attitude (Ph.D. thesis, Columbia University, New York, 1931), 151.
113. The Hong Kong-Manila cable was laid by the Eastern Extension Company a few months before the Spanish-American War. See Scrymser, Personal Reminiscences, 98.
114. Leslie B. Tribolet, The International Aspects of Electrical Communications in the Pacific Area (London, 1929); W. D. Alexander, "The Story of the Trans-Pacific Cable," Hawaii Historical Journal 18 (Jan. 1911): 57-60; Ahvenainen, The Far Eastern Telegraphs, 158- 9; U.S. Congress, Senate, Committee on Interstate Commerce, Cable-Landing Licenses: Hearings (15 Dec. 1920-11 Jan. 1921); and U.S. Congress, House, Committee on Interstate and Foreign Commerce, Cable-Landing Licenses: Hearings (11-13 May 1921).
115. Leslie B. Tribolet, The International Aspects of Electrical Communications in the Pacific Area (London, 1929); W. D. Alexander, "The Story of the Trans-Pacific Cable," Hawaii Historical Journal 18 (Jan. 1911): 57-60; Ahvenainen, The Far Eastern Telegraphs, 158- 9; U.S. Congress, Senate, Committee on Interstate Commerce, Cable-Landing Licenses: Hearings (15 Dec. 1920-11 Jan. 1921); and U.S. Congress, House, Committee on Interstate and Foreign Commerce, Cable-Landing Licenses: Hearings (11-13 May 1921).
116. Leslie B. Tribolet, The International Aspects of Electrical Communications in the Pacific Area (London, 1929); W. D. Alexander, "The Story of the Trans-Pacific Cable," Hawaii Historical Journal 18 (Jan. 1911): 57-60; Ahvenainen, The Far Eastern Telegraphs, 158-9; U.S. Congress, Senate, Committee on Interstate Commerce, Cable-Landing Licenses: Hearings (15 Dec. 1920-11 Jan. 1921); and U.S. Congress, House, Committee on Interstate and Foreign Commerce, Cable-Landing Licenses: Hearings (11-13 May 1921).
117. Leslie B. Tribolet, The International Aspects of Electrical Communications in the Pacific Area (London, 1929); W. D. Alexander, "The Story of the Trans-Pacific Cable," Hawaii Historical Journal 18 (Jan. 1911): 57-60; Ahvenainen, The Far Eastern Telegraphs, 158- 9; U.S. Congress, Senate, Committee on Interstate Commerce, Cable-Landing Licenses: Hearings (15 Dec. 1920-11 Jan. 1921); and U.S. Congress, House, Committee on Interstate and Foreign Commerce, Cable-Landing Licenses: Hearings (11-13 May 1921).
118. Leslie B. Tribolet, The International Aspects of Electrical Communications in the Pacific Area (London, 1929); W. D. Alexander, "The Story of the Trans-Pacific Cable," Hawaii Historical Journal 18 (Jan. 1911): 57-60; Ahvenainen, The Far Eastern Telegraphs, 158- 9; U.S. Congress, Senate, Committee on Interstate Commerce, Cable-Landing Licenses: Hearings (15 Dec. 1920-11 Jan. 1921); and U.S. Congress, House, Committee on Interstate and Foreign Commerce, Cable-Landing Licenses: Hearings (11-13 May 1921).
119. R. Hennig, "Die deutsche-niederländische Telegraphenallianz im Fernen Osten," Grenzboten 65 (Apr-June 1906): 289-93; Günther Meyer, "German Interests and Policy in the Netherlands East Indies and Malaya, 1870-1914," in John A. Moses and Paul M. Kennedy, eds., Germany in the Pacific and Far East, 1870-1914 (St. Lucia, Queensland, 1977), 45; Kunert, Geschichte der deutschen Fernmeldekabel, vol. 2: 319-36; Ahvenainen, Far Eastern Telegraphs, 175-84.
