Vitoria, grotius, pufendorf, wolff and vattel: Accomplices of European colonialism and exploitation or true cosmopolitans?

Journal of the History of International Law

Volumn 10, Issue 2, 2008, Pages 181-209

  Cavallar, Georg ^a  

^a Institut für Bildungswissenschaft   (Austria)

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EID: 69949161249     PISSN: 1388199X     EISSN: 15718050     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1163/157180508X359828     Document Type: Article

References (157)

1. Henry Wheaton, Elements of International Law [1836], 8th edn, Little, Brown, and Company, Boston 1866, reprint Clarendon Press, Oxford 1936, pp. xv-xvi. - Th is essay draws and elaborates on passages from the author's Th e Rights of Strangers: Th eories of international hospitality, the global community, and political justice since Vitoria, Ashgate, Aldershot 2002.
2. Robert A. Williams, The American Indian in Western Legal Thought. The Discourses of Conquest, Oxford University Press, New York, Oxford 1990, pp. 6-8 and p. 106.
3. Williams, p. 107; cf. p. 103.
4. Antony Anghie, Imperialism, Sovereignty and the Making of International Law, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge 2005, pp. 1-31, the quotation at p. 31.
5. Anghie, Imperialism, p. 30.
6. Brett Bowden, "The Colonial Origins of International Law. European Expansion and the Classical Standard of Civilization", Journal of the History of International Law, Vol.7 (2005), pp. 1-23, especially pp. 1, 3, 13 and 23; "Civilization and Savagery in the Crucible of War", Global Change, Peace & Security, Vol.19, No.1, pp. 3-16.
7. Paul Keal, "'Just Backward Children': International Law and the Conquest of Non- European Peoples", Australian Journal of International Affairs, Vol.49 (1995), pp. 191-206, at 192.
8. Paul Keal, European Conquest and the Rights of Indigenous Peoples. The moral backwardness of international society, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge 2003, pp. 21, 88, 97 and 102.
9. Keal, Conquest p. 107
10. The key works I have consulted are: Jörg Fisch, Die europäische Expansion und das Völkerrecht. Die Auseinandersetzungen um den Status der überseeischen Gebiete vom 15. Jahrhundert bis zur Gegenwart, Beiträge zur Kolonial- und Überseegeschichte vol. 26, Steiner, Stuttgart 1984 (a brilliant and usually neglected study)
11. Leslie Claude Green and Olive P. Dickason, The Law of Nations and the New World, University of Alberta Press, Edmonton 1989;
12. James Muldoon, The Americas in the Spanish World Order. The Justification for Conquest in the Seventeenth Century, University of Pennsylvania Press, Philadelphia 1994;
13. Sharon Korman, The Right of Conquest. The Acquisition of Territory by Force in International Law and Practice, Clarendon Press, Oxford 1996;
14. W. J. Mommsen and J. A. De Moor, eds., European Expansion and Law. The Encounter of European and Indigenous Law in 19th and 20th Century Africa and Asia, Oxford, New York, Berg 1992;
15. The fine studies of Anthony Pagden, especially European Encounters with the New World. From Renaissance to Romanticism, Yale University Press, New Haven and London 1993
16. The Uncertainties of Empire. Essays in Iberian and Ibero-American Intellectual History, Variorum, Aldershot, Hampshire 1994
17. Lords of all the World. Ideologies of Empire in Spain, Britain and France, c. 1500 - c. 1800, Yale University Press, New Haven, London 1995
18. More recent articles by Pagden are: "Stoicism, Cosmopolitanism, and the Legacy of European Imperialism", Constellations, Vol. 7, No. 1 (2000), pp. 3-22;
19. "Fellow Citizens and Imperial Subjects: Conquest and Sovereignty in Europe's Overseas Empires", History and Theory, Vol. 44, No. 3 (2005), pp. 28-46.
20. There is an extended analysis in my "Cosmopolis. Supranationales und kosmopolitisches Denken von Vitoria bis Smith", Deutsche Zeitschrift für Philosophie, Vol. 53 (2005), 49-67, which also lists secondary literature.
21. See also Pauline Kleingeld, "Six Varieties of Cosmopolitanism in Late Eighteenth-Century Germany", in: Journal of the History of Ideas, Vol. 60 (1999), 505-524.
