Spinal cord stimulation for patients with failed back surgery syndrome: A systematic review

Pain Physician

Volumn 12, Issue 2, 2009, Pages 379-397

  Frey, Michael E ^a,b   Manchikanti, Laxmaiah ^c,d   Benjamin, Ramsin M ^e,f   Schultz, David M ^a   Smith, Howard S ^g   Cohen, Steven P ^h,i  

^a Department of Interventional Physiatry ^*

^b VIRGINIA COMMONWEALTH UNIVERSITY   (United States)

^c PAIN MANAGEMENT CENTER OF PADUCAH   (United States)

^d University of Louisville School of Medicine   (United States)

^e MILLENNIUM PAIN CENTER   (United States)

^f UNIVERSITY OF ILLINOIS   (United States)

^g ALBANY MEDICAL COLLEGE   (United States)

^h JOHNS HOPKINS UNIVERSITY SCHOOL OF MEDICINE   (United States)

ⁱ WALTER REED ARMY MEDICAL CENTER   (United States)

Author keywords

Chronic low back pain; Electrical stimulation; Failed back surgery syndrome; FBSS; Neuropathic pain; Post lumbar surgery syndrome; Spinal cord stimulation

Indexed keywords

NARCOTIC ANALGESIC AGENT;

ANALGESIA; BACKACHE; CLINICAL TRIAL; COST EFFECTIVENESS ANALYSIS; DRUG USE; FAILED BACK SURGERY SYNDROME; FUNCTIONAL STATUS; HUMAN; MENTAL HEALTH; NEUROPATHIC PAIN; PATIENT SATISFACTION; QUALITY OF LIFE; REOPERATION; REVIEW; SPINAL CORD STIMULATION; SYSTEMATIC REVIEW; WORK RESUMPTION; CHRONIC DISEASE; ECONOMICS; ELECTROSTIMULATION THERAPY; METHODOLOGY; PATHOPHYSIOLOGY; POSTOPERATIVE PAIN; RANDOMIZED CONTROLLED TRIAL; SPINAL CORD; TIME; TREATMENT OUTCOME;

CHRONIC DISEASE; ELECTRIC STIMULATION THERAPY; FAILED BACK SURGERY SYNDROME; HUMANS; PAIN, POSTOPERATIVE; RANDOMIZED CONTROLLED TRIALS AS TOPIC; SPINAL CORD; TIME FACTORS; TREATMENT OUTCOME;

EID: 67651014791     PISSN: 15333159     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: None     Document Type: Review

References (123)

