Neuroendocrine tumors

JNCCN Journal of the National Comprehensive Cancer Network

Volumn 7, Issue 7, 2009, Pages 712-747

  Clark, Orlo H ^a   Ajani, Jaffer A ^a   Benson III, Al B ^a   Berlin, Jordan D ^a   Blaszkowsky, Lawrence S ^a   Byrd, David ^a   Choti, Michael A ^a   Doherty, Gerard M ^a   Engstrom, Paul F ^a   Gibbs, John F ^a   Heslin, Martin J ^a   Kandeel, Fouad ^a   Kessinger, Anne ^a   Kulke, Matthew H ^a   Kunz, Pamela ^a   Kvols, Larry ^a   Olson Jr , John A ^a   Ratliff, Thomas W ^a   Salem, Riad ^a   Saltz, Leonard ^a   Schteingart, David E ^a   Shah, Manisha H ^a   Shibata, Stephen ^a   more..

^a NONE

Author keywords

Carcinoma; Islet cell cancer; MEN 1; MEN 2; Multiple endocrine neoplasia; NCCN clinical practice guidelines; Neuroendocrine tumors; Pheochromocytoma

Indexed keywords

BEVACIZUMAB; CAPECITABINE; CARBOPLATIN; CISPLATIN; CORTICOSTEROID; CYCLOPHOSPHAMIDE; DACARBAZINE; DACTINOMYCIN; DOXORUBICIN; EPLERENONE; ETOPOSIDE; FLUOROURACIL; LONG ACTING DRUG; METADRENALIN; METIROSINE; MITOTANE; NORMETADRENALIN; OCTREOTIDE; PENTETREOTIDE; PHENOXYBENZAMINE; SORAFENIB; SPIRONOLACTONE; STREPTOZOCIN; SUNITINIB; TEMOZOLOMIDE; VINCRISTINE; TUMOR MARKER;

ADRENAL CORTEX CARCINOMA; ADRENAL TUMOR; ADRENALECTOMY; ALGORITHM; APPENDECTOMY; ARTIFICIAL EMBOLISM; BLOOD PRESSURE; BREAST CANCER; CANCER COMBINATION CHEMOTHERAPY; CANCER EPIDEMIOLOGY; CANCER PATIENT; CANCER STAGING; CANCER THERAPY; CARCINOID; CARCINOID SYNDROME; CHOLECYSTECTOMY; CLINICAL DECISION MAKING; CLINICAL EVALUATION; CLINICAL RESEARCH; COMPUTER ASSISTED TOMOGRAPHY; CUSHING SYNDROME; CYTOREDUCTIVE SURGERY; ENUCLEATION; FOLLOW UP; GASTRINOMA; HYDRATION; HYPERALDOSTERONISM; HYPERTENSION; HYPOKALEMIA; HYPOTHALAMUS HYPOPHYSIS SYSTEM; INSULINOMA; LAPAROSCOPIC SURGERY; LAPAROSCOPY; LYMPH NODE DISSECTION; METASTASIS; MONOTHERAPY; NEUROENDOCRINE TUMOR; NUCLEAR MAGNETIC RESONANCE IMAGING; PANCREAS ISLET CELL TUMOR; PANCREAS TUMOR; PANCREATICODUODENECTOMY; PARAGANGLIOMA; PATIENT CARE; PATIENT PARTICIPATION; PHEOCHROMOCYTOMA; PRACTICE GUIDELINE; RADIOFREQUENCY ABLATION; RADIOSENSITIZATION; RECURRENT DISEASE; REVIEW; SALT LOADING; SOMATOSTATINOMA; TUMOR RECURRENCE; VIPOMA; ADJUVANT CHEMOTHERAPY; ADJUVANT THERAPY; ARTICLE; DIAGNOSTIC IMAGING; DIGESTIVE SYSTEM TUMOR; HUMAN; THORAX TUMOR;

CHEMOTHERAPY, ADJUVANT; DIAGNOSTIC IMAGING; DIGESTIVE SYSTEM NEOPLASMS; HUMANS; NEOPLASM METASTASIS; NEOPLASM RECURRENCE, LOCAL; NEOPLASM STAGING; NEUROENDOCRINE TUMORS; RADIOTHERAPY, ADJUVANT; THORACIC NEOPLASMS; TUMOR MARKERS, BIOLOGICAL;

