Pathogenesis and pathobiology of avian influenza virus infection in birds

OIE Revue Scientifique et Technique

Volumn 28, Issue 1, 2009, Pages 113-136

  Pantin Jackwood, M J ^a   Swayne, D E ^a  

^a AGRICULTURAL RESEARCH SERVICE   (United States)

Author keywords

Avian diseases; Avian influenza virus; Highly pathogenic avian influenza; Low pathogenic avian influenza; Pathobiology; Pathogenesis; Pathotypes

Indexed keywords

ANAS PLATYRHYNCHOS; ANATIDAE; ANSERIFORMES; AVES; AVIAN INFLUENZA VIRUS; COLUMBIFORMES; GALLUS GALLUS; ORTHOMYXOVIRIDAE;

EID: 68149164560     PISSN: 02531933     EISSN: 16080645     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.20506/rst.28.1.1869     Document Type: Article

References (115)

1. Acland H.M., Silverman Bachin L.A. & Eckroade R.J. (1984). - Lesions in broiler and layer chickens in an outbreak of highly pathogenic avian influenza virus infection. Vet. Pathol., 21, 564-569.
2. Alexander D.J., Allan W.H., Parsons D.G. & Parsons G. (1978). - The pathogenicity of four avian influenza viruses for fowls, turkeys and ducks. Res. vet. Sci., 24, 242-247.
3. Alexander D.J., Parsons G. & Manvell R.J. (1986). - Experimental assessment of the pathogenicity of eight avian influenza A viruses of H5 subtype for chickens, turkeys, ducks and quail. Avian Pathol., 15, 647-662.
4. Allwright D.M., Burger W.P., Geyer A. & Terblanche A.W. (1993). - Isolation of an influenza A virus from ostriches. Avian Pathol., 22, 59-65.
5. Bano S., Naeem K. & Malik S.A. (2003). - Evaluation of pathogenic potential of avian influenza virus serotype H9N2 in chickens. Avian Dis., 47, 817-822.
6. Beard C.W. & Heifer D.H. (1972). - Isolation of two turkey influenza viruses in Oregon. Avian Dis., 16, 1133-1136.
7. Becker W.B. (1966). - The isolation and classification of Tern virus: influenza A-Tern South Africa-1961. J. Hyg. (London), 64, 309-320.
8. Boon A.C., Sandbulte M.R., Seiler P., Webby R.J., Songserm T., Guan Y. & Webster R.G. (2007). - Role of terrestrial wild birds in ecology of influenza A virus (H5N1). Emerg. infect. Dis., 13, 1720-1724.
9. Bosch F.X., Orlich M., Klenk H.D. & Rott R. (1979). - The structure of the hemagglutinin, a determinant for the pathogenicity of influenza viruses. Virology, 95, 197-207.
10. Brown J.D., Stallknecht D.E., Beck J.R., Suarez D.L. & Swayne D.E. (2006). - Susceptibility of North American ducks and gulls to H5N1 highly pathogenic avian influenza viruses. Emerg. infect. Dis., 12, 1663-1670.
11. Brown J.D., Stallknecht D.E. & Swayne D.E. (2008). - Experimental infection of swans and geese with highly pathogenic avian influenza virus (H5N1) of Asian lineage. Emerg. infect. Dis., 14, 136-142.
12. Brown J.D., Stallknecht D.E. & Swayne D.E. (2008). - Experimental infections of herring gulls (Larus argentatus) with H5N1 highly pathogenic avian influenza viruses by intranasal inoculation of virus and ingestion of virus-infected chicken meat. Avian Pathol., 37, 393-397.
13. Capua I. & Mutinelli F. (2001). - Avian influenza. Color atlas and text. PAPI Ed. Edizione Tecnico Scientifiche, Bologna, Italy, 1-127.
