The transformation of traditional woodland management: Commercial sylviculture in medieval Champagne

French Historical Studies

Volumn 32, Issue 3, 2009, Pages 353-384

  Keyser, Richard ^a  

^a WESTERN KENTUCKY UNIVERSITY   (United States)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

EID: 68649101554     PISSN: 00161071     EISSN: 15275493     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1215/00161071-2009-002     Document Type: Review

References (239)

1. Scriptum consecrationis ecclesiae Sancti Dionysii, ed. and trans. Françoise Gasparri, in Suger: Oeuvres, 2 vols. (Paris, 1996), 1:18-21;
2. Erwin Panofsky, Abbot Suger on the Abbey Church of St.-Denis and Its Art Treasures, 2nd ed. (Princeton, NJ, 1979), 94-97.
3. Paul Warde, "Fear of Wood Shortage and the Reality of the Woodland in Europe, c. 1450- 1850," History Workshop Journal 62 (2006): 29-56.
4. Marc Bloch, French Rural History: An Essay on Its Basic Characteristics (Berkeley, CA, 1966), 7-8;
5. André Chedeville, Chartres et ses campagnes (XIe-XIIIe s.) (Paris, 1973), 205;
6. Guy Fourquin, "Le temps de la croissance," in Des origins à 1340, vol.1 of Histoire de la France rurale, ed. Georges Duby (Paris, 1975), 469;
7. Roland Bechmann, Trees and Man: The Forest in the Middle Ages (New York, 1990), 174-177
8. Neil Roberts, The Holocene: An Environmental History, 2nd ed. (Malden, MA, 1998);
9. Oliver Rackham, Ancient Woodland: Its History, Vegetation, and Uses in England, 2nd ed. (Colvend, U.K., 2003), 97-136;
10. A. T. Grove and Oliver Rackham, The Nature of Mediterranean Europe: An Ecological History (New Haven, CT, 2001);
11. J. Donald Hughes, The Mediterranean: An Environmental History (Santa Barbara, CA, 2005);
12. Aline Durand, Les paysages médiévaux du Languedoc (Xe-XIIe siècles) (Toulouse, 2003).
13. Georges Duby, Rural Economy and Country Life in the Medieval West (Columbia, SC, 1968), 14-15;
14. Jean Chapelot and Robert Fossier, The Village and House in the Middle Ages (London, 1985), 15-29; this image persists for Germany:
15. Ernst Schubert, Alltag im Mittelalter: Natürliches Lebensumfeld und menschliches Miteinander (Darmstadt, 2002), 38.
16. Charles Higounet, "Les forêts de l'Europe occidentale du Ve au XIe siècle," Settimane di studio del Centro italiano di studi sull'Alto Medioevo 13 (1966): 343-98;
17. Higounet, Défrichements et villeneuves du bassin parisien: XIe-XIVe siècles (Paris, 1990);
18. Bechmann, Trees and Man, 45-110;
19. Chris Wickham, "European Forests in the Early Middle Ages: Landscape and Land Clearance," Settimane di studio del Centro italiano di studi sull'Alto Medioevo 37 (1990): 479-545;
20. René Noël, "Pour une archéologie de la nature dans le nord de la 'Francia,'" Settimane di studio del Centro italiano di studi sull'Alto Medioevo 37 (1990): 763-820;
21. Patrice Bourdelais, "Le paysage humaine," in Histoire de la France: L'espace français, ed. Jacques Revel, 2nd ed. (Paris, 2000), 215-363;
22. Jean-Robert Pitte, Histoire du paysage français, 3rd ed. (Paris, 2003), 98-129;
23. Tamara L. Whited et al., Northern Europe: An Environmental History (Santa Barbara, CA, 2005), 45-72.
24. Bailey Young, "France," in Medieval Archeology: An Encyclopedia, ed. Pam J. Crabtree (New York, 2001), 111-26; on the lack of relic medieval woodlands,
25. see Jean-Jacques Dubois, "Espaces et paysages forestiers du Nord-Ouest de la France du XIIIe au XVIIIe siècles: L'apport de la biogéographie historique," in L'uomo e la foresta seccoli XIII-XVIII: Atti della ventisettesima settimana di studi, ed. Simonetta Cavaciocchi (Prato, 1996), 271-274