120. R. Hennig, "Die deutsche-niederländische Telegraphenallianz im Fernen Osten," Grenzboten 65 (Apr-June 1906): 289-93; Günther Meyer, "German Interests and Policy in the Netherlands East Indies and Malaya, 1870-1914," in John A. Moses and Paul M. Kennedy, eds., Germany in the Pacific and Far East, 1870-1914 (St. Lucia, Queensland, 1977), 45; Kunert, Geschichte der deutschen Fernmeldekabel, vol. 2: 319-36; Ahvenainen, Far Eastern Telegraphs, 175-84.
121. R. Hennig, "Die deutsche-niederländische Telegraphenallianz im Fernen Osten," Grenzboten 65 (Apr-June 1906): 289-93; Günther Meyer, "German Interests and Policy in the Netherlands East Indies and Malaya, 1870-1914," in John A. Moses and Paul M. Kennedy, eds., Germany in the Pacific and Far East, 1870-1914 (St. Lucia, Queensland, 1977), 45; Kunert, Geschichte der deutschen Fernmeldekabel, vol. 2: 319-36; Ahvenainen, Far Eastern Telegraphs, 175-84.
122. R. Hennig, "Die deutsche-niederländische Telegraphenallianz im Fernen Osten," Grenzboten 65 (Apr-June 1906): 289-93; Günther Meyer, "German Interests and Policy in the Netherlands East Indies and Malaya, 1870-1914," in John A. Moses and Paul M. Kennedy, eds., Germany in the Pacific and Far East, 1870-1914 (St. Lucia, Queensland, 1977), 45; Kunert, Geschichte der deutschen Fernmeldekabel, vol. 2: 319-36; Ahvenainen, Far Eastern Telegraphs, 175-84.
123. Kunert, Geschichte der deutschen Fernmeldekabel, vol. 2: 261-74, 345; Lesage, La rivalité anglo-germanique, 84-8, 101-22, 155-60, 247-58.; Jean-Claude Allain, Agadir 1911: Une crise impérialiste en Europe pour la conquête du Maroc (Paris, 1976), 133-5.
124. Kunert, Geschichte der deutschen Fernmeldekabel, vol. 2: 261-74, 345; Lesage, La rivalité anglo-germanique, 84-8, 101-22, 155-60, 247-58.; Jean-Claude Allain, Agadir 1911: Une crise impérialiste en Europe pour la conquête du Maroc (Paris, 1976), 133-5.
125. Kunert, Geschichte der deutschen Fernmeldekabel, vol. 2: 261-74, 345; Lesage, La rivalité anglo-germanique, 84-8, 101-22, 155-60, 247-58.; Jean-Claude Allain, Agadir 1911: Une crise impérialiste en Europe pour la conquête du Maroc (Paris, 1976), 133-5.
126. Griset, Les télécommunications, 240-1; Garratt, One Hundred Years, 30; Haigh, Cable- ships and Submarine Cables, 316-21; Ivan S. Coggeshall, "Annotated History of Submarine Cables and Overseas Radiotelegraphs, 1851 to 1934. With Special Reference to the Western Union Company and with an Introduction dated 1984," manuscript written in 1934, cited with permission of the author.
127. Griset, Les télécommunications, 240-1; Garratt, One Hundred Years, 30; Haigh, Cable- ships and Submarine Cables, 316-21; Ivan S. Coggeshall, "Annotated History of Submarine Cables and Overseas Radiotelegraphs, 1851 to 1934. With Special Reference to the Western Union Company and with an Introduction dated 1984," manuscript written in 1934, cited with permission of the author.
128. Griset, Les télécommunications, 240-1; Garratt, One Hundred Years, 30; Haigh, Cable-ships and Submarine Cables, 316-21; Ivan S. Coggeshall, "Annotated History of Submarine Cables and Overseas Radiotelegraphs, 1851 to 1934. With Special Reference to the Western Union Company and with an Introduction dated 1984," manuscript written in 1934, cited with permission of the author.
