Shear wave anisotropy beneath Nicaragua and Costa Rica: Implications for flow in the mantle wedge

Geochemistry, Geophysics, Geosystems

Volumn 10, Issue 5, 2009, Pages

  Abt, David L ^a   Fischer, Karen M ^a   Abers, Geoffrey A ^b,c   Strauch, Wilfried ^d   Protti, J Marino ^e   González, Victor ^e  

^a BROWN UNIVERSITY   (United States)

^b BOSTON UNIVERSITY   (United States)

^c Department of Earth and Environmental Sciences   (United States)

^d Instituto Nicaraguense de Estudios Territoriales   (Nicaragua)

^e UNIVERSIDAD NACIONAL   (Costa Rica)

Author keywords

Anisotropy; Central America; Shear wave splitting; Subduction; Tomography

Indexed keywords

EID: 69249242629     PISSN: 15252027     EISSN: 15252027     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1029/2009GC002375     Document Type: Article

References (100)

1. Abers, G. A. (2005), Seismic low-velocity layer at the top of subducting slabs: Observations, predictions, and systematics, Phys. Earth Planet. Inter., 149, 7-29, doi:10.1016/j.pepi. 2004.10.002.
2. Abers, G. A., T. Plank, and B. R. Hacker (2003), The wet Nicaraguan slab, Geophys. Res. Lett., 30(2), 1098, doi:10.1029/2002GL015649.
3. Abers, G. A., P. E. van Keken, E. A. Kneller, A. Ferris, and J. C. Stachnik (2006), The thermal structure of subduction zones constrained by seismic imaging: Implications for slab dehydration and wedge flow, Earth Planet. Sci. Lett., 241, 387-397, doi:10.1016/j.epsl.2005.11.055. (Pubitemid 43092534)
4. Abramson, E. H., J. M. Brown, L. J. Slutsky, and J. Zaug (1997), The elastic constants of San Carlos olivine to 17 GPa, J. Geophys. Res., 102, 12,253-12,263, doi:10.1029/ 97JB00682.
5. Abratis, M., and G. Wörner (2001), Ridge collision, slab-window formation, and the flux of Pacific asthenosphere in the Caribbean realm, Geology, 29, 127-130, doi:10.1130/0091-7613(2001)029<0127:RCSWFA>2.0.CO;2.
6. Abt, D. L., and K. M. Fischer (2008), Resolving three-dimensional anisotropic structure with shear-wave splitting tomography, Geophys. J. Int., 173, 859-886, doi:10.1111/j.1365-246X.2008.03757.x.
7. Alvarado, G. E., et al. (2007), Central America: Geology, Resources, andHazards, edited by J. Bundschuh and G. Alvarado, pp. 345-394, Taylor and Francis, Leiden, Netherlands.
8. Anderson, M. L., G. Zandt, E. Triep, M. Fouch, and S. Beck (2004), Anisotropy and mantle flow in the Chile-Argentina subduction zone from shear wave splitting analysis, Geophys. Res. Lett., 31, L23608, doi:10.1029/ 2004GL020906. (Pubitemid 40482459)
9. Anderson, O. L., and D. G. Isaak (1995), Elastic constants of mantle minerals at high temperature, in Mineral Physics and Crystallography: A Handbook of Physical Constants, edited by T. J. Ahrens, pp. 64-97, AGU, Washington, D. C.
10. Anglin, D. K., and M. J. Fouch (2005), Seismic anisotropy in the Izu-Bonin subduction system, Geophys. Res. Lett., 32, L09307, doi:10.1029/2005GL022714. (Pubitemid 40875813)
11. Arcay, D., E. Tric, and M.-P. Doin (2007), Slab surface temperature in subduction zones: Influence of interpolate decoupling depth and upper plate thinning processes, Earth Planet. Sci. Lett., 255, 324-338, doi:10.1016/j.epsl. 2006.12.027. (Pubitemid 46323330)