26. Tamara L. Whited, Forests and Peasant Politics in Modern France (New Haven, CT, 2000), 21-26.
27. Rackham, Ancient Woodland, 137-44;
28. G. P. Buckley, ed., Ecology and Management of Coppice Woods (New York, 1992).
29. André Lefèvre, "Les finances de la Champagne aux XIIIe et XIVe siècles," Bibliothèque de l'Ecole des Chartes 19 (1858): 409-47;
30. Henri d'Arbois de Jubainville, Histoire des ducs et des comtes de Champagne (hereafter HDCC), 6 vols. (Paris, 1859-66), 4:812-23;
31. Léon Louis Borrelli de Serres, Recherches sur divers services publics du XIIIe au XVIIe siècle, 3 vols. (Paris, 1895-1909), 1:393-464;
32. Joseph R. Strayer, The Administration of Normandy under Saint Louis (Cambridge, 1932), 69-80;
33. John W. Baldwin, The Government of Philip Augustus: Foundations of French Royal Power in the Middle Ages (Berkeley, CA, 1986), 158, 251-58.
34. Cf. Charles R. Young, The Royal Forests of Medieval England (Philadelphia, 1979), 55-59, 108-11, 123-128
35. Philippe Contamine et al., Ĺconomie médiévale (Paris, 1993), 164-76, 220-22;
36. Robert Bartlett, The Making of Europe: Conquest, Colonization, and Cultural Change, 950-1350 (Princeton, NJ, 1993), 133-66;
37. Richard C. Hoffmann, "Economic Development and Aquatic Ecosystems in Medieval Europe," American Historical Review 101 (1996): 631-69;
38. Grenville Astill and John Langdon, eds., Medieval Farming and Technology: The Impact of Agricultural Change in Northwest Europe (New York, 1997).
39. E.g., Guy Fourquin, Les campagnes de la région parisienne à la fin du Moyen Age (du milieu du XIIIe siècle au début du XVIe siècle) (Paris, 1964), 150;
40. Robert Fossier, La terre et les hommes en Picardie jusqù la fin du XIIIe siècle (Paris, 1968), 309, 418-19, 430-31;
41. Chédeville, Chartres, 202-7;
42. Dominique Barthélemy, Les deux âges de la seigneurie banale: Coucy (XIe-XIIIe siècle) (Paris, 1984), 389;
43. and a contrasting view, Alain Derville, L'agriculture du Nord au Moyen Age (Artois, Cambrésis, Flandre wallonne) (Paris, 1999), 44-46, 124-125
44. Jean Boissière et al., Histoire des forêts françaises: Guide de recherche (Paris, 1982);
45. Louis Badré, Histoire de la forêt française (Paris, 1983);
46. Andrée Corvol, ed., La forêt: Actes du 113e Congrès National des Société Savants (Strasbourg, 1988) (Paris, 1991);
47. Jean-Pierre Husson, Les forêts françaises (Nancy, 1995), 111-65;
48. Centre Historique des Archives Nationales, Histoire de forêts: La forêt française du XIIIe au XXe siècle (Paris, 1997).
49. For a more extended treatment of high medieval northern French coppicing, see Gustav Huffel, Economie forestière, 2nd ed., 3 vols. (Paris, 1905-10), 3:90-106;
50. Heinrich Rubner, Untersuchungen zur Forstverfassung des mittelalterlichen Frankreichs (Wiesbaden, 1965), 95-98;
51. On early royal administration, see Edouard Decq, "L'administration des Eaux et Forêts dans le domaine royal en France aux XIVe et XVe siècles," Bibliothèque de l'Ecole des Chartes 83 (1922): 63-110, 331-61; 84 (1923): 92-115;
52. and Les Eaux et Forêts du 12e au 20e siècle (Paris, 1987), 7-68.
53. Michel Devèze, La vie de la forêt française au XVIe siècle, 2 vols. (Paris, 1961);
54. Andrée Corvol, L'homme et l'arbre sous l'Ancien Régime (Paris, 1984);
55. Whited, Forests;
56. Andrée Corvol, ed., Les forêts d'Occident du Moyen Age à nos jours (Toulouse, 2004).
57. Theodore Evergates, The Aristocracy in the County of Champagne, 1100-1300 (Philadelphia, 2007), 1-58;
58. Auguste Longnon, ed., Documents relatifs au Comté de Champagne et de Brie, 1172-1361 (hereafter DCB), 3 vols. (Paris, 1901-14).