22. Kleingeld, Cosmopolitanism, p. 515.
23. Onora O'Neill, Towards Justice and Virtue. A Constructive Account of Practical Reasoning, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge 1996, pp. 3, 5f., 51, 59, 125. See my analysis in Rights of Strangers pp. 46-59.
24. Michael Walzer, Thick and Thin. Moral Argument at Home and Abroad, University of Notre Dame Press, Notre Dame and London 1994, pp. 26ff.
25. See also "Zwei Arten des Universalismus", Babylon. Beiträge zur jüdischen Gegenwart, Vol. 7 (1990), pp. 7-25, where he addresses some of the criticism related to this thesis.
26. Williams, American Indian, p. 107.
27. Antonio Gómez Robledo, "Le ius cogens international: sa genèse, sa nature, ses fonctions", Recueil des Cours, Vol.172, No.III (1981), pp. 23-25 and 189-191;
28. Roberto O. Irigoyen, Francisco de Vitoria y la Política Internacional Argentina de Hipolito Yrigoyen, Pre Rot S. R. L., Argentina 1993, p. 113.
29. See also Marcelino Rodríguez Molinero, La doctrina colonial de Francisco de Vitoria o el derecho de la paz y de la guerra: un legado perenne de la escuela de Salamanca, Cervantes, Salamanca 1993;
30. Antonio Truyol Serra et al., Actualité de la pensée juridique de Francisco de Vitoria, Bruylant, Bruxelles 1988;
31. Historia del derecho internacional público; Tecnos, Madrid 1998.
32. See also Marcelino Rodríguez Molinero, La doctrina colonial de Francisco de Vitoria o el derecho de la paz y de la guerra: un legado perenne de la escuela deSalamanca, Cervantes, Salamanca 1993; Antonio Truyol Serra et al., Actualité de la pensée juridique de Francisco de Vitoria, Bruylant, Bruxelles 1988; Historia del derecho internacional público; Tecnos, Madrid 1998. More titles are listed in Francisco de Vitoria, Political Writings, ed. Anthony Padgen and Jeremy Lawrance, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge 1991, pp. 383-387, and in Francisco Castilla Urbaño, El Pensamiento de Francisco de Vitoria. Filosofía política e indio Americano, Editorial Anthropos, Barcelona 1992, pp. 347-362.
33. The most recent publication available for me is: Salvador Castellote, "Der Beitrag der Spanischen Spätscholastik zur Geschichte Europas", in: Markus Kremer and Hans-Richard Reuter, eds., Macht und Moral - Politisches Denken im 17. und 18. Jahrhundert, Kohlhammer, Stuttgart 2007, pp. 17-38. The term inventis in the title of Vitoria's lecture could either mean "invention" or "discovery" of the Americas;
34. See the excellent essay of John Christian Laursen, "De Indis Recenter Inventis: descubrimientos e invenciones legales y políticas en Vitoria, Las Casas y Fuentes", in: Ana Maria Hernández de López, ed., Narrativa hispanoamericana contemporanea: entre la vanguardia y el posboom, Editorial Pliegos, Madrid 1996, pp. 102-104.
35. José Antonio Maravall, Estado moderno y pensamiento social (Siglos XV a XVII) (Madrid: Revista de Occidente, 1972), vol.I, pp. 193 and 212.
36. James Brown Scott, The Spanish Origin of International Law: Francisco de Vitoria and his Law of Nations, Clarendon Press, Oxford 1934, pp. 281 and 283. For Josef Soder, Die Idee der Völkergemeinschaft. Francisco de Vitoria und die philosophischen Grundlage des Völkerrechts, Alfred Metzner Verlag, Frankfurt am Main 1955, Vitoria provided the perfect philosophical foundation of human rights and the international community aiming at the welfare of all humankind.
37. J. A. Fernández-Santamaria, The State, War and Peace. Spanish Political Thought in the Renaissance 1516-1559, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge 1977, p. 111.
38. On the concept of the "barbarian", see Keal, Conquest, pp. 67-75. In Vitoria, "barbarian" usually equals "non- Christian".
39. Vitoria, "American Indians", pp. 283f.
40. Vitoria, "American Indians", p. 291, Italics in the original.
41. "American Indians", p. 250.