EID: 69249166241     PISSN: 15401405     EISSN: 15401413     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.6004/jnccn.2009.0050     Document Type: Review

References (111)

1. Yao JC, Hassan M, Phan A, et al. One hundred years after "carcinoid": epidemiology of and prognostic factors for neuroendocrine tumors in 35,825 cases in the United States. J Clin Oncol 2008;26:3063-3072.
2. Modlin IM, Sandor A. An analysis of 8305 cases of carcinoid tumors. Cancer 1997;79:813-829. (Pubitemid 27076348)
3. Jenson RT, Norton JA. Carcinoid tumors and carcinoid syndrome. In: Devita VT, Hellman S, Rosenberg SA, eds. Cancer: Principles and Practice of Oncology. Vol 2. 6th ed. Philadelphia: Lippincott Williams and Wilkins; 2001:1813-1826.
4. Taupenot L, Harper KL, O'Connor DT. The chromogranin-secretogranin family. N Engl J Med 2003;348:1134-1149.
5. Kolby L, Bernhardt P, Sward C, et al. Chromogranin A as a determinant of midgut carcinoid tumour volume. Regul Pept 2004;120(1-3):269-273. (Pubitemid 38726216)
6. Soga J, Yakuwa Y, Osaka M. Carcinoid syndrome: a statistical evaluation of 748 reported cases. J Exp Clin Cancer Res 1999;18:133-141. (Pubitemid 29359395)
7. Norheim I, Oberg K, Theodorsson-Norheim E, et al. Malignant carcinoid tumors. An analysis of 103 patients with regard to tumor localization, hormone production, and survival. Ann Surg 1987;206:115-125.
8. Thorson AH. Studies on carcinoid disease. Acta Med Scand 1958;161:1-132.
9. Pasieka JL, McKinnon JG, Kinnear S, et al. Carcinoid syndrome symposium on treatment modalities for gastrointestinal carcinoid tumours: symposium summary. Can J Surg 2001;44:25-32. (Pubitemid 32163350)
10. Oberg K, Kvols L, Caplin M, et al. Consensus report on the use of somatostatin analogs for the management of neuroendocrine tumors of the gastroenteropancreatic system. Ann Oncol 2004;15:966-973. (Pubitemid 39004355)
11. Sandor A, Modlin IM. A retrospective analysis of 1570 appendiceal carcinoids. Am J Gastroenterol 1998;93:422-428. (Pubitemid 29068350)
12. Soga J. Carcinoids of the rectum: an evaluation of 1271 reported cases. Surg Today 1997;27:112-119. (Pubitemid 27093279)
13. Gilligan CJ, Lawton GP, Tang LH, et al. Gastric carcinoid tumors: the biology and therapy of an enigmatic and controversial lesion. Am J Gastroenterol 1995;90:338-352.
14. Kaltsas G, Rockall A, Papadogias D, et al. Recent advances in radiological and radionuclide imaging and therapy of neuroendocrine tumours. Eur J Endocrinol 2004;151:15-27. (Pubitemid 39117361)
15. Cwikla JB, Buscombe JR, Caplin ME, et al. Diagnostic imaging of carcinoid metastases to the abdomen and pelvis. Med Sci Monit 2004;10:9-16.
16. Arnold R, Müller H, Schade-Brittinger c et al. Placebo-controlled, double-blind, prospective, randomized study of the effect of octreotide LAR in the control of tumor growth in patients with metastatic neuroendocrine midgut tumors: a report from the PROMID study group [abstract]. ASCO 2009 Gastrointestinal Cancers Symposium; January 15-17, 2009; San Francisco, California. Abstract 121.
17. Jacobsen MB, Nitter-Hauge S, Bryde PE, Hanssen LE. Cardiac manifestations in mid-gut carcinoid disease. Eur Heart J 1995;16:263-268.
18. Anderson AS, Krauss D, Lang R. Cardiovascular complications of malignant carcinoid disease. Am Heart J 1997;134:693-702. (Pubitemid 27465065)
19. Brentjens R, Saltz L. Islet cell tumors of the pancreas: the medical oncologist's perspective. Surg Clin North Am 2001;81:527-542. (Pubitemid 32612114)