129. Griset, Les télécommunications, 240-1; Garratt, One Hundred Years, 30; Haigh, Cable- ships and Submarine Cables, 316-21; Ivan S. Coggeshall, "Annotated History of Submarine Cables and Overseas Radiotelegraphs, 1851 to 1934. With Special Reference to the Western Union Company and with an Introduction dated 1984," manuscript written in 1934, cited with permission of the author.
130. "Conseil d'administration C.F.T.C. 1909-14." in Archives Nationales, Paris, cited in Griset, Les télécommunications, 256-60, 376-78; Allain, Agadir 1911, 133-35; United States Congress, Senate, Committee on Interstate Commerce, 66th Congress, 3rd Session, on S. 4301, A Bill to Prevent the Unauthorized Landing of Submarine Cables in the United States (15 Dec. 1920 and 11 Jan. 1921).
131. "Conseil d'administration C.F.T.C. 1909-14." in Archives Nationales, Paris, cited in Griset, Les télécommunications, 256-60, 376-78; Allain, Agadir 1911, 133-35; United States Congress, Senate, Committee on Interstate Commerce, 66th Congress, 3rd Session, on S. 4301, A Bill to Prevent the Unauthorized Landing of Submarine Cables in the United States (15 Dec. 1920 and 11 Jan. 1921).
132. "Conseil d'administration C.F.T.C. 1909-14." in Archives Nationales, Paris, cited in Griset, Les télécommunications,
133. Letters and memoranda, 1917-18, in Records of the Department of State, U.S. National Archives 851/72, M560, Roll 140, cited in Griset, Les télécommunications, 268-78. On cables in World War I, see also Hugill, Global Communications, 46-8; and Headrick, Invisible Weapon, 138-50.
134. Letters and memoranda, 1917-18, in Records of the Department of State, U.S. National Archives 851/72, M560, Roll 140, cited in Griset, Les télécommunications, 268-78. On cables in World War I, see also Hugill, Global Communications, 46-8; and Headrick, Invisible Weapon, 138-50.
135. Letters and memoranda, 1917-18, in Records of the Department of State, U.S. National Archives 851/72, M560, Roll 140, cited in Griset, Les télécommunications, 268-78. On cables in World War I, see also Hugill, Global Communications, 46-8; and Headrick, Invisible Weapon, 138-50.
136. Letters and memoranda, 1917-18, in Records of the Department of State, U.S. National Archives 851/72, M560, Roll 140, cited in Griset, Les télécommunications, 268-78. On cables in World War I, see also Hugill, Global Communications, 46-8; and Headrick, Invisible Weapon, 138-50.
137. Letters and memoranda, 1919-21, in Records of the Department of State, U.S. National Archives 851/73, M560, Roll 141; and U.S. Congress, A Bill to Prevent the Unauthorized Landing of Submarine Cables in the United States, cited in Griset, Les télécommunications, 426-46.
138. Letters and memoranda, 1919-21, in Records of the Department of State, U.S. National Archives 851/73, M560, Roll 141; and U.S. Congress, A Bill to Prevent the Unauthorized Landing of Submarine Cables in the United States, cited in Griset, Les télécommunications, 426-46.
139. Griset, Les télécommunications, 403.
140. U.S. Congress, A Bill to Prevent the Unauthorized Landing of Submarine Cables in the United States.
141. U.S. Federal Communications Commission, "Report of the Federal Communications Commission on the International Telegraph Industry submitted to the Senate Interstate Commerce Committee Investigating Telegraphs," in United States Senate, Appendix to Hearings before Subcommittee of the Committee on Interstate Commerce, 77th Congress, 1st Session, part 2 (Washington, D.C., 1940), 476. See also Joseph S. Tulchin, The Aftermath of War: World War I and U.S. Policy toward Latin America (New York, 1971), 208-22; George A. Schreiner, Cable and Wireless and their Role in the Foreign Relations of the United States (Boston, 1924), 66-78; Clark, International Communications, 155-6; Denny, America Conquers Britain, 370-1; and Tribolet, The International Aspects, 46-56.
