Controversial rap themes, gender portrayals and skin tone distortion: A content analysis of rap music videos

Journal of Broadcasting and Electronic Media

Volumn 53, Issue 1, 2009, Pages 134-156

  Conrad, Kate ^a   Dixon, Travis L ^a   Zhang, Yuanyuan ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY OF ILLINOIS AT URBANA CHAMPAIGN   (United States)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

EID: 67651244287     PISSN: 08838151     EISSN: 15506878     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1080/08838150802643795     Document Type: Article

References (45)

1. Allen, R. L. (2001). The concept of self: A study of Black identity and self-esteem. Detroit, MI: Wayne State University Press.
2. Bartko, J. (1966). Intraclass correlation coefficient as a measure of reliability. Psychological Reports, 19, 3-11.
3. Baughman, E. (1971). African-American Americans: A psychological analysis. New York, NY: Academic Press.
4. Baxter, R. L., DeRiemer, C., Landini, A., Leslie, L., & Singletary, M. (1985). A content analysis of music videos. Journal of Broadcasting & Electronic Media, 29(3), 333-340.
5. Blair, I. V., Judd, M. C., Sadler, M. S., & Jenkins, C. (2002). The role of Afrocentric features in person perception: Judging by features and categories. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 83(1), 5-25.
6. Boehlert, E. (1995, June 3). Billboard, p. 1.
7. Crocker, J., & Major, B. (1989). Social stigma and self-esteem: The self-protective properties of stigma. Psychological Review, 96(4), 608-630.
8. Dixon, T., & Brooks, T. (2002). Rap music and rap audiences: Psychological effects and political resistance. African American Research Perspectives, 8(2), 106-116.
9. Dixon, T., & Linz, D. (2000). Overrepresentation and underrepresentation of African Americans and Latinos as lawbreakers on television news. Journal of Communication, 50(2), 131-154.
10. Dixon, T., & Maddox, K. (2005). Skin tone, crime news, and the social reality judgments: Priming the stereotype of the dark dangerous Black criminal. Journal of Applied Social Psychology, 35, 1555-1570.
11. Englis, B. G., Solomon, M. R., & Olofosson, A. (1993). Consumption imagery in music television: A bi-cultural perspective. Journal of Advertising, 22(4), 21-33.
12. Gan, S., Zillmann, D., & Mitrook, M. (1997). Stereotyping effect of Black women's sexual rap on White audiences. Basic and Applied Social Psychology, 19(3), 381-399.
13. Gerbner, G. (1969). Toward "cultural indicators": The analysis of mass mediated public message systems. In G. Gerbner, O. Holsti, K. Krippendorf, W. J. Paisley, & P. Stone (Eds), The analysis of communication content, developments in scientific theories and computer techniques (pp. 123-132). London: Wiley.
14. Gerbner, G. (1973). Cultural indicators: The third voice. In G. Gerbner, L. P. Gross, & W. H. Melody (Eds), Communication technology and social policy (pp. 555-573). London: Wiley.
15. Hansen, C. H., & Hansen, R. D. (2000). Music and music videos. In D. Zillman, & P. Vorderer (Eds.), Media entertainment: The psychology of its appeal (pp. 175-196). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
16. Haslam, N., Rothschild, L, & Ernst, D. (2002). Are essentialist beliefs associated with prejudice? British Journal of Social Psychology, 41, 87-100.
17. Herring, C., Keith, V., & Horton, H. D. (2003). Skin deep: How race and complexion matter in the "color-blind" era. Chicago, IL: University of Illinois Press.
18. hooks, b. (1992). Black looks: Race and representation. Boston: South End Press.
19. Johnson, J., Jackson, A., & Gatto, L. (1995). Violent attitudes and deferred academic aspirations: Deleterious effects of exposure to rap music. Basic and Applied Social Psychology, 16(1&2), 27-41.
20. Krippendorf, K. (2004). Reliability in content analysis. Human Communication Research, 30, 411-433.
21. Kubrin, C. (2005). Gangstas, thugs, and hustlas: Identity and the code of the street in rap music. Social Problems, 52(3), 360-378.