12. Audoine, E., M. K. Savage, and K. Gledhill (2004), Anisotropic structure under a back arc spreading region, the Taupo Volcanic Zone, New Zealand, J. Geophys. Res., 109, B11305, doi:10.1029/2003JB002932. (Pubitemid 40294843)
13. Babuska, V., and M. Cara (1991), Seismic Anisotropy in the Earth, 217 pp., Kluwer, Dordrecht, Netherlands.
14. Barckhausen, U., C. R. Ranero, R. von Huene, S. C. Cande, and H. A. Roeser (2001), Revised tectonic boundaries in the Cocos Plate off Costa Rica: Implications for the segmentation of the convergent margin and for plate tectonic models, J. Geophys. Res., 106, 19,207-19,220, doi:10.1029/ 2001JB000238.
15. Behn, M. D., G. Hirth, and P. B. Kelemen (2007), Trenchparallel anisotropy produced by foundering of arc lower crust, Science, 317, 108-111, doi:10.1126/science.1141269. (Pubitemid 47056465)
16. Blackman, D. K., and J.-M. Kendall (2002), Seismic anisotropy in the upper mantle: 2. Predictions for current plate boundary flow models, Geochem. Geophys. Geosyst., 3(9), 8602, doi:10.1029/2001GC000247.
17. Bostock, M. G., R. D. Hyndman, S. Rondenay, and S. M. Peacock (2002), An inverted continental Moho and serpentinization of the forearc mantle, Nature, 417, 536-538, doi:10.1038/417536a. (Pubitemid 34595917)
18. Buttles, J., and P. Olsen (1998), A laboratory model of subduction zone anisotropy, Earth Planet. Sci. Lett., 164, 245-262, doi:10.1016/S0012-821X(98) 00211-8. (Pubitemid 29298345)
19. Bystricky, M., K. Kunze, L. Burlini, and J.-P. Burg (2000), High shear strain of olivine aggregates: Rheological and seismic consequences, Science, 290, 1564-1567, doi:10.1126/science.290.5496.1564.
20. Cagnioncle, A. M., E. M. Parmentier, and L. T. Elkins-Tanton (2007), Effect of solid flow above a subducting slab on water distribution and melting at convergent plate boundaries, J. Geophys. Res., 112, B09402, doi:10.1029/ 2007JB004934.
21. Carr, M. J., M. D. Feigenson, L. C. Patino, and J. A. Walker (2003), Volcanism and geochemistry in Central America: Progress and problems, in Inside the Subduction Factory, Geophysical Monogr. Ser., vol. 138, edited by J. Eiler, pp. 153-174, AGU, Washington, D. C.
22. Christensen, D. H., G. A. Abers, and T. L. McKnight (2003), Mantle anisotropy beneath the Alaska Range inferred from S-wave splitting observations: Results from BEAAR, Eos Trans. AGU, 84(46), Fall Meet. Suppl., Abstract S31C-0782.
23. Conder, J. A., and D. A. Wiens (2007), Rapid mantle flow beneath the Tonga volcanic arc, Earth Planet. Sci. Lett., 264, 299-307, doi:10.1016/j.epsl. 2007.10.014. (Pubitemid 350082141)
24. Conrad, C. P., and C. Lithgow-Bertelloni (2004), The temporal evolution of plate driving forces: Importance of "slab suction" versus "slab pull" during the Cenozoic, J. Geophys. Res., 109, B10407, doi:10.1029/2004JB002991. (Pubitemid 40098511)
25. DeMets, C. (2001), A new estimate for present-day Cocos-Caribbean plate motion: Implications for slip along the Central American volcanic arc, Geophys. Res. Lett., 28, 4043-4046, doi:10.1029/2001GL013518. (Pubitemid 33122445)
26. DeShon, H. R., and S. Y. Schwartz (2004), Evidence for serpentinization of the forearc mantle wedge along the Nicoya Peninsula, Costa Rica, Geophys. Res. Lett., 31, L21611, doi:10.1029/2004GL021179. (Pubitemid 40190972)