14. Capua I. & Mutinelli F. (2001). - Mortality in Muscovy ducks (Cairina moschata) and domestic geese (Anser anser var. domestica) associated with natural infection with a highly pathogenic avian influenza virus of H7N1 subtype. Avian Pathol., 30(2), 179-183.
15. Capua I., Mutinelli F., Terregino C., Cattoli G., Manvell R.J. & Burlini F. (2000). - Highly pathogenic avian influenza (H7N1) in ostriches farmed in Italy. Vet. Rec., 146, 356.
16. Cauthen A.N., Swayne D.E., Schultz-Cherry S., Perdue M.L. & Suarez D.L. (2000). - Continued circulation in China of highly pathogenic avian influenza viruses encoding the hemagglutinin gene associated with the 1997 H5N1 outbreak in poultry and humans. J. Virol., 74, 6592-6599.
17. Cauthen A.N., Swayne D.E., Sekellick M.J., Marcus P.I. & Suarez D.L. (2007). - Amelioration of influenza virus pathogenesis in chickens attributed to the enhanced interferon-inducing capacity of a virus with a truncated NS1 gene. J. Virol., 81, 1838-1847.
18. Chen H., Deng G., Li Z., Tian G., Li Y., Jiao P., Zhang L., Liu Z., Webster R.G. & Yu K. (2004). - The evolution of H5N1 influenza viruses in ducks in southern China. Proc. natl Acad. Sci. USA, 101, 10452-10457.
19. Chen H., Smith G.D.J., Zhang S.Y., Qm K., Wang J., Li K.S., Webster R.G., Peiris J.S.M. & Guan Y. (2005). - H5N1 virus outbreak in migratory waterfowl: a worrying development could help to spread this dangerous virus beyond its stronghold in Southeast Asia. Nature (London), 436, 191-192.
20. Cooley A.J., Van Campen H., Philpott M.S., Easterday B.C. & Hinshaw V.S. (1989). - Pathological lesions in the lungs of ducks with influenza A viruses. Vet. Pathol., 26, 1-5.
21. Department for Environment, Food and Rural Affairs (DEFRA) (2005). - Epidemiology report on avian influenza in a quarantine premises in Essex. Available at: http://www.defra.gov.uk/animalh/diseases/notifiable/disease/ai/ pdf/ai-epidemrepl 11105.pdf (accessed on 11 July 2008).
22. Easterday B.C., Hinshaw V.S. & Halvorson D.A. (1997). - Influenza. In Diseases of poultry (B.W. Calnek, H.J. Barnes, C.W. Beard, L.R. McDougald & Y.M. Saif, eds). 10th Ed. Iowa State University Press, Ames, Iowa, 583-605.
23. Elbers A.R., Fabri T.H., de Vries T.S., de Wit J.J., Pijpers A. & Koch G. (2004). - The highly pathogenic avian influenza A (H7N7) virus epidemic in the Netherlands in 2003: lessons learned from the first five outbreaks. Avian Dis., 48, 691-705.
24. Ellis T.M., Bousfield R.B., Bissett L.A., Dyrting K.C., Luk G.S., Tsim S.T., Sturm-Ramirez K., Webster R.G., Guan Y. & Peiris J.S. (2004). - Investigation of outbreaks of highly pathogenic H5N1 avian influenza in waterfowl and wild birds in Hong Kong in late 2002. Avian Pathol., 33, 492-505.
25. Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) (2004). - Update on the avian influenza situation (as of 15/06/2004). FAO AIDE News Bulletin, No. 16, 1-10.
26. Hawkins M.G., Crossley B.M., Osofsky A., Webby R.J., Lee C., Suarez D.L. & Hietala S.K. (2006). - Avian influenza A virus subtype H5N2 in a red-lored Amazon parrot. J. Am. vet. med. Assoc., 228, 236-241.
27. Hinshaw V.S., Olsen C.W., Dybdahlsissoko N. & Evans D. (1994). - Apoptosis: a mechanism of cell killing by influenza A and B viruses. J. Virol., 68, 3667-3673.