20. Kvols LK, Moertel CG, O'Connell MJ, et al. Treatment of the malignant carcinoid syndrome: evaluation of a long-acting somatostatin analogue. N Engl J Med 1986;315:663-666. (Pubitemid 16055931)
21. Janson ET, Oberg K. Long-term management of the carcinoid syndrome. Treatment with octreotide alone and in combination with alpha interferon. Acta Oncol 1993;32:225-229.
22. Liu DM, Kennedy A, Turner D, et al. Minimally invasive techniques in management of hepatic neuroendocrine metastatic disease. Am J Clin Oncol 2009;32:200-215.
23. Siperstein AE, Rogers SJ, Hansen PD, et al. Laparoscopic thermal ablation of hepatic neuroendocrine tumor metastases. Surgery 1997;122:1147-1154; discussion 1154-1155.
24. Gates J, Hartnell GG, Stuart KE, et al. Chemoembolization of hepatic neoplasms: safety, complications, and when to worry. Radiographics 1999;19:399-414.
25. Kennedy AS, Dezarn WA, McNeillie P, et al. Radioembolization for unresectable neuroendocrine hepatic metastases using resin 90Y-microspheres: early results in 148 patients. Am J Clin Oncol 2008;31:271-279.
26. Rhee TK, Lewandowski RJ, Liu DM, et al. 90Y Radioembolization for metastatic neuroendocrine liver tumors: preliminary results from a multi-institutional experience. Ann Surg 2008;247:1029-1035.
27. King J, Quinn R, Glenn DM, et al. Radioembolization with selective internal radiation microspheres for neuroendocrine liver metastases. Cancer 2008;113:921-929.
28. Murthy R, Kamat P, Nunez R, et al. Yttrium-90 microsphere radioembolotherapy of hepatic metastatic neuroendocrine carcinomas after hepatic arterial embolization. J Vasc Interv Radiol 2008;19:145-151.
29. Kalinowski M, Dressler M, König A, et al. Selective internal radiotherapy with Yttrium-90 microspheres for hepatic metastatic neuroendocrine tumors: a prospective single center study. Digestion 2009;79:137-142.
30. Ruszniewski P, Malka D. Hepatic arterial chemoembolization in the management of advanced digestive endocrine tumors. Digestion 2000;62(Suppl 1):79-83. (Pubitemid 30665944)
31. Fazio N, de Braud F, Delle Fave G, Oberg K. Interferon-alpha and somatostatin analog in patients with gastroenteropancreatic neuroendocrine carcinoma: single agent or combination? Ann Oncol 2007;18:13-19.
32. Fjallskog ML, Sundin A, Westlin JE, et al. Treatment of malignant endocrine pancreatic tumors with a combination of alpha-interferon and somatostatin analogs. Med Oncol 2002;19:35-42. (Pubitemid 34587755)
33. Plockinger U, Rindi G, Arnold R, et al. Guidelines for the diagnosis and treatment of neuroendocrine gastrointestinal tumours. A consensus statement on behalf of the European Neuroendocrine Tumour Society (ENETS). Neuroendocrinology 2004;80:394-424.
34. Oberg K, Norheim I, Lundqvist G, et al. Cytotoxic treatment in patients with malignant carcinoid tumors, response to streptozocin - alone or in combination with 5-FU. Acta Oncol 1987;26:429-432. (Pubitemid 18100074)
35. Bajetta E, Procopio G, Ferrari L, et al. Update on the treatment of neuroendocrine tumors. Expert Rev Anticancer Ther 2003;3:631-642.
36. Moertel CG, Johnson CM, McKusick MA, et al. The management of patients with advanced carcinoid tumors and islet cell carcinomas. Ann Intern Med 1994;120:302-309. (Pubitemid 24050027)
37. Sun W, Lipsitz S, Catalano P, et al. Phase II/III study of doxorubicin with fluorouracil compared with streptozocin with fluorouracil or dacarbazine in the treatment of advanced carcinoid tumors: Eastern Cooperative Oncology Group study E1281. J Clin Oncol 2005;23:4897-4904. (Pubitemid 46223995)