27. Elming, S. A., and T. Rasmussen (1997), Results of magnetotelluric and gravimetric measurements in western Nicaragua, Central America, Geophys. J. Int., 128, 647-658, doi:10.1111/j.1365-246X.1997.tb05326.x.
28. Faccenda, M., L. Burlini, T. V. Gerya, and D. Mainprice (2008), Fault-induced seismic anisotropy by hydration in subducting oceanic plates, Nature, 455, 1097-1101, doi:10.1038/nature07376.
29. Feigenson, M. D., M. J. Carr, S. V. Maharaj, S. Juliano, and L. L. Bolge (2004), Lead isotope composition of Central American volcanoes: Influence of the Galapagos plume, Geochem. Geophys. Geosyst., 5, Q06001, doi:10.1029/ 2003GC000621.
30. Fischer, K. M., E. M. Parmentier, A. R. Stein, and E. R. Wolf (2000), Modeling anisotropy and plate-driven flow in the Tonga subduction zone back arc, J. Geophys. Res., 105, 16,181-16,191, doi:10.1029/1999JB900441.
31. Frisillo, A. L., and G. R. Barsch (1972), Measurement of single-crystal elastic constants of bronzite as a function of pressure and temperature, J. Geophys. Res., 77, 6360-6384, doi:10.1029/JB077i032p06360.
32. Funiciello, F., M. Moroni, C. Pimomallo, C. Faccenna, A. Cenedese, and H. A. Bui (2006), Mapping mantle flow during retreating subduction: Laboratory models analyzed by feature tracking, J. Geophys. Res., 111, B03402, doi:10.1029/2005JB003792. (Pubitemid 43670753)
33. Goss, A. R., and S. M. Kay (2006), Steep REE patterns and enriched Pb isotopes in southern Central American arc magmas: Evidence for forearc subduction erosion?, Geochem. Geophys. Geosyst., 7, Q05016, doi:10.1029/ 2005GC001163.
34. Hall, C. E., K.M. Fischer, E. M. Parmentier, and D. K. Blackman (2000), The influence of plate motions on three-dimensional back-arc mantle flow and shear-wave splitting, J. Geophys. Res., 105, 28,009-28,033, doi:10.1029/ 2000JB900297.
35. Hall, P. S., and C. Kincaid (2001), Diapiric flow at subduction zones: A recipe for rapid transport, Science, 292, 2472-2475, doi:10.1126/science. 1060488. (Pubitemid 32601656)
36. Herrstrom, E. A., M. K. Reagan, and J. D. Morris (1995), Variations in lava composition associated with flow of asthenosphere beneath southern Central America, Geology, 23, 617-620, doi:10.1130/0091-7613(1995)023<0617: VILCAW>2.3.CO;2.
37. Hoernle, K. (2008), Arc-parallel flow in the mantle wedge beneath Costa Rica and Nicaragua, Nature, 451, 1094-1098, doi:10.1038/nature06550. (Pubitemid 351317442)
38. Holtzman, B. K., D. L. Kohlstedt, M. E. Zimmerman, F. Heidelbach, T. Hiraga, and J. Hustoft (2003), Melt segregation and strain partitioning: Implications for seismic anisotropy and mantle flow, Science, 301, 1227-1230, doi:10.1126/ science.1087132.
39. Huang, B.-S., W.-G. Huang, W.-T. Liang, R.-J. Rau, and N. Hirata (2006), Anisotropy beneath an active collision orogen of Taiwan: Results from across islands array observations, Geophys. Res. Lett., 33, L24302, doi:10.1029/ 2006GL027844.
40. Hung, S.-H., and D. W. Forsyth (1998), Modeling anisotropic wave propagation in oceanic inhomogeneous structures using the parallel multi-domain pseudo spectral method, J. Geophys. Res., 133, 726-740.
41. Husen, S., R. Quintero, E. Kissling, and B. Hacker (2003), Subduction-zone structure and magmatic processes beneath Costa Rica constrained by local earthquake tomography and petrological modeling, Geophys. J. Int., 155, 11-32, doi:10.1046/j.1365-246X.2003.01984.x. (Pubitemid 37293455)