22. Maddox, K. B. (2004). Perspective on racial phenotypicality bias. Personality and Social Psychology Review, 8(4), 383-401.
23. Maddox, K. B., & Gray, S. A. (2002). Cognitive representations of Black Americans: Reexplor-ing the role of skin tone. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 28(2), 250-259.
24. Medin, D. L, & Ortony, A. (1989). Psychological essentialism. In S.Vosniadou & A. Ortony (Eds.), Similarity and analogical reasoning (pp. 179-195). New York: Cambridge University Press.
25. McGraw, K. O., & Wong, S. P. (1996). Forming inferences about some intraclass correlation coefficients. Psychological Methods, 1, 30-46.
26. Oliver, M. B. (1994). Portrayals of crime, race, and aggression in reality-based police shows: A content analysis. Journal of Broadcasting & Electronic Media, 38(2), 179-192.
27. Oliver, M., Jackson, R., Moses, N., & Dangerfield, C. (2004). The face of crime: Viewers' memory of race-related facial features of individuals pictured in the news. Journal of Communication, 54, 88-104.
28. Paul, G. (2001). As nasty as she wants to be: Margaret Cho talks about sex in her act, and doesn't know what all the fuss is about. The Press Enterprise Co.
29. Potter, W., & Levine-Donnerstein, D. (1999). Rethinking validity and reliability in content analysis. Journal of Applied Communication Research, 27, 258-284.
30. Rose, T. (1994). Black noise: Rap music and black culture in contemporary America. Hanove and London: Wesleyan University Press.
31. Russell, K., Wilson, M., & Hall, R. (1992). The color complex: The politics of skin color among African-Americans. New York, NY: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich.
32. Samuels, D. (1991). The rap on rap. New Republic, 205(20), 24-29.
33. Sanneh, K. (April 25, 2007). How Don Imus's problem became a referendum on rap. The New York Times, Section E; Column 2, p. 1.
34. Seidman, S. A. (1992). An investigation of sex-role stereotyping in music videos. Journal of Broadcasting and Electronic Media, 36(2), 209-216.
35. Sherman, B. L., & Dominick, J. R. (1986). Violence and sex in music videos: TV and rock 'n' roll. Journal of Communication, 36, 79-93.
36. Sommers-Flanagan, R., Sommers-Flanagan, J., & Davis, B. (1993). What's happening on music television: A gender role content analysis. Sex Roles, 28, 745-753.
37. Smith, S. L. (2005). From Dr. Dre to dismissed: Assessing violence, sex, and substance use on MTV. Critical Studies in Media Communication, 22, 89-98.
38. Vergeer, M., Rutten, P., & Scheepers, P. (1996). Cultivation theory in a changed media landscape. An overview of earlier studies and a test for a medium-sized city. Tijdschrift voor Communicatiewetenschap, 24, 120-151.
39. Vergeer, M., & Scheepers, P. (1998). Public and commercial programming: Effects of exposure to television on perceived ethnic threat. In H. Verstraeten & El Schelfhout (Eds.), De rol van de media in de multiculturele samenleving (pp. 271-292). Bruxelles, Belgium: VUBpress.
40. Wade, T. J. (1996). The relationships between skin color and self-perceived global, physical, and sexual attractiveness, and self-esteem for African Americans. Journal of Black Psychology, 22, 358-373.
41. Wallenstein, A. (November 20, 2006). Study: Video iPod yet to play big. The Hollywood Reporter.
42. Ward, L., Hansbrough, E., & Walker, E. (2005). Contributions of music video exposure to black adolescents' gender and sexual schemas. Journal of Adolescent Research, 20(2), 143-166.
43. Wilson, B. J., Kunkel, D., Linz, D., Potter, J., Donnersetin, E., Smith, S. L. et al. (1998). Violence in television overall: University of California study. In National television violence study II (pp. 3-204). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
44. Wimmer, R. D., & Dominick, J. R. (2000). Mass media research: An introduction (6th ed.). Belmont, CA: Wadsworth.
45. Zillmann, D., Aust, C., Hoffman, K., Love, C., Ordman, V., Pope, J. et al. (1995). Radical rap: Does it further ethnic division? Basic and Applied Social Psychology, 16(1&2), 1-25.