38. Oberg K. Chemotherapy and biotherapy in the treatment of neuroendocrine tumours. Ann Oncol 2001;12(Suppl 2):S111-114. (Pubitemid 33069698)
39. Granberg D, Eriksson B, Wilander E, et al. Experience in treatment of metastatic pulmonary carcinoid tumors. Ann Oncol 2001;12:1383-1391. (Pubitemid 33100242)
40. Wirth LJ, Carter MR, Janne PA, et al. Outcome of patients with pulmonary carcinoid tumors receiving chemotherapy or chemoradiotherapy. Lung Cancer 2004;44:213-220.
41. Miranda FT, Spigel DR, Hainsworth JD, et al. Paclitaxel/carboplatin/ etoposide (PCE) therapy for advanced poorly differentiated neuroendocrine (PDNE) carcinoma: a Minnie Pearl Cancer Research Network phase II trial [abstract]. J Clin Oncol 2005;23(Suppl 1):Abstract 4058.
42. Duran I, Le L, Saltman D, et al. A phase II trial of temsirolimus in metastatic neuroendocrine carcinomas (NECs) [abstract]. J Clin Oncol 2005;23(Suppl 1):Abstract 3096.
43. Fine RL, Fogelman DR, Schreibman SM. Effective treatment of neuroendocrine tumors with temozolomide and capecitabine [abstract]. J Clin Oncol 2005;23(Suppl 1):Abstract 4216.
44. Yao JC, Phan A, Hoff PM, et al. Targeting vascular endothelial growth factor in advanced carcinoid tumor: a random assignment phase II study of depot octreotide with bevacizumab and pegylated interferon alpha-2b. J Clin Oncol 2008;26:1316-1323.
45. Kulke MH, Lenz HJ, Meropol NJ, et al. Activity of sunitinib in patients with advanced neuroendocrine tumors. J Clin Oncol 2008;26:3403-3410.
46. Hobday TJ, Rubin J, Holen K, et al. MC044h, a phase II trial of sorafenib in patients (pts) with metastatic neuroendocrine tumors (NET): a phase II consortium (P2C) study [abstract]. J Clin Oncol 2007;25(Suppl 1):Abstract 4504.
47. Duran I, Kortmansky J, Singh D, et al. A phase II clinical and pharmacodynamic study of temsirolimus in advanced neuroendocrine carcinomas. Br J Cancer 2006;95:1148-1154. (Pubitemid 44660065)
48. Yao JC, Phan AT, Chang DZ, et al. Efficacy of RAD001 (everolimus) and octreotide LAR in advanced low- to intermediate-grade neuroendocrine tumors: results of a phase II study. J Clin Oncol 2008;26:4311-4318.
49. Yao JC, Lombard-Bohas C, Baudin E, et al. A phase II trial of daily oral RAD001 (everolimus) in patients with metastatic pancreatic neuroendocrine tumors (NET) after failure of cytotoxic chemotherapy (abstract 508PD). Ann Oncol 2008;19:viii167.
50. Kwekkeboom DJ, Bakker WH, Kam BL, et al. Treatment of patients with gastro-entero-pancreatic (GEP) tumours with the novel radiolabelled somatostatin analogue [177Lu-DOTA(0),Tyr3] octreotate. Eur J Nucl Med Mol Imaging 2003;30:417-422.
51. Kwekkeboom DJ, Teunissen JJ, Bakker WH, et al. Radiolabeled somatostatin analog [177Lu-DOTAO,Tyr3]octreotate in patients with endocrine gastroenteropancreatic tumors. J Clin Oncol 2005;23:2754-2762.
52. Kwekkeboom DJ, Teunissen JJ, Kam BL, et al. Treatment of patients who have endocrine gastroenteropancreatic tumors with radiolabeled somatostatin analogues. Hematol Oncol Clin North Am 2007;21:561-573. (Pubitemid 46843516)
53. Krenning EP, Teunissen JJ, Valkema R, et al. Molecular radiotherapy with somatostatin analogs for (neuro-)endocrine tumors. J Endocrinol Invest 2005;28:146-150.
54. Yao JC, Eisner MP, Leary C, et al. Population-based study of islet cell carcinoma. Ann Surg Oncol 2007;14:3492-3500. (Pubitemid 350160130)
55. Skarin AT. Atlas of Diagnostic Oncology. Philadelphia: JB Lippincott; 1991:7.30-7.35.