59. Jérôme Buridant, "Du 'modèle' à la pratique: La gestion des peuplements caducifoliés dans la France moderne, XVIe-XVIIIe siècle," Flaran 24 (2002): 203-220
60. Ancient and medieval Latin farming manuals give only scant attention to woodlands, while a French agronomical tradition emerged only in the late fourteenth century. In France the first significant writings about woodland management other than official regulations date from the late sixteenth century. See Devèze, Forêt française, 2:181-97;
61. Mauro Ambrosoli, The Wild and the Sown: Botany and Agriculture in Western Europe, 1350 - 1850 (New York, 1997).
62. Hoffmann, "Aquatic Ecosystems," 632, 667-69;
63. Peter Szabo, Woodland and Forests in Medieval Hungary (Oxford, 2005), 19-22;
64. Charles R. Menzies, ed., Traditional Ecological Knowledge and Natural Resource Management (Lincoln, NE, 2006).
65. Michel Bur, La formation du comté de Champagne, v. 950-v. 1150 (Lille, 1977), 75-80;
66. Derek Ager, The Geology of Europe: A Regional Approach (New York, 1980), 223-232
67. Massimo Montanari, L'alimentazione contadina nell'alto Medioevo (Naples, 1979), 34-37, 82-105, 221-306;
68. Russell Meiggs, Trees and Timber in the Ancient Mediterranean World (New York, 1982), 260-70;
69. Wickham, "European Forests";
70. Adriaan Verhulst, The Carolingian Economy (New York, 2002);
71. Christopher Wickham, Framing the Early Middle Ages: Europe and the Mediterranean, 400-800 (New York, 2005), 259-302, 398-406.
72. Dieter Hägermann et al., eds., Das Polyptychon von Saint-Germain-des-Prés (Cologne, 1993), 139 (Combs-la-Ville, twenty-five kilometers southeast of Paris); the average was four hundred pigs for the twenty estates that had such woods. Higounet estimates that each pig needed one hectare (or 2.47 acres) ("Forêts de l'Europe").
73. On the league, see J. F. Niermeyer et al., Mediae Latinitatis Lexicon Minus, 2nd ed., 2 vols. (Boston, 2002), 2:781-782
74. Constance Bouchard, ed., The Cartulary of Montier-en-Der, 666-1129 (Toronto, 2004), 315-34: estates 1-5, 11, 13, 20, 24, 32, 47, and 49.
75. Keith J. Kirby and Charles Watkins, "Introduction: Historical Ecology and European Woodland," in The Ecological History of European Forests (New York, 1998), ix-xv;
76. Marie-Françoise Diot, "Les analyses palynologiques de sites archéologiques en France (du Néolithique au Moyen Age)," in Palynologie archéologique, ed. Josette Renault-Miskovsky et al. (Paris, 1985), 137-59;
77. Guy Jalut, "Le pollen, traducteur du paysage agraire," in Pour une archéologie agraire: A la croissée des sciences de l'homme et de la nature, ed. Jean Guilaine (Paris, 1991), 345-68.
78. For southern Champagne and nearby, see Georges Lemée, "Evolution du paysage dans la forêt de Fontainebleau au cours des cinq derniers millénaires," Bulletin écologique 21 (1990): 119-27;
79. Vincent Krier et al., "Approche pluridisciplinaire de l'environnement du site holocène de Verrières (Vallée de la Seine, Aube)," in Archéologie et environnement des milieux aquatiques (Actes du 116e Congrès national des sociétés savants, Chambéry, 1991) (Paris, 1992), 47-59;
80. Chantal Leroyer, "Une référence environnementale pour le Senonais durant le Moyen Age: La séquence pollinique de l'Alain," in L'homme et la nature au Moyen Age: Actes du Ve congrès international d'archéologie médiévale, ed. Michel Colardelle (Paris, 1996), 67-71.
81. Jean-Pierre Devroey, ed., Le polyptyque et les listes de cens de l'abbaye de Saint-Remi de Reims (IXe-XIe siècles) (Reims, 1984), 4-7, 9-10, 14-16, 27-28, 30-31, 33-36, 46-51, 53, 56.
82. On assarts, see Bouchard, Montier-en-Der, estates 1-6, 14-15, 21, and 23-24;
83. on legislation, see Ludovicus de Salis, ed., Leges Burgundionum (Monumenta Germaniae Historica [hereafter MGH], Legum Sectio 1, vol.2, pt. 1) (Hannover, 1892), 65-66, title 28;
84. Karl Eckhardt, ed., Lex Salica (MGH, Legum Sectio 1, vol. 4, pt. 2) (Hannover, 1969), 40-42, title 8;
85. and Alfredus Boretius, ed., Capitularia regum Francorum, vol.1 (MGH, Legum Sectio 2) (Hannover, 1883), 86 (Capitulare de villis, ca. 800), clause 36.