42. Hyndman, R. D., and S. M. Peacock (2003), Serpentinization of the forearc mantle, Earth Planet. Sci. Lett., 212, 417-432, doi:10.1016/S0012-821X(03) 00263-2. (Pubitemid 36915147)
43. Iinuma, T., M. Protti, K. Obana, V. Gonzalez, R. Van Der Laat, T. Kato, S. Miyazaki, Y. Kaneda, and E. Hernandez (2004), Inter-plate coupling in the Nicoya Peninsula, Costa Rica, as deduced from a trans-peninsula GPS experiment, Earth and Planet. Sci. Lett., 223, 203-212.
44. Ismaïl, W. B., and D. Mainprice (1998), An olivine fabric database: An overview of upper mantle fabrics and anisotropy, Tectonophysics, 296, 145-157, doi:10.1016/S0040-1951(98)00141-3. (Pubitemid 29092252)
45. Jung, H., and S. Karato (2001), Water-induced fabric transitions in olivine, Science, 293, 1460-1463, doi:10.1126/ science.1062235.
46. Jung, H., I. Katayama, Z. Jiang, T. Hiraga, and S. Karato (2006), Effect of water and stress on the lattice-preferred orientation of olivine, Tectonophysics, 421, 1-22, doi:10.1016/j.tecto.2006.02.011. (Pubitemid 43986291)
47. Katayama, I., and S. Karato (2006), Effect of temperature on the B- to C-type olivine fabric transition and implication for flow pattern in subduction zones, Phys. Earth Planet. Inter., 157, 33-45, doi:10.1016/j.pepi.2006.03.005. (Pubitemid 44028655)
48. Kincaid, C., and R. W. Griffiths (2003), Laboratory models of the thermal evolution of the mantle during rollback subduction, Nature, 425, 58-62, doi:10.1038/nature01923. (Pubitemid 37101714)
49. Kincaid, C., and R. W. Griffiths (2004), Variability in flow and temperatures within mantle subduction zones, Geochem. Geophys. Geosyst., 5, Q06002, doi:10.1029/2003GC000666.
50. Kincaid, C., and P. S. Hall (2003), Role of back arc spreading in circulation and melting at subduction zones, J. Geophys. Res., 108(B5), 2240, doi:10.1029/2001JB001174.
51. Kneller, E. A., and P. E. van Keken (2007), Trench-parallel flow and seismic anisotropy in the Mariana and Andean subduction systems Nature, 450, 1222-1225, doi:10.1038/ nature06429.
52. Kneller, E. A., and P. E. van Keken (2008), Effect of threedimensional slab geometry on deformation in the mantle wedge: Implications for shear wave anisotropy, Geochem. Geophys. Geosyst., 9, Q01003, doi:10.1029/2007GC001677.
53. Kneller, E. A., P. E. van Keken, S. Karato, and J. Park (2005), B-type olivine fabric in the mantle wedge: Insights from high-resolution non-Newtonian subduction zone models, Earth Planet. Sci. Lett., 237, 781-797, doi:10.1016/ j.epsl.2005.06.049.
54. Kneller, E. A., P. E. van Keken, I. Katayama, and S. Karato (2007), Stress, strain, and B-type olivine fabric in the forearc mantle: Sensitivity tests using high-resolution steadystate subduction zone models, J. Geophys. Res., 112, B04406, doi:10.1029/2006JB004544. (Pubitemid 46930539)
55. Lallemand, S., A. Heuret, C. Faccenna, and F. Funiciello (2008), Subduction dynamics as revealed by trench migration, Tectonics, 27, TC3014, doi:10.1029/2007TC002212.
56. Lassak, T. M., M. J. Fouch, C. E. Hall, and E. Kaminiski (2006), Seismic characterization of mantle flow in subduction systems: Can we resolve a hydrated mantle wedge?, Earth Planet. Sci. Lett., 243, 632-649, doi:10.1016/j.epsl. 2006.01.022.