56. Bernini GP, Moretti A, Ferdeghini M, et al. A new human chromogranin 'A' immunoradiometric assay for the diagnosis of neuroendocrine tumours. Br J Cancer 2001;84:636-642.
57. Nehar D, Lombard-Bohas C, Olivieri S, et al. Interest of chromogranin A for diagnosis and follow-up of endocrine tumours. Clin Endocrinol (Oxf) 2004;60:644-652. (Pubitemid 38669857)
58. Lamers CG, Van Tongeren JHM. Comparative study of the value of calcium, secretion and meal stimulated increase in serum gastrin to the diagnosis of the Zollinger-Ellison syndrome. Gut 1979;18:128-135. (Pubitemid 8149397)
59. Jensen RT, Fraker DL. Zollinger-Ellison syndrome: advances in treatment of the gastric hypersecretion and the gastrinoma. JAMA 1994;271:1429-1435. (Pubitemid 24132490)
60. Fajans SS, Vinik AI. Insulin-producing islet cell tumors. Endocrinol Metab Clin North Am 1989;18:45-74.
61. Comi RJ, Gordon P, Doppman JL. Insulinoma. In: Go VL, Lebenthal E, Di Magno EO, et al, eds. The Pancreas: Biology, Pathology and Disease. New York: Raven; 1993:979.
62. Creutzfeldt W. Insulinomas: clinical presentation, diagnosis and advances in management. In: Mignon M, Jensen RT, eds. Endocrine Tumors of the Pancreas: Recent Advances in Research and Management. Basel, Switzerland: Karger; 1994:148-165.
63. Rosch T, Lightdale CJ, Botet JF, et al. Localization of pancreatic endocrine tumors by endoscopic ultrasonography. N Engl J Med 1992;326:1721-1726.
64. Doppman JL, Chang R, Fraker DL, et al. Localization of insulinomas to regions of the pancreas by intra-arterial stimulation with calcium. Ann Intern Med 1995;123:269-273.
65. Stehouwer CD, Lems WF, Fischer HR, et al. Aggravation of hypoglycemia in insulinoma patients by the long-acting somatostatin analogue octreotide (Sandostatin). Acta Endocrinol (Copenh) 1989;121:34-40. (Pubitemid 19167528)
66. Que FG, Nagorney DM, Batts KP, et al. Hepatic resection for metastatic neuroendocrine carcinomas. Am J Surg 1995;169:36-42.
67. Moertel CG, Lefkopoulo M, Lipsitz S, et al. Streptozotocin-doxorubicin, streptozotocin- fluorouracil or chlorozotocin in the treatment of advanced islet cell carcinoma. N Engl J Med 1992;326:519-523.
68. Kouvaraki MA, Ajani JA, Hoff P, et al. Fluorouracil, doxorubicin, and streptozocin in the treatment of patients with locally advanced and metastatic pancreatic endocrine carcinomas. J Clin Oncol 2004;22:4762-7471. Erratum in: J Clin Oncol 2005;23:248. (Pubitemid 41185087)
69. Ramanathan RK, Cnaan A, Hahn RG, et al. Phase II trial of dacarbazine (DTIC) in advanced pancreatic islet cell carcinoma. Study of the Eastern Cooperative Oncology Group-E6282. Ann Oncol 2001;12:1139-1143.
70. Fine R, Fogelman D, Schreibman S. Effective treatment of neuroendocrine tumors with capecitabine and temozolomide [abstract]. J Clin Oncol 2005;16(Suppl 1):Abstract 4216
71. Kulke MH, Stuart K, Enzinger PC, et al. Phase II study of temozolomide and thalidomide in patients with metastatic neuroendocrine tumors. J Clin Oncol 2006;24:401-406. (Pubitemid 46630459)
72. Perry LJ, Stuart K, Stokes KR, et al. Hepatic arterial chemoembolization for metastatic neuroendocrine tumors. Surgery 1994;116:1111-1116. (Pubitemid 24382174)
73. Meko JB, Doherty GM, Siegel BA, Norton JA. Evaluation of somatostatin-receptor scintigraphy for detecting neuroendocrine tumors. Surgery 1996;120:975-983; discussion 983-1974