86. See Marcus Cato, De agri cultura, ed. Harrison Boyd (Cambridge, 1935), 4-7;
87. Meiggs, Trees and Timber, 260-70. For Saint-Remi's estate of Courtisols (ten kilometers northeast of Châlons),
88. see Devroey, Saint-Remi de Reims, 20;
89. see also 3, 6, 33. Coppicing may have been more common in Flanders, where a polyptych systematically contrasts silva grossa and minuta: François-Louis Ganshof, ed., Le polyptyque de l'abbaye de Saint-Bertin (844-859) (Paris, 1975), 13-24, 80.
90. Hägermann, Saint-Germain-des-Prés: concida (cut-over): estates 1, 5, 9, 12, 13, 23, 24; silva novella: estates 2, 9, 24; silvula: estates 21, 24; silva parva: estate 24; and lucus (grove): estates 21, 25. Similarly, all twenty-three of Saint-Bertin's tenants who had woods had only silva minuta, but the two mentions for Montier-en-Der both refer to demesne lands:
91. For legislation, see Karl Eckhardt, ed., Pactis Legis Salicae (MGH, Legum Sectio 1, vol. 4, pt. 1) (Hannover, 1962), 74-75, title 16.
92. Theo Kölzer et al., eds., Die Urkunden der Merowinger, 2 vols. (MGH, Diplomatum Regum Francorum e Stirpe Merovingica) (Hannover, 2001), 206, no. 81;
93. Rubner, Forstverfassung, 6-17;
94. Higounet, "Les forêts," 374-79;
95. Andrée Corvol, ed., Forêt et chasse, Xe-XXe siècle (Paris, 2004).
96. Martine Garrigues, ed., Le premier cartulaire de l'abbaye cistercienne de Pontigny (Paris, 1981), 95 (ca. 1149), 132 (1143), 182 (1139);
97. cf. Dominique Barthélemy, La société dans le comté de Vendôme de l'an mil au XIVe siècle (Paris, 1993), 168, 178-179
98. Adolf Toblers et al., Tobler-Lommatzsch altfranzösisches Wörterbuch, 11 vols. (Berlin, 1915-), 1:1031-32, 3:2087-89;
99. Corinne J. Saunders, The Forest of Medieval Romance: Avernus, Broceliande, Arden (Rochester, NY, 1993), 1-94;
100. Colleen Mullarkey, "The Forest in the Romances of Chretien de Troyes" (PhD diss., University of Chicago, 1998).
101. Duby, Rural Economy, 67-87;
102. Georges Duby, The Early Growth of the European Economy: Warriors and Peasants from the Seventh to the Twelfth Century (Ithaca, NY, 1974), 199-210;
103. Robert Fossier, Enfance de l'Europe: Aspects économiques et sociaux, 2nd ed. (Paris, 1989), 170-87;
104. Michel Bur, "Le défrichement et le partage de la forêt du Mans près de Meaux (1150-1250)," Bulletin philologique et historique (jusqù 1610) du Comité des Travaux Historiques et Scientifiques (1963): 93-127;
105. Higounet, Défrichements et villeneuves, 59-203;
106. Jean-Louis Peudon, Aux origines d'un département: L'Aube en Champagne (Langres, 2003), 126-170
107. Garrigues, Pontigny, 100 (1147);
108. Charles Lalore, ed., Cartulaire de Montier-la-Celle (Paris, 1882), 251 (1154);
109. Bur, Champagne, 259, 322-29.
110. John Benton, ed., Recueil des actes des comtes de Champagne, 1152-97, 2 vols. (Pasadena, CA, 1988), 1156g, 1157n, 1160l, 1160m, 1161f, 1163n, 1164f, 1165d, 1169e, etc.;
111. Garrigues, Pontigny, 144 (1152);
112. William Duba, ed., "The Cartulary of Vauluisant: A Critical Edition" (MA thesis, University of Iowa, 1994), 590-91 (ca. 1142-63).
113. For quantified limits, see Lalore, Montier-la-Celle, 18 (1154);
114. Benton, Recueil, 1153c, 1154o, 1156g, 1163h, 1163n, 1172h.
115. For Lorris and Villeneuve-l'Archevêque, see Henri-François Delaborde et al., eds., Recueil des actes de Philippe Auguste roi de France, 6 vols. (Paris, 1916-2005), 1:243-46, confirmation of 1187, article 29;
116. Duba, "Vauluisant," 94-111.
117. Edouard Bonvalot, Le tiers état d'après la charte de Beaumont et ses filiales (Paris, 1884), 100, 109 (articles 8, 54);
118. Theodore Evergates, Feudal Society in the Bailliage of Troyes under the Counts of Champagne, 1152-1284 (Baltimore, MD, 1975), 30-59.