57. Levin, V., D. Droznin, J. Park, and E. Gordeev (2004), Detailed mapping of seismic anisotropy with local shear waves in southeastern Kamchatka, Geophys. J. Int., 158, 1009-1023, doi:10.1111/j.1365-246X.2004.02352.x. (Pubitemid 39300533)
58. Long, M. D., and P. G. Silver (2008), The subduction zone flow field from seismic anisotropy: A global view, Science, 319, 315-318, doi:10.1126/science. 1150809.
59. Long, M. D., and R. D. van der Hilst (2005), Upper mantle anisotropy beneath Japan from shear wave splitting, Phys. Earth Planet. Inter., 151, 206-222, doi:10.1016/j.pepi. 2005.03.003.
60. Long, M. D., and R. D. van der Hilst (2006), Shear wave splitting from local events beneath the Ryukyu arc: Trench parallel anisotropy in the mantle wedge, Phys. Earth Planet. Inter., 155, 300-312, doi:10.1016/j.pepi.2006.01.003.
61. Lowman, J. P., L. T. Pinero-Feliciangeli, J.-M. Kendall, and M. H. Shahnas (2007), Influence of convergent plate boundaries on upper mantle flow and implications for seismic anisotropy, Geochem. Geophys. Geosyst., 8, Q08007, doi:10.1029/ 2007GC001627.
62. Lundgren, P., M. J. Protti, A. Donnellan, M. Heflin, E. Hernandez, and D. Jefferson (1999), Seismic cycle and plate margin deformation in Costa Rica: GPS observations from 1994 to 1997, J. Geophys. Res., 104, 28,915-28,926, doi:10.1029/ 1999JB900283.
63. MacKenzie, L., G. A. Abers, K. M. Fischer, E. M. Syracuse, J. M. Protti, V. Gonzalez, and W. Strauch (2008), Crustal structure along the southern Central American volcanic front, Geochem. Geophys. Geosyst., 9, Q08S09, doi:10.1029/2008GC001991.
64. Mainprice, D., and P. G. Silver (1993), Interpretation of SKSwaves using samples from the subcontinental lithosphere, Phys. Earth Planet. Inter., 78, 257-280, doi:10.1016/0031-9201(93)90160-B.
65. Mainprice, D., A. Tommasi, H. Couvy, P. Cordier, and D. J. Frost (2005), Pressure sensitivity of olivine slip systems and seismic anisotropy of Earth's upper mantle, Nature, 433, 731-733, doi:10.1038/nature03266. (Pubitemid 40292979)
66. Matcham, I., M. K. Savage, and K. R. Kendall (2000), Distribution of seismic anisotropy in the subduction zone beneath the Wellington region, New Zealand, Geophys. J. Int., 140, 1-10, doi:10.1046/j.1365-246x.2000.00928.x. (Pubitemid 30147580)
67. McKenzie, D. (1979), Finite deformation during fluid flow, Geophys. J. R. Astron. Soc., 58, 689-715.
68. Mehl, L., B. R. Hacker, G. Hirth, and P. B. Kelemen (2003), Arc-parallel flow within the mantle wedge: Evidence from the accreted Talkeetna arc, south central Alaska, J. Geophys. Res., 108(B8), 2375, doi:10.1029/2002JB002233.
69. Michibayshi, K., N. Abe, A. Okamoto, T. Satsukawa, and K. Michikura (2006), Seismic anisotropy in the uppermost mantle, back-arc region of the northeast Japan arc: Petrophysical analyses of Ichinomegata peridotite xenoliths, Geophys. Res. Lett., 33, L10312, doi:10.1029/ 2006GL025812.
70. Mizukami, T., S. R. Wallis, and J. Yamamoto (2004), Natural examples of olivine lattice preferred orientation patterns with a flow-normal a-axis maximum, Nature, 427, 432-436, doi:10.1038/nature02179. (Pubitemid 38168493)