142. U.S. Federal Communications Commission, "Report of the Federal Communications Commission on the International Telegraph Industry submitted to the Senate Interstate Commerce Committee Investigating Telegraphs," in United States Senate, Appendix to Hearings before Subcommittee of the Committee on Interstate Commerce, 77th Congress, 1st Session, part 2 (Washington, D.C., 1940), 476. See also Joseph S. Tulchin, The Aftermath of War: World War I and U.S. Policy toward Latin America (New York, 1971), 208-22; George A. Schreiner, Cable and Wireless and their Role in the Foreign Relations of the United States (Boston, 1924), 66-78; Clark, International Communications, 155-6; Denny, America Conquers Britain, 370-1; and Tribolet, The International Aspects, 46-56.
143. U.S. Federal Communications Commission, "Report of the Federal Communications Commission on the International Telegraph Industry submitted to the Senate Interstate Commerce Committee Investigating Telegraphs," in United States Senate, Appendix to Hearings before Subcommittee of the Committee on Interstate Commerce, 77th Congress, 1st Session, part 2 (Washington, D.C., 1940), 476. See also Joseph S. Tulchin, The Aftermath of War: World War I and U.S. Policy toward Latin America (New York, 1971), 208-22; George A. Schreiner, Cable and Wireless and their Role in the Foreign Relations of the United States (Boston, 1924), 66-78; Clark, International Communications, 155-6; Denny, America Conquers Britain, 370-1; and Tribolet, The International Aspects, 46-56.
144. U.S. Federal Communications Commission, "Report of the Federal Communications Commission on the International Telegraph Industry submitted to the Senate Interstate Commerce Committee Investigating Telegraphs," in United States Senate, Appendix to Hearings before Subcommittee of the Committee on Interstate Commerce, 77th Congress, 1st Session, part 2 (Washington, D.C., 1940), 476. See also Joseph S. Tulchin, The Aftermath of War: World War I and U.S. Policy toward Latin America (New York, 1971), 208-22; George A. Schreiner, Cable and Wireless and their Role in the Foreign Relations of the United States (Boston, 1924), 66-78; Clark, International Communications, 155-6; Denny, America Conquers Britain, 370-1; and Tribolet, The International Aspects, 46-56.
145. U.S. Federal Communications Commission, "Report of the Federal Communications Commission on the International Telegraph Industry submitted to the Senate Interstate Commerce Committee Investigating Telegraphs," in United States Senate, Appendix to Hearings before Subcommittee of the Committee on Interstate Commerce, 77th Congress, 1st Session, part 2 (Washington, D.C., 1940), 476. See also Joseph S. Tulchin, The Aftermath of War: World War I and U.S. Policy toward Latin America (New York, 1971), 208-22; George A. Schreiner, Cable and Wireless and their Role in the Foreign Relations of the United States (Boston, 1924), 66-78; Clark, International Communications, 155-6; Denny, America Conquers Britain, 370-1; and Tribolet, The International Aspects, 46-56.
146. U.S. Federal Communications Commission, "Report of the Federal Communications Commission on the International Telegraph Industry submitted to the Senate Interstate Commerce Committee Investigating Telegraphs," in United States Senate, Appendix to Hearings before Subcommittee of the Committee on Interstate Commerce, 77th Congress, 1st Session, part 2 (Washington, D.C., 1940), 476. See also Joseph S. Tulchin, The Aftermath of War: World War I and U.S. Policy toward Latin America (New York, 1971), 208-22; George A. Schreiner, Cable and Wireless and their Role in the Foreign Relations of the United States (Boston, 1924), 66-78; Clark, International Communications, 155-6; Denny, America Conquers Britain, 370-1; and Tribolet, The International Aspects, 46-56.