119. Bouchard, Montier-en-Der, 135 (1027); 168 (ca. 1050-60).
120. Duba, "Vauluisant," 250 (ca. 1142-61);
121. also Garrigues, Pontigny, 132 (1143). On iron mining here,
122. see Denis Cailleaux, "Les religieux et le travail du fer en Pays d'Othe (XIIe-XVIe siècle)," in Moines et metallurgie dans la France médiévale, ed. Paul Benoît and Denis Cailleaux (Paris, 1991), 193-211;
123. Patrice Beck et al., "La sidérurgie ancienne en forêt d'Othe," in Protoindustries et histoire des forêts, ed. Jean-Paul Metaille (Toulouse, 1992), 301-16;
124. Catherine Verna, Les mines et les forges des Cisterciens en Champagne méridionale et en Bourgogne du Nord, XIIe-XVe siècle (Paris, 1995), 49-64; and n. 61 below.
125. For pannage, see Garrigues, Pontigny, 141 (1147), 147 (1160), 153-54 (after 1147), 161 (1118), 108 (ca. 1145-69); for boundaries,
126. see Garrigues, Pontigny, ibid., 109 (1155), 136 (1146).
127. Szabo, Woodland and Forests, 57-66.
128. Elizabeth Chapin, Les villes de foires de Champagne des origines au début du XIVe siècle (Paris, 1937), 29-51;
129. Jacques Le Goff, ed., La ville médiévale des Carolingiens à la Renaissance (Paris, 1980), 189-261;
130. David Nicholas, The Growth of the Medieval City: From Late Antiquity to the Early Fourteenth Century (New York, 1997), 90-114, 171-201;
131. Adriaan Verhulst, The Rise of Cities in North-West Europe (New York, 1999), 68-156.
132. Yvonne-Hélène Le Maresquier-Kesteloot, " L'approvisionnement de Paris en bois (XIVe-XVe siècles)," Franco-British Studies 20 (1995): 69-83;
133. Margaret Murphy, "The Fuel Supply of Medieval London, 1300-1400," Franco-British Studies 20 (1995): 85-96;
134. James Galloway et al., "Fuelling the City: Production and Distribution of Firewood and Fuel in London's Region, 1290-1400," Economic History Review 49 (1996): 447-472
135. Duba, "Vauluisant," 605 (1193), 509-523 (1202-15).
136. Garrigues, Pontigny, 105 (1185);
137. Alexandre Teulet et al., eds., Layettes du Trésor des Chartes (hereafter LTC), 5 vols. (Paris, 1863-1909), vol.2, no.1599 (1223);
138. John Baldwin et al., eds., Les registres de Philippe Auguste (Paris, 1992), inquisitiones nos. 59, 85, 96.
139. Lalore, Montier-la-Celle, 55 (1186), 137-38 (1245), 12 (1220); see also 86 (1236).
140. Jean-Claude Rameau et al., Flore forestière française: Guide écologique illustré (Paris, 1989-), 1:452-53, beech (Fagus sylvatica); 1:564-571, oak, the most common species being sessile (Quercus petraea) and pedunculate oak (Q. robur).
141. d'Arbois, HDCC, 3:480-482
142. 1255, orig.: Troyes, Archives Départementales de l'Aube (hereafter ADA), 22H 1621; d'Arbois, HDCC, 5:471, no.3073.
143. See Bloch, French Rural History, 182-89;
144. Jean Birrell, "Common Rights in the Medieval Forest: Disputes and Conflicts in the Thirteenth Century," Past and Present, no. 117 (1987): 22-49; and Whited, Forests.
145. Theodore Evergates, ed., Littere Baronum: The Earliest Cartulary of the Counts of Champagne (Toronto, 2003), 73 (1165), 80 (1165);
146. Baldwin, Registres, 1:86 (1212);
147. Jean Rauzier, Finances et gestion d'une principauté au XIVe siècle: Le duché de Bourgogne de Philippe le Hardi (1364-1384) (Paris, 1996), 259;
148. Devèze, Forêt française, 1:83-84. On pomarius, wild apple or pommier sauvage (Malus sylvestris), and pirus, wild pear or poirier sauvage (Pyrus spp.),
149. see Rameau et al., Flore forestière, 1:502-3, 550-53. On human consumption,
150. see Marie- Pierre Ruas, "Eléments pour une histoire de la fructiculture en France: Données archéobotaniques de l'antiquité au XVIIe siècle," in Colardelle, L'homme et la nature, 92-105.