42. Vitoria, "On the American Indians", Political Writings, p. 271.
43. The theological framework of Vitoria's Indian lecture is emphasized by Heinz-Gerhard Justenhoven, Francisco de Vitoria zu Krieg und Frieden (Köln: Bachem Verlag, 1991), pp. 165ff. He also offers a very comprehensive list of secondary literature, pp. 188-213.
44. Vitoria, "American Indians", pp. 270f.
45. Vitoria, "American Indians", p. 278.
46. Vitoria, "American Indians", p. 278.
47. See, for instance, Ortega, "Vitoria", 109, who sees this as a possible reason. The letter is quoted in Scott, Spanish Origin, pp. 84f.
48. And in Vitoria, Relectio de indis o libertad de los indios. Ed. Luciano Pereña et al. (Madrid: Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Científicas, 1967), pp. 152f.
49. Letter to Miguel de Arcos, Political Writings, pp. 331-333.
50. See my Rights of Strangers, pp. 90-98 and 80-84 for more extensive analyses.
51. Keal, Conquest, p. 93, quoting Pagden and Muldoon.
52. Sankar Muthu, Enlightenment against Empire, Princeton University Press, Princeton and Oxford 2003, pp. 273-275;
53. Vitoria, "American Indians", pp. 250 and 290;
54. Anthony Pagden, The Fall of Natural Man: The American Indian and the Origins of Comparative Ethnology, 2nd edition, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge 1986, pp. 79-93.
55. Rosalyn Higgins, "International Law in the UN Period", in: Hedley Bull, Benedict Kingsbury, and Adam Roberts, eds., Hugo Grotius and International Relations, Clarendon Press, Oxford 1990, p. 278
56. and the quotation from B. V. A. Röling, "Jus ad Bellum and the Grotian Heritage", in Asser Instituut, International Law and the Grotian Heritage, T. M. C. Asser Instituut, The Hague 1985, p. 122.
57. See also by the same author "Are Grotius' Ideas Obsolete in an Expanded World?", in Bull/Kingsbury/Roberts, Grotius, pp. 281-299, especially 296.
58. Karl-Heinz Ziegler, "Die Bedeutung von Hugo Grotius für das Völkerrecht - Versuch einer Bilanz am Ende des 20. Jahrhunderts", in: Zeitschrift für historische Forschung Vol. 23 (1996), 355-371;
59. Norbert Konegen and Peer Nitschke, eds., Staat bei Hugo Grotius, Nomos, Baden-Baden 2005;
60. Christoph A. Stumpf, The Grotian Theology of International Law. Hugo Grotius and the Moral Foundations of International Relations, Walter de Gruyter, Berlin and New York 2006;
61. Elke Tiebler-Marenda, Einwanderung und Asyl bei Hugo Grotius, Duncker & Humblot, Berlin 2002;
62. Mühlegger F.Hugo Grotius: ein christlicher Humanist in politischer Verantwortung, 2007, de Gruyter, Berlin and New York.
63. Benedikt van Spyk, Vertragstheorie und Völkerrecht im Werk des Hugo Grotius, Kovac, Hamburg 2005. The critical group includes: Richard Tuck, The Rights of War and Peace. Political Thought and the International Order From Grotius to Kant, Oxford University Press, Oxford 1999;
64. Edward Keene, Beyond the Anarchical Society. Grotius, Colonialism and Order in World Politics, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge 2002;
65. Martine Julia van Ittersum, Profit and Principle. Hugo Grotius, Natural Rights Theories and the Rise of Dutch Power in the East Indies 1595-1615, Brill, Leiden and Boston 2006.
66. E.g. Hugo Grotius, De Jure Belli ac Pacis Libri Tres [1625; The Law of War and Peace], vol.II, trans. Francis W. Kelsey, Oxford: Clarendon Press 1925, 2.20.44.4, p. 509. I have also used the online-version edited by Richard Tuck, from the edition of Jean Barbeyrac, Liberty Fund, Indianapolis 2005.
67. Grotius, De Jure Belli, 2.20.48-49, pp. 516-518.
68. Hugo Grotius, Commentary on the Law of Prize and Booty [1603], transl. by Gwladys L. Williams, Clarendon Press, Oxford 1950; reprint New York: Oceana Publications, 1964, 12.97, pp. 221f.