28. Hooper P. & Selleck P. (1998). - Pathology of low and high virulent influenza virus infections. In Proc. Fourth International Symposium on Avian Influenza (D.E. Swayne & D.R. Slemons, eds). U.S. Animal Health Association, Richmond, VA, 134-141.
29. Hooper P.T., Russell G.W., Selleck P.W. & Stanislawek W.L. (1995). - Observations on the relationship in chickens between the virulence of some avian influenza viruses and their pathogenicity for various organs. Avian Dis., 39, 458-464.
30. Hulse D.J., Webster R.G., Russell R.J. & Perez D.R. (2004). - Molecular determinants within the surface proteins involved in the pathogenicity of H5N1 influenza viruses in chickens. J. Virol., 78, 9954-9964.
31. Hulse-Post D.J., Franks J., Boyd K., Salomon R., Hoffmann E., Yen H.L., Webby R.J., Walker D., Nguyen T.D. & Webster R.G. (2007). - Molecular changes in the polymerase genes (PA and PB1) associated with high pathogenicity of H5N1 influenza virus in mallard ducks. J. Virol., 81, 8515-8524.
32. Hulse-Post D.J., Sturm-Ramirez K.M., Humberd J., Seiler P., Govorkova E.A., Krauss S., Scholtissek C., Puthavathana P. et al. (2005). - Role of domestic ducks in the propagation and biological evolution of highly pathogenic H5N1 influenza viruses in Asia. Proc. natl Acad. Sri. USA, 102, 10682-10687.
33. Isoda N., Sakoda Y., Kishida N., Bai G.R., Matsuda K., Umemura T. & Kida H. (2006). - Pathogenicity of a highly pathogenic avian influenza virus, A/chicken/Yamaguchi/7/04 (H5N1) in different species of birds and mammals. Arch. Virol., 151, 1267-1279.
34. Jones Y.L. & Swayne D.E. (2004). - Comparative pathobiology of low and high pathogenicity H7N3 Chilean avian influenza viruses in chickens. Avian Dis., 48, 119-128.
35. Jorgensen P.H., Nielsen O.L., Hansen H.C., Manvell R.J., Banks J. & Alexander D.J. (1998). - Isolation of influenza virus subtype H5N2 and avian paramyxovirus type 1 from a flock of ostriches in Europe. Avian Pathol., 27, 15-20.
36. Jungherr E.L., Tyzzer E.E., Brandly C.A. & Moses H.E. (1946). - The comparative pathology of fowl plague and Newcastle disease. Am. J. vet. Res., 7, 1946.
37. Kaleta E.F. & Honicke A. (2004). - Review of the literature on avian influenza A viruses in pigeons and experimental studies on the susceptibility of domestic pigeons to influenza A viruses of the haemagglutinin subtype H7. Dtsch. tierärztl. Wochenschr., 111, 467-472.
38. Kalthoff D., Breithaupt A., Teifke J.P., Globig A., Harder T., Mettenleiter T.C. & Beer M. (2008). - Highly pathogenic avian influenza virus (H5N1) in experimentally infected adult mute swans. Emerg. infect. Dis., 14, 1267-1270.
39. Keawcharoen J., van Riel D., van Amerongen G., Bestebroer T., Beyer W.E., van Lavieren R., Osterhaus A.D., Fouchier R.A. & Kuiken T. (2008). - Wild ducks as longdistance vectors of highly pathogenic avian influenza virus (H5N1). Emerg. infect. Dis., 14, 600-607.
40. Kishida N., Sakoda Y., Isoda N., Matsuda K., Eto M., Sunaga Y., Umemura T. & Kida H. (2005). - Pathogenicity of H5 influenza viruses for ducks. Arch. Virol., 150, 1383-1392.