151. Jourdan, Decrusy, and Isambert, eds., Recueil général des anciennes lois françaises depuis l'an 420 jusqù la révolution de 1789, 29 vols. (1821-1833; rpt. Ridgewood, NJ, 1964-66), 3:108-9, no.497 (1315), par. 9.
152. For earlier lists, see Chédeville, Chartres, 204 (ca. 1176);
153. and Bur, "Forêt du Mans," 104 (ca. 1215-26).
154. An ordonnance of 1376 excluded these species from mort-bois: Jourdan, Recueil général des anciennes lois, 4:467-69, pars. 40, 47.
155. Bur, Champagne, 292-305, 322-38;
156. Barthélemy, Coucy, 377-92;
157. cf. Guillaume Leyte, Domaine et domanialité publique dans la France médiévale (XIIe-XVe siècles) (Strasbourg, 1996), 57-91, 169-195
158. Garrigues, Pontigny, 97 (1166), 151 (1184); by lords,
159. Lalore, Montier-la-Celle, 27 (1203), 332-33 (1204);
160. cf. Fossier, Picardie, 430;
161. see Baldwin, Philip Augustus, 251-258
162. Lalore, Montier-la-Celle, 165 (1216);
163. Teulet, LTC, vol. 2, no. 2252. On this and a similar fundus/superficia distinction for urban property,
164. and Olivier Faron and Etienne Hubert, eds., Le sol et l'immeuble: Les formes dissociées de propriété immoblière dans les villes de France et d'Italie (XIIe-XIXe siècle) (Rome, 1995).
165. Evergates, Littere Baronum, 122 (1205);
166. Lalore, Montier-la-Celle, 8 (1219), 21 (1224);
167. Teulet, LTC, vol.1, nos. 975, 1078;
168. 1229: AN, KK 1064, fol. 381r; for restrictions, see 1241, Teulet, LTC, vol. 2, no. 2936; 1255
169. LTC, vol. 3, no. 4184;
170. for continued purchases, see 1255, LTC, vol. 3, no. 4194.
171. See also Evergates, Aristocracy, 78. I thank Evergates for bringing these important sources to my attention.
172. Jacques Laurent, ed., Cartulaires de l'abbaye de Molesme, 2 vols. (Paris, 1907-11), 2:324: the two men, unknown to me, are Girard Judas and Guillaume de Vaudes.
173. D'Arbois, HDCC, 4:815-17: the arpent of Troyes contained 180 square rods, with the rod varying from twenty to twenty-two feet long, which represented about 0.75 to 0.92 hectares, or about 1.8 to 2.2 acres; see
174. John Baldwin, "Pierre du Thillay, Knight and Lord: The Landed Resources of the Lower Aristocracy in the Early Thirteenth Century," Francia 30 (2003): 38-41.
175. Teulet, LTC, vol. 1, no. 1242; the three merchants, otherwise unknown to me, were Renard de Melun, Benoît de Banisiaco, and Geoffroy Morel. On contiguous cutting areas, a method called tire et aire and generally considered modern,
176. see Buridant, "Du modèle à la pratique," 211-12.
177. 1245, orig.: ADA, G 3130. See Michel Bur, "Aux origines du fermage: L'exemple du chapitre cathédral de Meaux," Revue du Nord 49 (1967): 5-21;
178. Alain Saint-Denis, Apogée d'une cité: Laon et le Laonnois aux XIIe et XIIIe siècles (Nancy, 1994), 401-5;
179. and Guy Fourquin, "Les débuts du fermage: L'exemple de Saint-Denis," Etudes rurales 22 (1966): 7-81;
180. Galloway, "Fuelling the City," 454-58;
181. Andrée Corvol, "Connaître la forêt: Problèmes et documents," in Cavaciocchi, L'uomo e la foresta, 63
182. 1301, orig.: AN, J 199, no.41. See Jean Mesqui, "Les ponts sur la Seine et ses affluents entre Troyes et Montereau au XIIIe siècle," in Mélanges d'archéologie et d'histoire médiévales dans l'Aube, ed. Raymond Tomasson (Troyes, 1985), 27-55;
183. Robert-Henri Bautier, "La route française et son évolution au cours du Moyen Age," Bulletin de l'Académie Royale de Belgique, Classe des lettres et des sciences morales et politiques 73 (1987): 70-104;
184. Bautier, "La circulation fluviale dans la France médiévale," in Recherches sur ĺconomie de la France médiévale: Les voies fluviales. La draperie. Actes du 112e Congrès national des sociétés savants (Lyon, 1987) (Paris, 1989), 7-36;
185. and Peudon, Aux origines, 72, 96-112, 384-390
186. See n. 37 above; and Christiane Raynaud, A la hache! Histoire et symbolique de la hache dans la France médiévale (XIIIe-XVe siècles) (Paris, 2002), 102-26;
187. Philippe Braunstein, "Les forges champenois de la comtesse de Flandre (1372-1404)," Annales: Economies, sociétés, civilisations 42 (1987): 747-77;
188. and Patrice Beck et al., "Wood, Iron, and Water in the Othe Forest in the Late Middle Ages: New Findings and Perspectives," in Technology and Resource Use in Medieval Europe: Cathedrals, Mills, and Mines, ed. Elizabeth B. Smith and Michael Wolfe (Brookfield, VT, 1997), 173-184
189. and Le Maresquier-Kesteloot, "Approvisionnement de Paris," 74.