74. Solcia E, Rindi G, Paolotti D, et al. Clinicopathological profile as a basis for classification of the endocrine tumors of the gastroenteropancreatic tract. Ann Oncol 1999;10:S9-15. (Pubitemid 29288525)
75. Dackiw AP, Lee JE, Gagel RF, Evans DB. Adrenal cortical carcinoma. World J Surg 2001;25:914-926.
76. Allolio B, Fassnacht M. Clinical review: adrenocortical carcinoma: clinical update. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 2006;91:2027-2037. (Pubitemid 43854976)
77. Ng L, Libertino JM. Adrenocortical carcinoma: diagnosis, evaluation and treatment. J Urol 2003;169:5-11. (Pubitemid 35461537)
78. Crucitti F, Bellantone R, Ferrante A, et al. The Italian Registry for Adrenal Cortical Carcinoma: analysis of a multiinstitutional series of 129 patients. The ACC Italian Registry Study Group. Surgery 1996;119:161-170. (Pubitemid 26052933)
79. Wooten MD, King DK. Adrenal cortical carcinoma. Epidemiology and treatment with mitotane and a review of the literature. Cancer 1993;72:3145-3155.
80. Koch CA, Pacak K, Chrousos GP. The molecular pathogenesis of hereditary and sporadic adrenocortical and adrenomedullary tumors. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 2002;87:5367-5384.
81. Lynch HT, Radford B, Lynch JF. SBLA syndrome revisited. Oncology 1990;47:75-79.
82. Brandi ML, Gagel RF, Angeli A, et al. Guidelines for diagnosis and therapy of MEN type 1 and type 2. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 2001;86:5658-5671
83. Marx S, Spiegel AM, Skarulis MC, et al. Multiple endocrine neoplasia type 1: clinical and genetic topics. Ann Intern Med 1998;129:484-494. (Pubitemid 28428085)
84. Soon PS, McDonald KL, Robinson BG, Sidhu SB. Molecular markers and the pathogenesis of adrenocortical cancer. Oncologist 2008;13:548-561. (Pubitemid 351872872)
85. Reincke M, Karl M, Travis WH, et al. p53 mutations in human adrenocortical neoplasms: immunohistochemical and molecular studies. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 1994;78:790-794. (Pubitemid 24083330)
86. Ohgaki H, Kleihues P, Heitz PU. p53 mutations in sporadic adrenocortical tumors. Int J Cancer 1993;54:408-410. (Pubitemid 23169678)
87. Gicquel C, Bertagna X, Schneid H, et al. Rearrangements at the llpl5 locus and overexpression of insulin-like growth factor-II gene in sporadic adrenocortical tumors. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 1994;78:1444-1453. (Pubitemid 24181019)
88. Gicquel C, Raffin-Sanson ML, Gaston V, et al. Structural and functional abnormalities at 11p15 are associated with the malignant phenotype in sporadic adrenocortical tumors: study on a series of 82 tumors. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 1997;82:2559-2565. (Pubitemid 27337873)
89. Luton JP, Cerdas S, Billaud L, et al. Clinical features of adrenocortical carcinoma, prognostic factors, and the effect of mitotane therapy. N Engl J Med 1990;322:1195-1201. (Pubitemid 20137851)
90. Bertagna C, Orth DN. Clinical and laboratory findings and results of therapy in 58 patients with adrenocortical tumors admitted to a single medical center (1951 to 1978). Am J Med 1981;71:855-875.
91. Kasperlik-Zaluska AA, Migdalska BM, Zgliczynski S, Makowska AM. Adrenocortical carcinoma. A clinical study and treatment results of 52 patients. Cancer 1995;75:2587-2591.
92. Norton JA, Le HN. Adrenal Tumors Cancer. In: Devita VT, Hellman S, Rosenberg SA, eds. Cancer: Principles and Practice of Oncology. Vol 2. 6th ed. Philadelphia: Lippincott Williams and Wilkins; 2001:1770-1780.