41. Klopfleisch R., Werner O., Mundt E., Harder T. & Teifke J. P. (2006). - Neurotropism of highly pathogenic avian influenza virus A/chicken/Indonesia/ 2003 (H5N1) in experimentally infected pigeons (Columbia livia f. domestica). Vet. Pathol., 43, 463-470.
42. Kobayashi Y., Horimoto T., Kawaoka Y., Alexander D.J. & Itakura C. (1996). - Neuropathological studies of chickens infected with highly pathogenic avian influenza viruses. J. Comp. Pathol., 114, 131-147.
43. Kobayashi Y., Horimoto T., Kawaoka Y., Alexander D.J. & Itaruka C. (1996). - Pathological studies of chickens experimentally infected with two highly pathogenic avian influenza viruses. Avian Pathol., 25, 285-304.
44. Kwon Y.K., Joh S.J., Kim M.C., Lee Y.J., Choi J.G., Lee E.K., Wee S.H., Sung H.W., Kwon J.H., Kang M.I. & Kim J.H. (2005). - Highly pathogenic avian influenza in magpies (Pica pica sencea) in South Korea. J. Wildl Dis., 41, 618-623.
45. Kwon Y.K., Joh S.J., Kim M.C., Sung, H.W., Lee Y.J., Choi J.G., Lee E.K. & Kim J.H. (2005). - Highly pathogenic avian influenza (H5N1) in the commercial domestic ducks of South Korea. Avian Pathol., 34, 367-370.
46. Laudert E., Halvorson D., Sivanandan V. & Shaw D. (1993). - Comparative evaluation of tissue tropism characteristics in turkeys and mallard ducks after intravenous inoculation of type A influenza viruses. Avian Dis., 37, 773-780.
47. Laudert E., Sivanandan V. & Halvorson D. (1993). - Effect of an H5N1 avian influenza virus infection on the immune system of mallard ducks. Avian Dis., 37, 845-853.
48. Laudert E.A., Sivanandan V. & Halvorson D. (1993). - Effect of intravenous inoculation of avian influenza virus on reproduction and growth in mallard ducks. J. Wildl Dis., 29, 523-526.
49. Laudert E., Sivanandan V., Halvorson D., Shaw D. & Webster R.G. (1993). - Biological and molecular characterization of H13N2 influenza type A viruses isolated from turkeys and surface water. Avian Dis., 37, 793-799.
50. Lee C.W., Suarez D.L., Tumpey T.M., Sung H.W., Kwon Y.K., Lee Y.J., Choi J.G., Joh S.J. et al. (2005). - Characterization of highly pathogenic H5N1 avian influenza A viruses isolated from South Korea. J. Virol., 79, 3692-3702.
51. Li K.S., Xu K.M., Peiris J.S., Poon L.L., Yu K.Z., Yuen K.Y., Shortridge K.F., Webster R.G. & Guan Y. (2003). - Characterization of H9 subtype influenza viruses from the ducks of southern China: a candidate for the next influenza pandemic in humans J. Virol., 77, 6988-6994.
52. Li Z., Jiang Y., Jiao P., Wang A., Zhao F., Tian G., Wang X., Yu K., Bu Z. & Chen H. (2006). - The NS1 gene contributes to the virulence of H5N1 avian influenza viruses. J. Virol., 80, 11115-11123.
53. Liu J., Xiao H., Lei F., Zhu Q., Qin K., Zhang X.-W., Zhang X.-L., Zhao D. et al. (2005). - Highly pathogenic H5N1 influenza virus infection in migratory birds. Science, 309, 1206.
54. Liu Y., Zhou J., Yang H., Yao W., Bu W., Yang B., Song W., Meng Y. et al. (2007). - Susceptibility and transmissibility of pigeons to Asian lineage highly pathogenic avian influenza virus subtype H5N1. Avian Pathol., 36, 461-465.