69. See also ibid., 12.99, 12.103f., and 12.104, pp. 226, 236 and 238. I have also used the online-version edited by Martine Julia van Ittersum, Liberty Fund, Indianapolis 2006.
70. See also Tiebler-Marenda, Einwanderung, pp. 172 and 176. A brief introduction to the topic is Benedict Kingsbury and Adam Roberts, "Introduction", in Bull/Kingsbury/Roberts, Grotius, pp. 42-47 on "Grotius and the non-European world".
71. Grotius, Commentary, 13.128, accessed from .
72. See Tuck, Rights of War, pp. 92-94 and Keene, Anarchical Society, p. 110.
73. Grotius, Commentary, 12.98, p. 222. On the arguments of the European "theives" in general.
74. See ibid., 12.97-100, pp. 221-225.
75. and Jure Belli, 2.22, pp. 546-556 on the unjust causes of wars, especially 2.22.13, pp. 551f. on the Emperor's universal monarchy, and 2.22.14, pp. 553f. on the Papal donation. A reliable introduction into European thinking concerning the right to "civilize the barbarians" is James Muldoon, The Americas in the Spanish World Order. The Justification for Conquest in the Seventeenth Century, University of Pennsylvania Press, Philadelphia 1994, ch. 2, pp. 38-65
76. and Gerrit W. Gong, The Standard of "Civilization" in International Society, Clarendon Press, Oxford 1984.
77. Grotius, De Jure Belli, 2.22.12, p. 551.
78. Van Ittersum, Profit and Principle, pp. XIX-LXII.
79. Keene, Anarchical Society, p. 51, van Ittersum, Profit and Principle, p. XXII.
80. Tuck, Rights of War 79. Cf. Van Ittersum, Profit and Principle, p. 44, 483, 371-412, XXVIII and passim.
81. Grotius, De Jure Belli 1.3.7, p. 102.
82. My interpretation follows Tuck, Rights of War, pp. 81-95
83. and van Ittersum, Profit and Principle, pp. XXIII, 43-52 and 490.
84. See the interpretation in Bowden, "Colonial Origins", pp. 4-8.
85. Grotius, De Jure Belli, 2.20.40, p. 506.
86. See the passages quoted in Cavallar, Right of Strangers, pp. 128f.
87. Grotius, De Jure Belli, 2.2. 23, p. 205.
88. Grotius, De Jure Belli, 2.2. 23, p. 205. See the detailed reconstruction in Tiebler-Marenda, Einwanderung, pp. 163-184 and 200-206.
89. Grotius, De Jure Belli, 2.2.1, p. 187; 2.2.17, p. 202; 2.2.11., p. 196.
90. Cf. Thomas Flanagan, "The Agricultural Argument and Original Appropriation: Indian Lands and Political Philosophy", Canadian Journal of Political Science, 22 (1989), pp. 589-602.
91. Barbara Arneil, "John Locke, Natural Law and Colonialism", History of Political Thought, 13 (1992), pp. 588-594 holds that key elements of Locke's theory were anticipated by Grotius.
92. Grotius, De Jure Belli, 2.15.12., p. 403;
93. Mühlegger, Hugo Grotius, p. 502;
94. Grotius, De Jure Belli, 2.15.12., p. 403; Mühlegger, Hugo Grotius, p. 502; Christian Gellinek, "Staat und Völkerrecht bei Hugo Grotius", in: Konegen, Nitschke, Hugo Grotius, pp. 67-78, at 74.
95. Tuck, Rights of War, pp. 95 and 108;
96. van Ittersum, Profit and Principle, p. LXI;
97. Keene, Anarchical Society, pp. 3-6 and 97.
98. I participated in Grotian hagiography with my own Rights of Strangers, pp. 138-155. - Grotius's impact on subsequent international legal theory was tremendous.