190. 1262, sale to Girard de la Noue, citeien of Paris: Teulet, LTC, vol.5, no.743. Other early contracts, in the Argonne: 1202, AN, KK 1064, fol. 159r; near Reims: 1212, LTC, vol.1, no. 1029; 1222, HDCC, catalog no. 1451; Othe Forest: 1214, LTC, vol.1, no. 1078; 1229, LTC, vol.5, no. 343; Brie: 1218, LTC, vol.1, no. 1316; 1223, HDCC, catalog no. 1536.
191. Duba, "Vauluisant," 521 (no.271, 1215): Othe Forest, custom of Villemaur; 323 (no. 123, 1222): Othe Forest, four years; June 1239: LTC, vol.2, no. 2813: Argonne, five years, custom of Champagne; 1271:
192. Paulette Portejoie, ed., L'ancien coutumier de Champagne (XIIIe siècle) (Poitiers, 1956), 174, art. 21;
193. Garrigues, Pontigny, 198 (1143), 199 (1164), 233 (1260);
194. Lalore, Montier-la-Celle, 39 (1156);
195. Longnon, DCB, 2:38 (1276); planting: 1351, ADA, G 3677.
196. Guy Fourquin, Le domaine royal en Gâtinais d'après la prisée de 1332 (Paris, 1963), 66; Pontigny: Bibliothèque Nationale (hereafter BN), ms. latin 5465, fol. 21r; Coutumes de Troyes (1509), 253, title 11, art. 98.
197. For the Pontigny reference, I thank Jean-Luc Benoît, "Pontigny, Saint Edme, les moines et leurs voisins: L'abbaye cistercienne pendant la première moitié du XIIIe siècle," 2 vols. (diplôme des études avancées, Université de Paris-IV, 1997), 1:73-75.
198. See Corinne Beck and Patrice Beck, "La nature aménagé e: Le parc du château d'Aisey-sur-Seine (Bourgogne, XIVe-XVIe siècles)," in Colardelle, L'homme et la nature, 22-29.
199. Sale of 1301: Longnon, DCB, 3:107;
200. Jourdan, Recueil général des anciennes lois françaises, 462 (no. 575, July 1376, Melun, par. 21): 8-10 bailivaux per arpent.
201. Ferdinand Lot and Robert Fawtier, eds., Le premier budget de la monarchie française: Le compte générale de 1202-1203 (Paris, 1932), 55-56;
202. Strayer, Normandy, 43-44. In the late 1200s new forms of taxation made woodlands less important as a source of royal income.
203. See Fourquin, Gâtinais, 81;
204. and Ghislain Brunel, "L'élevage dans le Nord de la France (XIe-XIIIe siècles): Quelques jalons de recherche," Annales de Bretagne et des pays de l'Ouest 106 (1999): 41-62. Cutting cycles, 1276:
205. Michel Belotte, La region de Bar-sur-Seine à la fin du Moyen Age, du début du XIIIe siècle au milieu du XVIe siècle: Etude économique et sociale (Lille, 1973), 56-57.
206. On the Garniers, see Chapin, Villes de foires, 109, 119; ADA, G 3756 (1282). On distinct usage areas, see
207. Warde, "Fear of Wood Shortage," 36;
208. Belotte, Bar-sur-Seine, 57;
209. Abel Rigault, Le procès de Guichard, évêque de Troyes (1308-1313) (Paris, 1896), 263;
210. René Noël, "Moines et nature sauvage: Dans l'Ardenne du haut Moyen Age (Saint-Remacle à Cugnon et à Stavelot-Malmedy), " in Villes et campagnes au Moyen Age: Mélanges Georges Despy, ed. M. Duvosquel and A. Dierkens (Liège, 1966), 563-97;
211. Jacques Le Goff, "The Wilderness in the Medieval West," in The Medieval Imagination, trans. Arthur Goldhammer (Chicago, 1988), 47-59;
212. Ellen Arnold, "Environment and the Shaping of Monastic Identity: Stavelot-Malmedy and the Medieval Ardennes" (PhD diss., University of Minnesota, 2006), chap. 5.