55. Liu Y., Zhou J., Yao W., Bu W., Yang B., Song W., Mang Y. & Chen X. (2006). - Studies on susceptibility of pigeons to H5N1 subtype avian influenza virus. In Proc. Second Japan-China Bilateral Symposium on Avian Influenza (Y. Kawaoka, ed.), 14.
56. Mo I.P., Brugh M., Fletcher O.J., Rowland G.N. & Swayne D.E. (1997). - Comparative pathology of chickens experimentally inoculated with avian influenza viruses of low and high pathogenicity. Avian Dis., 41, 125-136.
57. Naeve C.W., Hinshaw V.S. & Webster R.G. (1984). - Mutations in the hemagglutinin receptor-binding site can change the biological properties of an influenza virus. J. Virol., 51, 567-569.
58. Narayan O. (1972). - Pathogenesis of lethal influenza virus infection in turkeys. II. Central nervous system phase of infection J. Comp. Pathol., 82, 139-146.
59. Nguyen D.C., Uyeki T.M., Jadhao S., Maines T., Shaw M., Matsuoka Y., Smith C., Rowe T. et al. (2005). - Isolation and characterization of avian influenza viruses, including highly pathogenic H5N1, from poultry in live bird markets in Hanoi, Vietnam, in 2001. J. Virol., 79, 4201-4212.
60. Olivier A.J. (2006). - Ecology and epidemiology of avian influenza in ostriches. Dev. Biol., 124, 51-57.
61. Olsen B., Munster V.J., Wallensten A., Waldenstrom J., Osterhaus A.D. & Fouchier R.A. (2006). - Global patterns of influenza A virus in wild birds. Science, 312, 384-388.
62. Panigraphy B., Senne D.A. & Pearson J.E. (1995). - Presence of avian influenza virus (AIV) subtypes H5N2 and H7N1 in emus (Dromaius novaehollandiae) and rheas (Rhea americana): virus isolation and serological findings. Avian Dis., 39, 64-67.
63. Pantin-Jackwood M.J., Suarez D.L., Spackman E. & Swayne D.E. (2007). - Age at infection affects the pathogenicity of Asian highly pathogenic avian influenza H5N1 viruses in ducks. Virus Res., 130, 151-161.
64. Pantin-Jackwood M.J. & Swayne D.E. (2007). - Pathobiology of Asian highly pathogenic avian influenza H5N1 virus infections in ducks. Avian Dis., 51, 250-259.
65. Pasick J., Berhane Y., Embury-Hyatt C., Copps J., Kehler H., Handel K., Babiuk S., Hooper-McGrevy K. et al. (2007). - Susceptibility of Canada geese (Branta canadensis) to highly pathogenic avian influenza virus (H5N1). Emerg. infect. Dis., 13, 1821-1827.
66. Perdue M.L., Suarez D.L. & Swayne D.E. (1999). - Avian influenza in the 1990s. Poult, avian Biol. Rev., 11, 1-20.
67. Perkins L.E. & Swayne D.E. (2001). - Pathobiology of A/chicken/Hong Kong/220/97 (H5N1) avian influenza virus in seven gallinaceous species. Vet. Pathol., 38, 149-164.
68. Perkins L.E. & Swayne D.E. (2002). - Pathogenicity of a Hong Kong-origin H5N1 highly pathogenic avian influenza virus for emus, geese, ducks, and pigeons. Avian Dis., 46, 53-63.
69. Perkins L.E. & Swayne D.E. (2002). - Susceptibility of laughing gulls (Larus atricilla) to H5N1 and H5N3 highly pathogenic avian influenza viruses. Avian Dis., 46, 877-885.
70. Perkins L.E. & Swayne D.E. (2003). - Comparative susceptibility of selected avian and mammalian species to a Hong Kong-origin H5N1 high-pathogemcity avian influenza virus. Avian Dis., 47, 956-967.