99. Grotius's impact on subsequent international legal theory was tremendous. See David J. Bederman, "Reception of the classical tradition in international law: Grotius' De jure belli ac pacis", Emory International Law Review, 10 (1996), pp. 1-52;
100. Ernst Reibstein, "Deutsche Grotius-Kommentatoren bis zu Christian Wolff", Zeitschrift für ausländisches öffentliches Recht und Völkerrecht, 15 (1953), pp. 76-102;
101. Frank Grunert, "Vonder Morgenröte zum hellen Tag. Zur Rezeption Hugo Grotius' De iure belli ac pacis in der deutschen Frühaufklä rung", Zeitschrift für neuere Rechtsgeschichte, 25, no.3 (2003), pp. 204-221;
102. Randall Lesaffer, "The Grotian tradition revisited - change and continuity in the history of international law", British Yearbook of International Law, 73 (2002), pp. 103-139;
103. Michael Kempe, "Der Anfang eines Mythos. Zum grotianischen Natur- und Völkerrecht in der europäischen Aufklärung", in: Konegen, Nitschke, Hugo Grotius, pp. 139-157.
104. Richard Waswo, "The Formation of Natural Law to Justify Colonialism, 1539-1689", New Literary History, 27, no.4 (1996), pp. 754-756.
105. Samuel Pufendorf, The Law of Nature and Nations [1672], trans. C. H. Oldfather and W. A. Oldfather, Clarendon Press, Oxford 1934; reprint: Oceana Publications, New York 1964, 3.3.9, p. 364.
106. Recent literature on Pufendorf is listed in: Klaus Luig, "Samuel Pufendorf über Krieg und Frieden", in: Norbert Brieskorn and Markus Riedenauer, eds., Suche nach Frieden - Politische Ethik in der Frühen Neuzeit III, Stuttgart, Kohlhammer 2003, pp. 255-266.
107. A succinct and excellent introduction is Francis Cheneval, Philosophie in weltbürgerlicher Bedeutung. Über die Entstehung und die philosophischen Grundlagen des supranationalen und kosmopolitischen Denkens der Moderne, Schwabe, Basel 2002, pp. 270-286.
108. Pufendorf, Law of Nature, 3.3.9, p. 364.
109. See ibid., pp. 364f. for the following. There is a useful discussion of Pufendorf 's position and his criticism of Vitoria in Barbara Arneil, "John Locke, Natural Law and Colonialism", History of Political Thought, Vol.
110. Pufendorf, Law of Nature, 3.3.9, p. 364. See ibid., pp. 364f. for the following. There is a useful discussion of Pufendorf 's position and his criticism of Vitoria in Barbara Arneil, "John Locke, Natural Law and Colonialism", History of Political Thought, Vol.13, 1992, pp. 594-600. See also Keal, pp. 96-97.
111. See also Keal, pp. 96-97.
112. Pufendorf, Law of Nature, 4.6.4, pp. 571.
113. Cf. Tuck, Rights of War pp. 155-158.
114. Pufendorf, Law of Nature, 8.6.5, p. 1297, my emphasis.
115. See also Fisch, Expansion, pp. 250f.
116. Pufendorf, Law of Nature, 3.2.8, pp. 340-344.
117. Christian Wolff, Ius gentium methodo scientifica pertractatum (1749), in James Brown Scott, ed., The Classics of International Law vol. 13, Oceana Publications, New York 1964, paras. 52-56, pp. 33-36.
118. Bowden, "Origins", p. 15. - See Gerhard Biller, "Wolff nach Kant. Eine Bibliographie", in: Christian Wolff, Gesammelte Werke, III. Abt. Materialien und Dokumente 87, Hildesheim/ Zürich/New York, Olms 2004, pages and Hans-Martin Gerlach, ed., Christian Wolff - seine Schule und seine Gegner, Meiner, Hamburg 2001 on Wolff's philosophy in general.
119. Wolff, Ius gentium, paras. 75 note, p. 44; 187 note, p. 98.
120. Para. 209, p. 109.
121. Paras. 261, p. 133; 297, p. 150;
122. Wolff, Institutiones, paras. 1131f., pp. 705f; 1122, p. 699.
123. Wolff, Institutiones, paras. 1131f., pp. 705f; 1122, p. 699. See Fisch, Expansion, pp. 270-275 for Wolff's rejection of exclusive European rights, and especially pp. 271f. on religion.
124. Wolff, Ius gentium, para. 263, p. 135.
125. Para. 309, p. 157.
126. Para. 312, p. 159.
127. Paras. 309, p. 157, 310, pp. 157f., 312, p. 159; paras. 85f., pp. 50f., 282, p. 144. 67) Para. 313, p. 159.
128. paras. 85f., pp. 50f., 282, p. 144.