147. Minutes of evidence taken before the inter-departmental committee on cable communications (London, 1902), 82; and "Conseil d'administration" and "Assemblée générale extraordinaire C.F.C.T., 1918-1927," in Archives Nationales, Paris, cited in Griset, Les télécommunications, 456-67.
148. Minutes of evidence taken before the inter-departmental committee on cable communications (London, 1902), 82; and "Conseil d'administration" and "Assemblée générale extraordinaire C.F.C.T., 1918-1927," in Archives Nationales, Paris, cited in Griset, Les télécommunications, 456-67.
149. See, for example, Hugh Aitken, Syntony and Spark: The Origins of Radio (New York, 1976); and The Continuous Wave: Technology and American Radio, 1900-1932 (Princeton, 1985); Rowland F. Pocock, The Early British Radio Industry (Manchester, 1988); Griset, Les télécommunications, chs. 7-9, 12-14; J. Cazenoble, Les origines de la télégraphie sans fil (Paris, 1981); and Gordon Bussey, Wireless: The Crucial Decade. History of the British Wireless Industry, 1924-34 (London, 1990).
150. See, for example, Hugh Aitken, Syntony and Spark: The Origins of Radio (New York, 1976); and The Continuous Wave: Technology and American Radio, 1900-1932 (Princeton, 1985); Rowland F. Pocock, The Early British Radio Industry (Manchester, 1988); Griset, Les télécommunications, chs. 7-9, 12-14; J. Cazenoble, Les origines de la télégraphie sans fil (Paris, 1981); and Gordon Bussey, Wireless: The Crucial Decade. History of the British Wireless Industry, 1924-34 (London, 1990).
151. See, for example, Hugh Aitken, Syntony and Spark: The Origins of Radio (New York, 1976); and The Continuous Wave: Technology and American Radio, 1900-1932 (Princeton, 1985); Rowland F. Pocock, The Early British Radio Industry (Manchester, 1988); Griset, Les télécommunications, chs. 7-9, 12-14; J. Cazenoble, Les origines de la télégraphie sans fil (Paris, 1981); and Gordon Bussey, Wireless: The Crucial Decade. History of the British Wireless Industry, 1924-34 (London, 1990).
152. See, for example, Hugh Aitken, Syntony and Spark: The Origins of Radio (New York, 1976); and The Continuous Wave: Technology and American Radio, 1900-1932 (Princeton, 1985); Rowland F. Pocock, The Early British Radio Industry (Manchester, 1988); Griset, Les télécommunications, chs. 7-9, 12-14; J. Cazenoble, Les origines de la télégraphie sans fil (Paris, 1981); and Gordon Bussey, Wireless: The Crucial Decade. History of the British Wireless Industry, 1924-34 (London, 1990).
153. See, for example, Hugh Aitken, Syntony and Spark: The Origins of Radio (New York, 1976); and The Continuous Wave: Technology and American Radio, 1900-1932 (Princeton, 1985); Rowland F. Pocock, The Early British Radio Industry (Manchester, 1988); Griset, Les télécommunications, chs. 7-9, 12-14; J. Cazenoble, Les origines de la télégraphie sans fil (Paris, 1981); and Gordon Bussey, Wireless: The Crucial Decade. History of the British Wireless Industry, 1924-34 (London, 1990).
154. See, for example, Hugh Aitken, Syntony and Spark: The Origins of Radio (New York, 1976); and The Continuous Wave: Technology and American Radio, 1900-1932 (Princeton, 1985); Rowland F. Pocock, The Early British Radio Industry (Manchester, 1988); Griset, Les télécommunications, chs. 7-9, 12-14; J. Cazenoble, Les origines de la télégraphie sans fil (Paris, 1981); and Gordon Bussey, Wireless: The Crucial Decade. History of the British Wireless Industry, 1924-34 (London, 1990).
155. Susan Douglas, Inventing American Broadcasting, 1899-1922 (Baltimore, 1987); Captain Linwood S. Howeth, History of Communications-Electronics in the United States Navy (Washington, D.C., 1963).