71. Perkins L.E. & Swayne D.E. (2003). - Varied pathogenicity of a Hong Kong-origin H5N1 avian influenza virus in four passenne species and budgerigars. Vet. Pathol., 40, 14-24.
72. Pittman M., Laddomada A., Freigofas R., Piazza V., Brouw A. & Brown I.A. (2007). - Surveillance, prevention, and disease management of avian influenza in the European Union. J. Wildl. Dis., 43, S64-S70.
73. Rott R., Orhch M. & Scholtissek C. (1979). - Correlation of pathogenicity and gene constellation of influenza A viruses. III. Non-pathogenic recombinants derived from highly pathogenic parent strains. J. gen. Virol., 44, 471-477.
74. Saito T., Watanabe C., Takemae N., Chaisingh A., Uchida Y., Buranathai C., Suzuki H., Okamatsu M. et al. (2008). - Pathogenicity of highly pathogenic avian influenza viruses of H5N1 subtype isolated in Thailand for different poultry species. Vet. Microbiol., 133 (1-2). E-pub.: 5 July 2008.
75. Schultz-Cherry S., Krug R.M. & Hinshaw V.S. (1996). - Influenza virus neuraminidase activates latent transforming growth factor beta. J. Virol., 70, 8624-8629.
76. Shalaby A.A., Slemons R.D. & Swayne D.E. (1994). - Pathological studies of A/chicken/Alabama/7395/75 (H4N8) influenza virus in specific-pathogen-free laying hens. Avian Dis., 38, 22-32.
77. Slemons R.D. & Swayne D.E. (1990). - Replication of a waterfowl-origin influenza virus in the kidney and intestine of chickens. Avian Dis., 34, 277-284.
78. Slemons R.D. & Swayne D.E. (1992). - Nephrotropic properties demonstrated by A/chicken/Alabama/75 (H4N8) following intravenous challenge of chickens. Avian Dis., 36, 926-931.
79. Spackman E., McCracken K.G., Winker K. & Swayne D.E. (2006). - H7N3 avian influenza virus found in a South Amencan wild duck is related to the Chilean 2002 poultry outbreak, contains genes from equine and North American wild bird lineages, and is adapted to domestic turkeys. J. Virol., 80, 7760-7764.
80. Spackman E., Swayne D.E., Suarez D.L., Senne D.A., Pedersen J.C., Killian M.L., Pasick J., Handel K. et al. (2007). - Characterization of low-pathogenicity H5N1 avian influenza viruses from North America. J. Virol., 81, 11612-11619.
81. Stallknecht D. & Brown J.D. (2008). - Ecology of avian influenza in wild birds. In Avian influenza (D.E. Swayne, ed.). Blackwell, Ames, Iowa, 43-58.
82. Stieneke Grober A., Vey M., Angliker H., Shaw E., Thomas G., Roberts C., Klenk H.D. & Garten W. (1992). - Influenza virus hemagglutinin with multibasic cleavage site is activated by furin, a subtilisin-like endoprotease. EMBO J., 11, 2407-2414.
83. Sturm-Ramirez K.M., Ellis T., Bousfield B., Bissett L., Dyrting K., Rehg J.E., Poon L., Guan Y. et al. (2004). - Reemerging H5N1 influenza viruses in Hong Kong in 2002 are highly pathogenic to ducks. J. Virol., 78, 4892-4901.
84. Sturm-Ramirez K.M., Hulse-Post D.J., Govorkova E.A., Humberd J., Seiler P., Puthavathana P., Buranathai C., Nguyen T.D. et al. (2005). - Are ducks contributing to the endemicity of highly pathogenic H5N1 influenza virus in Asia J. Virol., 79, 11269-11279.
85. Suarez D.L., Perdue M.L., Cox N., Rowe T., Bender C., Huang J. & Swayne D.E. (1998). - Comparisons of highly virulent H5N1 influenza A viruses isolated from humans and chickens from Hong Kong. J. Virol., 72, 6678-6688.