129. Para. 313, p. 159.
130. Para. 313 note, p. 159f.
131. Cheneval, pp. 132f. and 188-190;
132. Nicholas Greenwood Onuf, The republican legacy in international thought, Cambridge University Press Cambridge 1998, pp. 60-70,
133. And my own "The law of nations in the Age of Enlightenment: moral and legal principles", Annual Review of Law and Ethics 12 (2004), pp. 213-229.
134. Cheneval, pp. 179f.
135. Cheneval, pp. 135, 138 und 162;
136. Wolff, para 20, p. 17.
137. Muthu, pp. 71f., 122f. and 268-273.
138. Barbara Arneil, John Locke and America. The Defence of English Colonialism, Oxford, Clarendon Press 1996, p. 2; cf. pp. 206-207;
139. Arneil, John Locke, pp. 587-603;
140. David Armitage, "John Locke, Carolina, and the Two Treaties of Government", Political Theory, Vol.32, No.5 (2004), pp. 602-627;
141. Keal, Conquest, pp. 98-100 and the references in Rights of Strangers, p. 261. - On Vattel in general see Emmanuelle Jouannet, Emer de Vattel et l'émergence doctrinale du droit international classique, Pédone, Paris 1998, Stéphane Beaulac, The Power of Language in the Making of International Law. The word Sovereignty in Bodin and Vattel and the Myth of Westphalia, Martinus Nijhoff Publishers, Leiden, Boston 2004, and, most recently, Karl- Heinz Ziegler, "Emer de Vattel und die Entwicklung des Völkerrechts im 18. Jahrhundert", in: Markus Kremer und Hans-Richard Reuter, eds., Macht und Moral - Politisches Denken im 17. und 18. Jahrhundert, Kohlhammer, Stuttgart 2007, pp. 321-341. Both publications provide more secondary literature.
142. Emer de Vattel, The Law of Nations or the Principles of Natural Law (1758), tr. by Charles G. Fenwick, in James Brown Scott, ed., The Classics of International Law, Carnegie Institution, Washington 1916, 1.18.208, p. 85; cf. 207, p. 84: "provided that actual possession has followed shortly after". See Grewe, Epochen, pp. 466-470 for an analysis.
143. See Grewe, Epochen, pp. 466-470 for an analysis.
144. Vattel, Law of Nations, 1.18.208, p. 85; 1.18.209, pp. 85f.
145. cf. Fisch, Expansion, pp. 275f.
146. Vattel, Law of Nations, 1.7.81, pp. 37f.; 2.7.97, p. 143; 2.7.97, p. 143;
147. cf. Fisch, Expansion, pp. 276f.
148. Vattel, Law of Nations, 1.7.81, pp. 37f.; 1.18.209, p. 85.
149. Thomas Flanagan, "The Agricultural Argument and Original Appropriation: Indian Lands and Political Philosophy", Canadian Journal of Political Science, 22 (1989), pp. 589-602, pp. 595f.
150. Vattel, Law of Nations, 1.7.81, p. 38.
151. Peter Pavel Remec, The Position of the Individual in International Law According to Grotius and Vattel, Martinus Nijhoff, The Hague 1960, p. 189.
152. Bowden, "Origins", p. 23; Muthu, 260-266 on the myth of the Enlightenment project".
153. Anghie, pp. 9, 30f., and 8;
154. Bowden, "Origin", pp. 14-18.
155. P. G. Mc Hugh, Aboriginal Societies and the Common Law. A History of Sovereignty, Status, and Self-Determination, Oxford University Press, Oxford 2004, Ken MacMillan, Sovereignty and Possession in the English New World. The Legal Foundations of Empire, 1576-1640, Fisch, "Law", pp. 15f., the quotation at p. 33.
156. Fisch, "Law", pp. 16, 36-38.
157. Bernhard Hellig, Chinas Aubenpolitik am Vorabend des " Opiumkrieges" (1839-1842), Dissertation Tübingen 1987 and Heinz Duchhardt, Balance of Power und Pentarchie. Internationale Beziehungen 1700-1785, Schöningh, Paderborn et al.: 1997, pp. 227-232.