China and international harmony: The role of Confucius Institutes in Bolstering Beijing's soft power

Asian Survey

Volumn 49, Issue 4, 2009, Pages 647-669

  Paradise, James F ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA   (United States)

Author keywords

Chinese language; Confucius Institute; Hanban; Soft power

Indexed keywords

CULTURAL GEOGRAPHY; CULTURAL INFLUENCE; CULTURAL LANDSCAPE; CULTURAL RELATIONS; EDUCATIONAL DEVELOPMENT; INSTITUTIONAL FRAMEWORK; LANGUAGE;

ASIA; CHINA; EURASIA; FAR EAST;

EQUIDAE;

EID: 69749102260     PISSN: 00044687     EISSN: 1533838X     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1525/as.2009.49.4.647     Document Type: Article

References (92)

1. The latter expression is currently more in vogue. See Bonnie S. Glaser and Evan S. Medeiros, "The Changing Ecology of Foreign-Policy Making in China: The Ascension and Demise of the Theory of 'Peaceful Rise'," China Quarterly 190 (June 2007), pp. 291-310.
2. These other measures include inviting foreign countries to observe a People's Liberation Army (PLA) drill as happened during "Warrior 2007" in September 2007. The joint military exercises have been with a number of countries including Russia, India, and France. Exercises of this type could have a confidence-building effect or they could heighten concern as might have been the case in the United States when China and Russia teamed up in August 2007 to carry out joint drills. Chinese naval ships have been to a number of overseas locations, including Pearl Harbor, Guam, Singapore, and India. In November 2007, a PLA ship visited a Japanese port for the first time ever.
3. White papers have dealt with many topics such as China's political party system, food safety, national defense, space activities, and environmental protection.
4. This information is on the Hanban website, at .
5. Office of the Chinese Language Council International, "Introduction to the 'Confucius Institute' Project," , accessed March 5, 2007.
6. An example is the North American tour of the hugely popular Zhou Huajian, also known as Wakin Chau, that kicked off at the Galen Center at the University of Southern California on November 9, 2007, and also included concerts in Vancouver, British Columbia, and in San Francisco. Although Zhou was born in Hong Kong, it hardly matters as people often misidentify where singers are from, and China is still able to reap cultural dividends.
7. See James F. Paradise, "Impressions of the Contemporary Chinese Art Scene," Asia Pacific Arts, October 19, 2007, .
8. According to Meiqin Wang, assistant professor of Art History at California State University, Northridge, the Chinese government's attitude toward contemporary art is lukewarm because it is difficult to control and open to different interpretations. However, there has been some support, e.g., at art shows in Europe, as the Chinese government has attempted to bring such art under its regulation and make it more official, she said in a talk at the University of California, Los Angeles, April 2008.
9. CMM Intelligence, 2007 China Media Yearbook & Directory (Hong Kong: CMM Intelligence [HK], Ltd., 2007), p. 25.
10. Ibid., p. 24.
11. The exhibition was the result of "years of diplomacy" and efforts by China and Britain to improve cultural relations. An agreement paving the way for the exhibition was signed at the Great Hall of the People in Beijing and witnessed by Chinese Premier Wen Jiabao and former British Prime Minister Tony Blair who had previously agreed to collaboration between the British Museum and Chinese institutions. The opening ceremony of the exhibition was attended by Chen Kuiyuan, vice chairman of the Chinese People's Political Consultative Conference, and British Prime Minister Gordon Brown. According to a statement from the Chinese Embassy in the United Kingdom, "Prime Minister Brown expressed his thanks to Chen Kuiyuan and Fu Ying for attending the ceremony and to the Chinese government and relevant departments of the two sides for their endeavors in the preparation of the exhibition." See "Exhibition of First Emperor: China's Terracotta Army Was Formally Launched in the British Museum," from the Embassy of the People's Republic of China in the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland, September 4, 2007,
12. "Terracotta Diplomacy," Guardian, September 15, 2007,
13. Rachel Campbell-Johnston, "Terracotta Army Conquers British Museum," Times (London), September 11, 2007,
14. and Simon Baker, "Exhibition Marks Cultural Watershed," AOL News, .
15. See Joshua Kurlantzick, Charm Offensive: How China's Soft Power Is Transforming the World (New Haven, Conn.: Yale University Press, 2007).
16. Among the articles that have appeared are the following: Purnendra Jain and Gerry Groot, "Beijing's 'Soft Power' Offensive," Asia Times Online, May 17, 2006,
17. Esther Pan, "China's Soft Power Initiative," Council on Foreign Relations, May 18, 2006,
18. Gideon Rachmen, "The Hard Evidence That China's Soft Power Is Working," Financial Times, February 20, 2007
19. and Howard W. French, "Another Chinese Export Is All the Rage: China's Language," NYTimes.com, January 11, 2006, .
20. Three examples are Avery Goldstein, Rising to the Challenge: China's Grand Strategy and International Security (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 2005)
21. Bates Gill, Rising Star: China's New Security Diplomacy (Washington, D.C.: Brookings Institution Press, 2007)
22. and Sujian Guo, ed., China's 'Peaceful Rise' in the 21st Century: Domestic and International Conditions (Aldershot: Ashgate Publishing, Ltd., 2006).