156. Susan Douglas, Inventing American Broadcasting, 1899-1922 (Baltimore, 1987); Captain Linwood S. Howeth, History of Communications-Electronics in the United States Navy (Washington, D.C., 1963).
157. Coates and Finn, Retrospective Technology Assessment, 157-65.
158. Heaclrick, Invisible Weapon, 200-1; Griset, Les télécommunications, 497; Kunert, Geschichte der deutschen Fernmeldekabe, vol. 2., 374-82; H. H. Haglund, "Ocean Cable Crossroads, Horta, Azores Islands," Western Union Technical Review 7 (July 1953): 108-9; Donard de Cogan, "British Cable Communications (1851-1930): The Azores Connection," Arquipélago, numero especial Relaçoes Açores-Gra Bretanha (Ponta Delgada, Azores, 1988), 187-8.
159. Heaclrick, Invisible Weapon, 200-1; Griset, Les télécommunications, 497; Kunert, Geschichte der deutschen Fernmeldekabe, vol. 2., 374-82; H. H. Haglund, "Ocean Cable Crossroads, Horta, Azores Islands," Western Union Technical Review 7 (July 1953): 108-9; Donard de Cogan, "British Cable Communications (1851-1930): The Azores Connection," Arquipélago, numero especial Relaçoes Açores-Gra Bretanha (Ponta Delgada, Azores, 1988), 187-8.
160. Heaclrick, Invisible Weapon, 200-1; Griset, Les télécommunications, 497; Kunert, Geschichte der deutschen Fernmeldekabe, vol. 2., 374-82; H. H. Haglund, "Ocean Cable Crossroads, Horta, Azores Islands," Western Union Technical Review 7 (July 1953): 108-9; Donard de Cogan, "British Cable Communications (1851-1930): The Azores Connection," Arquipélago, numero especial Relaçoes Açores-Gra Bretanha (Ponta Delgada, Azores, 1988), 187-8.
161. Heaclrick, Invisible Weapon, 200-1; Griset, Les télécommunications, 497; Kunert, Geschichte der deutschen Fernmeldekabe, vol. 2., 374-82; H. H. Haglund, "Ocean Cable Crossroads, Horta, Azores Islands," Western Union Technical Review 7 (July 1953): 108-9; Donard de Cogan, "British Cable Communications (1851-1930): The Azores Connection," Arquipélago, numero especial Relaçoes Açores-Gra Bretanha (Ponta Delgada, Azores, 1988), 187-8.
162. Heaclrick, Invisible Weapon, 200-1; Griset, Les télécommunications, 497; Kunert, Geschichte der deutschen Fernmeldekabe, vol. 2., 374-82; H. H. Haglund, "Ocean Cable Crossroads, Horta, Azores Islands," Western Union Technical Review 7 (July 1953): 108-9; Donard de Cogan, "British Cable Communications (1851-1930): The Azores Connection," Arquipélago, numero especial Relaçoes Açores-Gra Bretanha (Ponta Delgada, Azores, 1988), 187-8.
163. Daniel R. Headrick, "Shortwave Radio and its Impact on International Telecommunications between the Wars," History and Technology 11 (1994): 21-32.
164. W. J. Baker, A History of the Marconi Company (London, 1970), 230-2; Barty-King, Girdle Round the Earth, 203-10; Headrick, Invisible Weapon, 206-8.
165. W. J. Baker, A History of the Marconi Company (London, 1970), 230-2; Barty-King, Girdle Round the Earth, 203-10; Headrick, Invisible Weapon, 206-8.
166. W. J. Baker, A History of the Marconi Company (London, 1970), 230-2; Barty-King, Girdle Round the Earth, 203-10; Headrick, Invisible Weapon, 206-8.
167. "Conseil d'administration C.F.C.T., 1928," in Archives Nationales, Paris; and "Projet pour la création de la Compagnie française des communications électriques extérieures, juillet 1928," in Archives Paribas, Dossier Wilbratte, cited in Griset, Les télécommunications, 508-13.