213. Leroyer, "Une référence environnementale pour le Senonais," 70;
214. Luc Bourgeois, "Espaces boisés, poles d'habitat et occupations marginales de l'antiquité au Moyen Age," in Les campagnes de Ile-de-France de Constantin à Clovis, ed. Pierre Ouzoulias and Paul Van Ossel (Paris, 1997), 32-40.
215. Contamine, Economie médiévale, 141-267;
216. Astill and Langdon, Medieval Farming and Technology.
217. James C. Scott, Seeing like a State: How Certain Schemes to Improve the Human Condition Have Failed (New Haven, CT, 1998), 11-22;
218. Daniel Smail, Imaginary Cartographies: Possessions and Identity in Late Medieval Marseille (Ithaca, NY, 1999), 222-28;
219. John Hatcher and Mark Bailey, Modelling the Middle Ages: The History and Theory of England's Economic Development (New York, 2001);
220. Karl Appuhn, "Politics, Perception, and the Meaning of the Landscape in Late Medieval Venice: Marco Cornaro's 1442 Inspection of Firewood Supplies," in Inventing Medieval Landscapes: Senses of Place in Western Europe, ed. John Howe and Michael Wolfe (Gainesville, FL, 2002), 70-88.
221. See nn. 9-13 above; and G. Tacke and M. Hermy, "Historical Ecology of Woodlands in Flanders," in Ecological History of European Forests, 283-92;
222. Marc Suttor, "Un grand exportateur de bois de marine vers les chantiers navals des Pays-Bas: La vallée mosanne, du XIIIe au XVIIe siècle," Le Moyen Age 106 (2000): 305-22;
223. Bettina Borgemeister, Die Stadt und ihr Wald: Eine Untersuchung zur Waldgeschichte der Städte Göttingen und Hannover vom 13. bis zum 18. Jahrhundert (Hannover, 2005);
224. Odile Redon, "Une forêt urbaine: La 'Selva del Lago,'" in
225. Rauzier, Finances et gestion, 257-78;
226. Pierre Gresser, "Nature et montant des recettes forestières du Comté de Bourgogne au XIVe siècle, d'après les comptes de gruerie," Flaran 24 (2002): 13-38.
227. Peter Sahlins, Forest Rites: The War of the Demoiselles in Nineteenth-Century France (Cambridge, 1994); Whited, Forests;
228. Emmanuel Garnier, Terre de conquêtes: La forêt vosgienne sous l'Ancien Régime (Paris, 2004).
229. Brunel, "Ĺlevage dans le Nord de la France";
230. Jean-Marc Moriceau, Histoire et géographie de ĺlevage français, du Moyen Age à la Révolution (Paris, 2005), 345-352
231. Jean Boissière, "Le flottage en Europe du XIIIe au XVIIIe siècle (quelques remarques à partir de l'exemple français)," in Cavaciocchi, L'uomo e la foresta, 805-57;
232. Boissière, "La consummation parisienne de bois et les sidérurgies périphériques: Essai de mise en parallèle (milieu XVe siècle-milieu XIXe siècle)," in Forges et forêts: Recherches sur la consommation proto-industrielle de bois, ed. Denis Woronoff (Paris, 1990), 29-56;
233. Peudon, Aux origines, 255-267
234. Garrett Hardin, "The Tragedy of the Commons," Science, no.162 (1968): 1243-48;
235. Margaret A. McKean, "Common Property: What Is It, What Is It Good for, and What Makes It Work?" in People and Forests: Communities, Institutions, and Governance, ed. Clark C. Gibson, Margaret A. McKean, and Elinor Ostrom (Cambridge, 2000), 27-55;
236. Michael Williams, Deforesting the Earth: From Prehistory to Global Crisis (Chicago, 2003);
237. Jared Diamond, Collapse: How Societies Choose to Fail or Succeed (New York, 2005), 102-7, 419-426
238. Joachim Radkau, "Germany as a Focus of European 'Particularities' in Environmental History," in Germany's Nature: Cultural Landscapes and Environmental History, ed. Thomas Lekan and Thomas Zeller (New Brunswick, NJ, 2005), 19.
239. Jourdan, Recueil général des anciennes lois, 4:523 (Brunay, May 29, 1346), par. 4.