71. Montagner, J.-P., and D. L. Anderson (1989), Petrological constraints on seismic anisotropy, Phys. Earth Planet. Inter., 54, 82-105, doi:10.1016/0031- 9201(89)90189-1.
72. Morley, A. M., G. W. Stuart, J.-M. Kendall, and M. Reyners (2006), Mantle wedge anisotropy in the Hikurangi subduction zone, central North Island, New Zealand, Geophys. Res. Lett., 33, L05301, doi:10.1029/2005GL024569.
73. Nakajima, J., and A. Hasegawa (2004), Shear-wave polarization and subduction-induced flow in the mantle wedge of northeastern Japan, Earth Planet. Sci. Lett., 225, 365-377, doi:10.1016/j.epsl.2004.06.011. (Pubitemid 39605253)
74. Nakajima, J., J. Shimizu, S. Hori, and A. Hasegawa (2006), Shear-wave splitting beneath the southwestern Kurile arc and northeastern Japan arc: A new insight into mantle return flow, Geophys. Res. Lett., 33, L05305, doi:10.1029/ 2005GL025053.
75. Norabuena, E., et al. (2004), Geodetic and seismic constraints on some seismogenic zone processes in Costa Rica, J. Geophys. Res., 109, B11403, doi:10.1029/2003JB002931. (Pubitemid 40294851)
76. Patino, L. C., M. J. Carr, and M. D. Feigenson (2000), Local and regional variations in Central American arc lavas controlled by variations in subducted sediment input, Contrib. Mineral. Petrol., 138, 265-283, doi:10.1007/ s004100050562.
77. Peyton, V., V. Levin, J. Park, M. Brandon, J. Lees, E. Gordeev, and A. Ozerov (2001), Mantle flow at a slab edge: Seismic anisotropy in the Kamchatka region, Geophys. Res. Lett., 28, 379-382, doi:10.1029/2000GL012200.
78. Plank, T., V. Balzer, and M. Carr (2002), Nicaraguan volcanoes record paleooceanographic changes accompanying closure of the Panama gateway, Geology, 30, 1087-1090, doi:10.1130/0091-7613(2002)030<1087:NVRPCA>2.0. CO;2.
79. Polet, J., P. G. Silver, S. Beck, T.Wallace, G. Zandt, S. Ruppert, R. Kind, and A. Rudloff (2000), Shear wave anisotropy beneath the Andes from the BANJO, SEDA, and PISCO experiments, J. Geophys. Res., 105, 6287-6304, doi:10.1029/1999JB900326.
80. Pozgay, S. H., D. A. Wiens, J. A. Conder, H. Shiobara, and H. Sugioka (2007), Complex mantle flow in the Mariana subduction system: Evidence from shear wave splitting, Geophys. J. Int., 170, 371-386, doi:10.1111/j.1365-246X. 2007.03433.x.
81. Protti, M., F. Gundel, and K. McNally (1994), The geometry of the Wadditi-Benioff zone under southern Central America and its tectonic significance: Results from a high resolution local seismographic network, Phys. Earth Planet. Inter., 84, 271-287, doi:10.1016/0031-9201(94)90046-9.
82. Ribe, N. M. (1989), Seismic anisotropy and mantle flow, J. Geophys. Res., 94, 4213-4223, doi:10.1029/ JB094iB04p04213.
83. Rümpker, G., and P. G. Silver (1998), Apparent shear-wave splitting parameters in the presence of vertically varying anisotropy, Geophys. J. Int., 135, 790-800, doi:10.1046/ j.1365-246X.1998.00660.x.
84. Russo, R. M., and P. G. Silver (1994), Trench-parallel flow beneath the Nazca Plate from seismic anisotropy, Science, 263, 1105-1111, doi:10.1126/science.263.5150.1105.
85. Rychert, C. A., K.M. Fischer, G. A. Abers, T. Plank, E. Syracuse, J. M. Protti, V. Gonzalez, andW. Strauch (2008), Strong alongarc variations in attenuation in the mantle wedge beneath Costa Rica and Nicaragua, Geochem. Geophys. Geosyst., 9, Q10S10, doi:10.1029/2008GC002040.