86. Subbarao K., Chen H., Swayne D., Mingay L., Fodor E., Brownlee G., Xu X., Lu X., Katz J., Cox N. & Matsuoka Y. (2003). - Evaluation of a genetically modified reassortant H5N1 influenza A virus vaccine candidate generated by plasmid-based reverse genetics. Virology, 305, 192-200.
87. Swayne D.E. (1997). - Pathobiology of H5N2 Mexican avian influenza viruses for chickens. Vet. Pathol., 34, 557-567.
88. Swayne D.E. (2007). - Understanding the complex pathobiology of high pathogenicity avian influenza viruses in birds. Avian Dis., 51, 242-249.
89. Swayne D.E. & Beck J.R. (2005). - Experimental study to determine if low-pathogenicity and high-pathogenicity avian influenza viruses can be present in chicken breast and thigh meat following intranasal virus inoculation. Avian Dis., 49, 81-85.
90. Swayne D.E., Beck J.R., Perdue M.L., Brugh M. & Slemons R.D. (1996). - Assessment of the ability of ratiteorigin influenza viruses to infect and produce disease in rheas and chickens. Avian Dis., 40, 438-447.
91. Swayne D.E., Ficken M.D. & Guy J.S. (1992). - Immunohistochemical demonstration of influenza A nucleoprotein in lungs of turkeys with natural and experimental influenza respiratory disease. Avian Pathol., 21, 547-557.
92. Swayne D.E. & Halvorson D.A. (2008). - Influenza. In Diseases of poultry (Y.M. Saif, J.R. Glisson, A.M. Fadly, L.R. McDougald & L. Nolan, eds). 12th Ed. Blackwell, Ames, Iowa, 153-184.
93. Swayne D.E. & Pantin-Jackwood M. (2006). - Pathogenicity of avian influenza viruses in poultry. Dev. Biol., 124, 61-67.
94. Swayne D.E. & Pantin-Jackwood M. (2008). - Pathobiology of avian influenza virus infections in birds and mammals. In Avian influenza (D.E. Swayne ed.). Blackwell Publishing, Ames, Iowa, 87-122.
95. Swayne D.E. & Slemons R.D. (1990). - Renal pathology in specific-pathogen-free chickens inoculated with a waterfowlorigin type A influenza virus. Avian Dis., 34, 285-294.
96. Swayne D.E. & Slemons R.D. (1992). - Evaluation of the kidney as a potential site of avian influenza virus persistence in chickens. Avian Dis., 36, 937-944.
97. Swayne D.E. & Slemons R.D. (1995). - Comparative pathology of intravenously inoculated wild duck-and turkeyorigin type A influenza viruses in chickens. Avian Dis., 39, 74-84.
98. Swayne D.E. & Slemons R.D. (2008). - Using mean infectious dose of wild duck-and poultry-origin high-and low-pathogenicity avian influenza viruses as one measure of infectivity and adaptation to poultry. Avian Dis., 52, 455-460.
99. Swayne D.E. & Suarez D.L. (2000). - Highly pathogenic avian influenza. In Diseases of poultry: world trade and public health implications. Rev. sci. tech. Off. int. Epiz., 19(2), 463-482.
100. Takisawa T.R.F. Miyawaki T., Ohashi K. & Nakanishi Y. (1995). - Activation of the apoptotic Fas antigen-encoding gene upon influenza virus infection involving spontaneously produced beta-interferon. Virology, 209, 288-296.
101. Tanimura N., Tsukamoto K., Okamatsu M., Mase M., Imada T., Nakamura K., Kubo M., Yamaguchi S. et al. (2006). - Pathology of fatal highly pathogenic H5N1 avian influenza virus infection in large-billed crows (Corvus macrorhynchos) during the 2004 outbreak in Japan. Avian Pathol., 43, 500-509.