168. "Conseil d'administration C.F.C.T., 1928," in Archives Nationales, Paris; and "Projet pour la création de la Compagnie française des communications électriques extérieures, juillet 1928," in Archives Paribas, Dossier Wilbratte, cited in Griset, Les télécommunications, 508-13.
169. Robert Sobel, ITT: The Management of Opportunity (New York, 1982), 60-9; Ivan Stoddard Coggeshall, "Annotated History of Submarine Cables and Overseas Radiotelegraphs, 1851 to 1934, with special reference to The Western Union Telegraph Company and with an Introduction dated 1984" (manuscript in possession of Donard de Cogan, cited with gratitude), 80; G. Stanley Shoup, "The Control of International Radio Communication, Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Sciences 142 (Mar. 1929): 103.
170. Robert Sobel, ITT: The Management of Opportunity (New York, 1982), 60-9; Ivan Stoddard Coggeshall, "Annotated History of Submarine Cables and Overseas Radiotelegraphs, 1851 to 1934, with special reference to The Western Union Telegraph Company and with an Introduction dated 1984" (manuscript in possession of Donard de Cogan, cited with gratitude), 80; G. Stanley Shoup, "The Control of International Radio Communication, Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Sciences 142 (Mar. 1929): 103.
171. Robert Sobel, ITT: The Management of Opportunity (New York, 1982), 60-9; Ivan Stoddard Coggeshall, "Annotated History of Submarine Cables and Overseas Radiotelegraphs, 1851 to 1934, with special reference to The Western Union Telegraph Company and with an Introduction dated 1984" (manuscript in possession of Donard de Cogan, cited with gratitude), 80; G. Stanley Shoup, "The Control of International Radio Communication, Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Sciences 142 (Mar. 1929): 103.
172. U.S. Congress, Senate, Committee on Interstate Commerce, "Hearings before the Committee on Interstate Commerce of the United States Senate, May 1929-Feb. 1930, on S.6, a bill to provide for the regulation, by a permanent Commission on Communications, of transmission of intelligence by wire or wireless."
173. "Assemblée générale C.F.C.T., 1929-1934," in Archives Nationales, Paris, cited in Griset, Les télécommunications, 531-33.
174. "Agreements and Commitments with North American Companies," in Cable &Wireless archives B1/157, cited in Headrick, Invisible Weapon, 211.
175. Letters and memoranda, 1929-35, in Cable & Wireless archives, London, cited in Headrick, Invisible Weapon, 211-13. On the Zimmermann Telegram, see Barbara Tuchman, The Zimmermann Telegram (New York, 1965); and Patrick Beesly, Room 40: British Naval Intelligence, 1914-1918 (London, 1982), ch. 13.
176. Letters and memoranda, 1929-35, in Cable & Wireless archives, London, cited in Headrick, Invisible Weapon, 211-13. On the Zimmermann Telegram, see Barbara Tuchman, The Zimmermann Telegram (New York, 1965); and Patrick Beesly, Room 40: British Naval Intelligence, 1914-1918 (London, 1982), ch. 13.
177. Letters and memoranda, 1929-35, in Cable & Wireless archives, London, cited in Headrick, Invisible Weapon, 211-13. On the Zimmermann Telegram, see Barbara Tuchman, The Zimmermann Telegram (New York, 1965); and Patrick Beesly, Room 40: British Naval Intelligence, 1914-1918 (London, 1982), ch. 13.
178. "Strategical requirements in regard to cable communications," in Cable & Wireless archives, B1/112, cited in Headrick, Invisible Weapon, 212.
179. Committee of Imperial Defence, Imperial Communications Committee, Strategic Cables Sub-Committee, minutes and reports, 1932-33, in Public Record Office (Kew), CAB 33/ 45, cited in Headrick, Invisible Weapon, 212.