86. Schellart, W. P., D. R. Stegman, and J. Freeman (2008), Global trench migration velocities and slab migration induced upper mantle volume fluxes: Constraints to an Earth reference frame based on minimizing viscous dissipation, Earth Sci. Rev., 88, 118-144, doi:10.1016/j.earscirev.2008.01.005.
87. Silver, P. G., and W. W. Chan (1991), Shear wave splitting and subcontinental mantle deformation, J. Geophys. Res., 96, 16,429-16,454, doi:10.1029/91JB00899.
88. Silver, P. G., and M. K. Savage (1994), The interpretation of shear-wave splitting parameters in the presence of two anisotropic layers, Geophys. J. Int., 119, 949-963, doi:10.1111/ j.1365-246X.1994.tb04027.x.
89. Smith, G. P., D. A. Wiens, K. M. Fischer, L. M. Dorman, S. C. Webb, and J. H. Hildebrand (2001), A complex pattern of flow win the Lau backarc, Science, 292, 713-716, doi:10.1126/science.1058763. (Pubitemid 32385539)
90. Syracuse, E. M., and G. A. Abers (2006), Global compilation of variations in slab depth beneath arc volcanoes and implications, Geochem. Geophys. Geosyst., 7, Q05017, doi:10.1029/2005GC001045.
91. Syracuse, E. M., G. A. Abers, K. M. Fischer, L. MacKenzie, C. Rychert, J. M. Protti, V. Gonzalez, and W. Strauch (2008), Seismic tomography and earthquake locations in the Nicaraguan and Costa Rican upper mantle, Geochem. Geophys. Geosyst., 9, Q07S08, doi:10.1029/2008GC001963.
92. Tarantola, A. (1987), Inverse Problem Theory: Methods for Data Fitting and Model Parameter Estimation, 613 pp., Elsevier, Amsterdam.
93. Turner, H. L., P. LaFemina, A. Saballos, G. S. Mattioli, P. E. Jansma, and T. Dixon (2007), Kinematics of the Nicaraguan forearc from GPS geodesy, Geophys. Res. Lett., 34, L02302, doi:10.1029/2006GL027586. (Pubitemid 47277651)
94. van Wyk de Vries, B. (1993), Tectonics and magma evolution of Nicaraguan volcanic systems, Ph.D. thesis, pp. 1-328, Open Univ, Milton Keynes, U. K.
95. Walker, J. A., M. J. Carr, L. C. Patino, C. M. Johnson, M. D. Feigenson, and R. L. Ward (1995), Abrupt change in magma generation processes across the Central American arc in southeastern Guatemala: Flux-dominated melting near the base of the wedge to decompression melting near the top of the wedge, Contrib. Mineral. Petrol., 120, 378-390, doi:10.1007/BF00306515.
96. Weinberg, R. F. (1992), Neotectonic development of western Nicaragua, Tectonics, 11, 1010-1017, doi:10.1029/ 92TC00859.
97. Wiens, D. A., and G. P. Smith (2003), Seismological constraints on structure and flow patterns within the mantle wedge, in Inside the Subduction Factory, Geophys. Monogr. Ser., vol. 138, edited by J. Eiler, pp. 59-82, AGU, Washington, D. C.
98. Yang, X., K. M. Fischer, and G. A. Abers (1995), Seismic anisotropy beneath the Shumagin Islands segment of the Aleutian-Alaska subduction zone, J. Geophys. Res., 100, 18165-18,177, doi:10.1029/95JB01425.
99. Zhang, S., and S. Karato (1995), Lattice preferred orientation of olivine aggregates deformed in simple shear, Nature, 375, 774-777, doi:10.1038/ 375774a0.
100. Zimmerman, M. E., S. Q. Zhang, D. L. Kohlstedt, and S. Karato (1999), Melt distribution in mantle rocks deformed in shear, Geophys. Res. Lett., 26, 1505-1508, doi:10.1029/ 1999GL900259.