23. These reasons are given by David Shambaugh, "The Rise of China and Asia's New Dynamics," in David Shambaugh, ed., Power Shift: China and Asia's New Dynamics (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2005), p. 2.
24. The information in this paragraph comes from Hanban's website. See , accessed November 17, 2007
25. and , accessed November 17, 2007.
26. Interview with Hanban program director, Beijing, China, September 24, 2007.
27. Ibid. When asked about the nature of cooperation in Thailand, the Hanban director said, in an email of November 20, 2007, that it involved the Confucius Institute, connecting business leaders from two sides, which organized a meeting.
28. Ibid.
29. Ibid.
30. Ibid.
31. The director of a Confucius Institute in the U.S. told me, concerning the genesis of his institute, that he was approached by a Chinese university, and that "various Chinese have been given the initiative to go out."
32. The desire to upgrade scientific research and institutional capacity was formalized in a program called Project 211. As one organization summarized the project's goals for the government's Ninth Five-Year Plan of 1996-2000, "Top priority will be given to the strengthening of universities to help them approach and reach advanced international standards for the overall quality of teaching, scientific research, and the training of professional manpower, so as to establish their international prestige and position among universities in the world." See China Education and Research Network, "Project 211: A Brief Introduction (II)," at , accessed April 20, 2008. The project can be construed as another way in which educational globalization is proceeding.
33. Other emphases are distance learning at the Confucius Institute at Michigan State University and theory and pedagogy at the Confucius Institute at the University of Iowa. The Radio Confucius Classroom in Nairobi offers instruction over the radio.
34. Comment by a U.S. university administrator in an interview, September 5, 2007.
35. Based on a list supplied to me by Hanban. See Appendix 1 for a list of the institutes.
36. "Chinese Education Minister Vows to Maintain Sound Development of Confucius Institute," Xinhua, December 12, 2007, , accessed January 27, 2008.
37. Ibid.
38. See the Office of Chinese Language Council International, "Chinese Language and Culture Initiative," at , accessed November 15, 2007. The College Board is an organization involved in assessing students for college admissions through examinations such as the SAT. It also runs the Advanced Placement program for high schools.
39. College Board, "Chinese Guest Teacher Program Helps Thousands of U.S. Students," August 13, 2007, , accessed October 14, 2007.
40. Ibid., "Destination China: 800 U.S. Education Leaders Tour China," June 18, 2007, , accessed October 14, 2007.
41. The Office of Chinese Language Council International, "Chinese Language and Culture Initiative," , accessed November 15, 2007.
42. College Board, "Chinese Officials and College Board Announce Advanced Placement Course in Chinese Language and Culture," December 5, 2003, , accessed October 14, 2007.
43. See "International Training Courses for Chinese Language Teaching and Teachers Held in Shanghai," November 12, 2007
44. idem
45. "Summer Camp for Foreign Students," January 10, 2007
46. and idem
47. "Chinese Bridge Fund," all on the website of the Office of Chinese Language Council International, .
48. See Hanban website, .
49. There are different ways to define "hard power" and "soft power." A more limited definition of hard power would restrict the term to activities in the military sphere, giving a broader province to soft power activities. According to Kurlantzik, "When the Chinese government talks about its new soft power in the world, it means all power outside the military sphere, including diplomacy, aid, investment, and economic tools." See his book talk-related essay, "Charm Offensive: How China's Soft Power Is Transforming the World," Foreign Policy Research Institute, August 2007,
50. and similar comments in his publication, "China's Charm: Implications of Chinese Soft Power," Carnegie Endowment for International Peace, policy brief (June 2006). In my view, the key issue is how a resource is used. If an economic asset such as a trade surplus is used to promote a military buildup then it would be a hard power tool; but if it is used to build bridges in a country as part of an economic aid program, then it would be a soft power tool.
51. Susan Shirk makes an argument of this type in her book, China: Fragile Superpower (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2007), pp. 73-74.
52. Gill, Rising Star, p. 203.
53. Ibid.
54. Goldstein, Rising to the Challenge, p. 175.
55. Joseph S. Nye, Jr., Soft Power: The Means to Success in World Politics (New York: Public Affairs, 2004), p. x.
56. Interview with a chinese university administrator, Shanghai, China, September 13, 2007.
57. Ibid.
58. Hanban interview.
59. Wan Lixin, "The U.S. Is Told Hard Facts about Soft Power with a 'Chinese Touch'," Shanghai Daily, September 13, 2007.
60. Ibid.
61. Ibid.
62. "Hu Jintao Calls for Enhancing 'Soft Power' of Chinese Culture," Xinhua, October 15, 2007, , accessed October 14, 2007.
63. "China's Top Advisory Body Holds Seminar of 'Soft Power'," ibid., July 25, 2007, , accessed November 1, 2007.
64. "China, Africa Boost Soft Power through Cultural Exchanges," ibid., June 18, 2006, , accessed November 1, 2007.