93. Boland GW, Lee MJ, Gazelle GS, et al. Characterization of adrenal masses using unenhanced CT: an analysis of the CT literature. AJR Am J Roentgenol 1998;171:201-204.
94. Schultz CL, Haaga JR, Fletcher BD, et al. Magnetic resonance imaging of the adrenal glands: a comparison with computed tomography. AJR Am J Roentgenol 1984;143:1235-1240. (Pubitemid 15219832)
95. Chang A, Glazer HS, Lee JK, et al. Adrenal gland: MR imaging. Radiology 1987;163:123-128.
96. Saunders BD, Doherty GM. Laparoscopic adrenalectomy for malignant disease. Lancet Oncol 2004;5:718-726.
97. Shen WT, Sturgeon C, Duh QY. From incidentaloma to adrenocortical carcinoma: the surgical management of adrenal tumors. J Surg Oncol 2005;89:186-192. (Pubitemid 40315915)
98. Wooten MD, King DK. Adrenal cortical carcinoma. Epidemiology and treatment with mitotane and a review of the literature. Cancer 1993;72:3145-3155.
99. Dickstein G, Shechner C, Arad E, et al. Is there a role for low doses of mitotane (o,p′-DDD) as adjuvant therapy in adrenocortical carcinoma? J Clin Endocrinol Metab 1998;83:3100-3103.
100. Khorram-Manesh A, Ahlman H, Jansson S, et al. Adrenocortical carcinoma: surgery and mitotane for treatment and steroid profiles for follow-up. World J Surg 1998;22:605-611; discussion 611-1602 (Pubitemid 28215440)
101. Vassilopoulou-Sellin R, Guinee VF, Klein MJ, et al. Impact of adjuvant mitotane on the clinical course of patients with adrenocortical cancer. Cancer 1993;71:3119-3123. (Pubitemid 23145548)
102. Terzolo M, Angeli A, Fassnacht M, et al. Adjuvant mitotane treatment for adrenocortical carcinoma. N Engl J Med 2007;356:2372-2380. (Pubitemid 46883771)
103. Berruti A, Terzolo M, Sperone P, et al. Etoposide, doxorubicin and cisplatin plus mitotane in the treatment of advanced adrenocortical carcinoma: a large prospective phase II trial. Endocr Relat Cancer 2005;12:657-666. (Pubitemid 41482999)
104. Khan TS, Imam H, Juhlin C, et al. Streptozocin and o,p′DDD in the treatment of adrenocortical cancer patients: long-term survival in its adjuvant use. Ann Oncol 2000;11:1281-1287. (Pubitemid 30832251)
105. Shapiro B, Copp JE, Sisson JC, et al. Iodine-131-metaiodobenzylguanidine for the locating of suspected pheochromocytoma: experience in 400 cases. J Nucl Med 1985;26:576-585. (Pubitemid 16033416)
106. Plouin PF, Duclos JM, Soppelsa F, et al. Factors associated with perioperative morbidity and mortality in patients with pheochromocytoma: analysis of 165 operations at a single center. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 2001;86:1480-1486. (Pubitemid 32374890)
107. Prys-Roberts C, Farndon JR. Efficacy and safety of doxazosin for perioperative management of patients with pheochromocytoma. World J Surg 2002; 26:1037-1042. (Pubitemid 36920305)
108. Grant CS. Pheochromocytoma. In: Clark OH, Duh QY, eds. Textbook of Endocrine Surgery. Philadelphia: WB Saunders; 1997.
109. Averbuch SD, Steakley CS, Young RC, et al. Malignant pheochromocytoma: effective treatment with a combination of cyclophosphamide, vincristine and dacarbazine. Ann Intern Med 1988;109:267-273. (Pubitemid 18209885)
110. Krempf M, Lumbroso J, Mornex R, et al. Use of m-[131 I] iodobenzylguanidine in the treatment of malignant pheochromocytoma. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 1991;72:455-461. (Pubitemid 21921715)
111. Rose B, Matthay KK, Price D, et al. High-dose 131I- metaiodobenzylguanidine therapy for 12 patients with malignant pheochromocytoma. Cancer 2003;98:239-248. (Pubitemid 36828446)