102. Teifke J.P., Klopfleisch R., Globig A., Starick E., Hoffmann B., Wolf P.U., Beer M., Mettenleiter T.C. & Harder T.C. (2007). - Pathology of natural infections by H5N1 highly pathogenic avian influenza virus in mute (Cygnus olor) and whooper (Cygnus cygnus) swans. Vet. Pathol., 44, 137-143.
103. Terregino C., Milani A., Capua I., Marino A.M. & Cavaliere N. (2006). - Highly pathogenic avian influenza H5N1 subtype in mute swans in Italy. Vet. Rec., 158, 491.
104. Tsukamoto K., Imada T., Tanimura N., Okamatsu M., Mase M., Mizuhara T., Swayne D. & Yamaguchi S. (2007). - Impact of different husbandry conditions on contact and airborne transmission of H5N1 highly pathogenic avian influenza virus to chickens. Avian Dis., 51, 129-132.
105. Tumpey T.M., Kapczynski D.R. & Swayne D.E. (2004). - Comparative susceptibility of chickens and turkeys to avian influenza A H7N2 virus infection and protective efficacy of a commercial avian influenza H7N2 virus vaccine. Avian Dis., 48, 167-176.
106. Tumpey T.M., Suarez D.L., Perkins L.E., Senne D.A., Lee J.G., Lee Y.J., Mo I.P., Sung H.W. & Swayne D.E. (2002). - Characterization of a highly pathogenic H5N1 avian influenza A virus isolated from duck meat. J. Virol., 76, 6344-6355.
107. Van der Goot J.A., van Boven M., Koch G. & de Jong M.C. (2007). - Variable effect of vaccination against highly pathogenic avian influenza (H7N7) virus on disease and transmission in pheasants and teals. Vaccine, 25, 8318-8325.
108. Virgin S. (2007). - Pathogenesis of viral infection. In Fields Virology, 5th Ed., Vol. 1 (D.M. Knipe & P.M. Howley eds). Lippincott Williams & Williams, Philadelphia, PA, 328-388.
109. Wasilenko J.L., Lee C.W., Sarmento L., Spackman E., Kapczynski D.R., Suarez D.L. & Pantin-Jackwood M.J. (2008). - NP, PB1, and PB2 viral genes contribute to altered replication of H5N1 avian influenza viruses in chickens. J. Virol., 82, 4544-4553.
110. Webster R.G., Guan Y., Peiris M., Walker D., Krauss S., Zhou N.N., Govorkova E.A., Ellis T.M. et al. (2002). - Characterization of H5N1 influenza viruses that continue to circulate in geese in southeastern China. J. Virol., 76, 118-26.
111. Wood J.M., Webster R.G. & Nettles V.F. (1985). - Host range of A/Chicken/Pennsylvania/83 (H5N2) influenza virus. Avian Dis., 29, 198-207.
112. World Organisation for Animal Health (OIE) (2008). - Chapter 10.4. Avian influenza. In Terrestrial Animal Health Code, 17th Ed., Vol. II. OIE, Paris, 430-446.
113. World Organisation for Animal Health (OIE) (2008). - Highly pathogenic avian influenza in Vietnam. Follow-up report No. 20. Update on highly pathogenic avian influenza in animals. Available at: http://www.oie.int/downld/ AVIAN%20INFLUENZA/A-AI-Asia.htm (accessed on 15 August 2008).
114. Yamamoto Y., Nakamura K., Kitagawa K., Ikenaga N., Yamada M., Mase M. & Narita M. (2007). - Pathogenesis in call ducks inoculated intranasally with H5N1 highly pathogenic avian influenza virus and transmission by oral inoculation of infective feathers from an infected call duck. Avian Dis., 51,744-749.
115. Ziegler A.F., Davison S., Acland H. & Eckroade R.J. (1999). - Characteristics of H7N2 (nonpathogenic) avian influenza virus infections in commercial layers, in Pennsylvania, 1997-1998. Avian Dis., 43, 142-149.