65. "Cultural Exchange Boost 'Soft Power' for SCO Development," ibid., June 13, 2006, , accessed November 1, 2007.
66. In December 2007, a new governing council was created for the Confucius Institute headquarters in Beijing. Chaired by Chen Zhili, Chinese state councilor, the council also had five vice-chairmen from two Chinese ministries and the State Council; 12 executive directors from a variety of Chinese ministries, government organizations or departments; and 15 councilmen, including 10 from overseas Confucius Institutes. The council agreed to a number of changes to the constitution and by-laws, two of which were to set up a consultative committee and to employ Chinese and foreigners as senior advisors. The wording of a number of articles or by-laws found at the Office of Chinese Language Council International, "Constitution and By-Laws of the Confucius Institutes (Provisional Version)," , accessed April 17, 2008, can also be seen to have changed from an earlier version accessed November 19, 2007. In that version, the constitution and by-laws state that the Confucius Institutes "shall not contravene the laws and regulations of China" and "shall not involve or participate in any political, religious, ethnic/racial, or any such related activities" that the headquarters in Beijing "is the highest regulatory body of the Confucius Institutes worldwide" that the chair, vice chair, and executive council members will be "appointed by the Chinese government" and that a responsibility of the headquarters is to select and appoint "deans and faculties for the Chinese partners." The conclusion to be drawn from the changes seems clear - some articles in the new constitution and by-laws have been considerably watered-down from the earlier version, possibly in response to foreign concerns.
67. The Office of Chinese Language Council International, "Constitution and By-Laws of the Confucius Institutes (Provisional Version)." Simplified characters are used in Mainland China; in some other places, such as Hong Kong and Taiwan, they are not typically used, or are not the norm.
68. Ibid.
69. Ibid.
70. Ibid.
71. The Office of Chinese Language Council International, "Standard Model for Confucius Institutes," , accessed September 5, 2007.
72. Ibid.
73. Two telephone interviews I conducted on November 30, 2007, suggest there is flexibility. In one interview, the director of a U.S. Confucius Institute said she believed her institute was "not regulated to strictly use Hanban materials" and that doing so was only a "suggestion." "Teachers decide themselves the materials most suitable for the classroom and in the best interests of the students," she said. In another interview, a person highly knowledgeable about another U.S. Confucius Institute said that she doubted Hanban would force Confucius Institutes to use their teaching materials. "I think Hanban is very flexible. Of course, they would like us to use their materials, but they are not very strict about it." She said she did not like most Hanban materials, including the textbooks, and that there was a lack of understanding of what was needed locally.
74. I heard this comment at an Asian studies conference in the United States in 2007.
75. Carol Huang, "Why China Wants You to Learn Chinese," Christian Science Monitor, January 4, 2007, , accessed November 14, 2007.
76. Hanban interview.
77. This is an approach used by Nye in attempting to measure U.S. soft power. See his Soft Power (2004).
78. Program on International Policy Attitudes (PIPA), "Views of Countries, Questionnaire, and Methodology, March 2007," March 2007. PIPA, at the University of Maryland, carried out the poll for the BBC World Service with GlobeScan, an international polling company.
79. See , accessed November 13, 2007.
80. PIPA, "BBC World Service Poll: Global Views of Countries, Questionnaire, and Methodology." This survey, without China, covered 32 countries.
81. See , accessed November 17, 2007.
82. PIPA, "22-Nation Poll Shows China Viewed Positively by Most Countries Including Its Asian Neighbors," , accessed November 13, 2007.
83. World Public Opinion.org, "Global Poll Finds Iran Viewed Negatively," , accessed November 17, 2007.
84. Ibid.,
85. "Israel and Iran Share Most Negative Ratings in Global Poll," , accessed November 13, 2007. The comment is by Steven Kull, director of PIPA.
86. Pew Global Attitudes Project, "Global Unease with Major World Powers," released June 27, 2007, , accessed November 15, 2007. The 15 countries in the 2007 poll were those for which comparisons could be made with countries in a 2005 poll.
87. Ibid.
88. Nye, Soft Power, pp. 11-15.
89. See also James F. Paradise, "Can China's Soft Power Offensive Succeed?" AsiaMedia, March 5, 2007, .
90. This characterization of China - attributed to a China scholar in the United States - was relayed to me by Robert Adanto, director of an interesting documentary on the contemporary Chinese art scene entitled "Rising Tide." For a rare recent look at China's public diplomacy, see Ingrid d'Hooghe, "Public Diplomacy in the People's Republic of China," in Jan Melissen, The New Public Diplomacy: Soft Power in International Relations (Houndmills, Basingstoke, U.K.: Palgrave Macmillan, 2005), pp. 88-105. This paragraph has benefited from a conversation with an Asian studies scholar.
91. See, for example, the BBC World Service polls.
92. The amount of money provided to each Confucius Institute varies, according to the Hanban program director in an email of January 11, 2008. Funding decisions are made after the working plans and budgets of individual Confucius Institutes are submitted to Hanban.