1. Shealy CN, Mortimer JT, Reswick JB. Electrical inhibition of pain by stimulation of the dorsal columns: Preliminary clinical report. Anesth Analg 1967; 46:489-491.
2. Turner JA, Loeser JD, Bell KG. Spinal cord stimulation for chronic low back pain. A systematic literature synthesis. Neurosurgery 1995; 37:1088-1096.
3. Taylor RS, Van Buyten JP, Buchser E. Spinal cord stimulation for chronic back and leg pain and failed back surgery syndrome: A systematic review and analysis of prognostic factors. Spine 2005; 30:152-160.
4. Airaksinen O, Brox JI, Cedraschi C, Hildebrandt J, Klaber-Moffett J, Kovacs F, Mannion AF, Reis S, Staal JB, Ursin H, Zanoli G. Chapter 4: European guidelines for the management of chronic nonspecific low back pain. Eur Spine J 2006; 15:S192-S300.
5. Taylor RS, Taylor RJ, Van Buyten JP, Buchser E, North R, Bayliss S. The cost effectiveness of spinal cord stimulation in the treatment of pain: A systematic review of the literature. J Pain Symptom Manage 2004; 27:370-378.
6. Boswell MV, Trescot AM, Datta S, Schultz DM, Hansen HC, Abdi S, Sehgal N, Shah RV, Singh V, Benyamin RM, Patel VB, Buenaventura RM, Colson JD, Cordner HJ, Epter RS, Jasper JF, Dunbar EE, Atluri SL, Bowman RC, Deer TR, Swicegood JR, Staats PS, Smith HS, Burton AW, Kloth DS, Giordano J, Manchikanti L. Interventional techniques: Evidence-based practice guidelines in the management of chronic spinal pain. Pain Physician 2007; 10:7-111.
7. Turner J, Loeser J, Deyo R, Sanders SB. Spinal cord stimulation for patients with failed back surgery syndrome or complex regional pain syndrome: A systemic review of effectiveness and complications. Pain 2004; 108:137-147.
8. Taylor RS. Spinal cord stimulation in complex regional pain syndrome and refractory neuropathic back and leg pain/FBSS: Results of a systematic review and meta-analysis. J Pain Symptom Manage 2006; 31:S13-S19.
9. Taylor RS, Van Buyten JP, Buchser E. Spinal cord stimulation for complex regional pain syndrome: A systematic review of the clinical and cost-effectiveness literature and assessment of prognostic factors. Eur J Pain 2006; 10:91-101.
10. Cameron T. Safety and efficacy of spinal cord stimulation for the treatment of chronic pain: A 20-year literature review. J Neurosurg 2004; 100:S254-S67.
11. Mailis-Gagnon A, Furlan AD, Sandoval JA, Taylor R. Spinal cord stimulation for chronic pain. Cochrane Database Syst Rev 2004; 3:CD003783.
12. North R, Shipley J, Prager J, Barolat G, Barulich M, Bedder M, Calodney A, Daniels A, Deer T, DeLeon O, Drees S, Fautdch M, Fehrenbach W, Hernandez J, Kloth D, Krames ES, Lubenow T, North R, Osenbach R, Panchal SJ, Sitzman T, Staats P, Tremmel J, Wetzel T. Practice parameters for the use of spinal cord stimulation in the treatment of chronic neuropathic pain. Pain Med 2007; 8: S200-S275.
13. Lieberman IH. Disc bulge bubble: Spine economics 101. Spine J 2004; 4:609-613.
14. Wenger DR. Spine surgery at a crossroads: Does economic growth threaten our professionalism? Spine 2007; 32:2158-2165.
15. Eisner W. Spinal fusion: CMS says "show us the evidence in November." Orthopedics This Week, July 26, 2006; www.ryortho.com/newsletters/volume2/issue24/07-25-06
16. Deyo RA, Nachemson A, Mirza SK. Spinal fusion surgery - The case for restraint. N Engl J Med 2004; 350:722-726.
17. Deyo RA, Mirza SK. Trends and variations in the use of spine surgery. Clin Orthop Relat Res 2006; 443:139-146.
18. McCrory DC, Turner DA, Patwardhan MB, Richardson WL. DRAFT Spinal Fusion for Degenerative Disc Disease Affecting the Lumbar Spine. Agency for Healthcare Research and Quality. Duke Evidence-Based Practice Center. November 1, 2006. www.cms.hhs.gov/determinationprocess/downloads/ id41ta.pdf
19. Brox JI, Sørensen R, Friis A, Nygaard Ø, Indahl A, Keller A, Ingebrigtsen T, Eriksen HR, Holm I, Koller AK, Riise R, Reikerås O. Randomized clinical trial of lumbar instrumented fusion and cognitive intervention and exercises in patients with chronic low back pain and disc degeneration. Spine 2003; 28:1913-1921.
20. Manchikanti L, Hirsch JA. Issues in health care: Interventional pain management at the crossroads. Health policy update. Pain Physician 2007; 10:261-284.
21. Manchikanti L, Boswell MV. Interventional techniques in ambulatory surgical centers: A look at the new payment system. Pain Physician 2007; 10:627-650.
22. Manchikanti L, Giordano J. Physician payment 2008 for interventionalists: Current state of health care policy. Pain Physician 2007; 10:607-626.
23. Manchikanti L, Singh V, Pampati V, Smith HS, Hirsch J. Analysis of growth in interventional techniques in managing chronic pain in Medicare population: A 10-year evaluation from 1997 to 2006. Pain Physician 2009; 12:9-34.
24. Specialty Utilization data files from CMS: www.cms.hhs.gov
25. Conn A, Buenaventura RM, Datta S, Abdi S, Diwan S. Systematic review of caudal epidural injections in the management of chronic low back pain. Pain Physician 2009; 12:109-135.
26. Manchikanti L, Singh V, Cash KA, Pampati V, Datta S. Preliminary results of randomized, equivalence trial of fluoroscopic caudal epidural injections in managing chronic low back pain: Part 3. Post surgery syndrome. Pain Physician 2008; 11:817-831.
27. Manchikanti L, Cash KA, McManus CD, Pampati V, Abdi S. Preliminary results of randomized, equivalence trial of fluoroscopic caudal epidural injections in managing chronic low back pain: Part 4. Spinal stenosis. Pain Physician 2008; 11:833-848.
28. Abdi S, Datta S, Trescot AM, Schultz DM, Adlaka R, Atluri SL, Smith HS, Manchikanti L. Epidural steroids in the management of chronic spinal pain: A systematic review. Pain Physician 2007; 10:185-212.
29. Trescot AM, Chopra P, Abdi S, Datta S, Schultz DM. Systematic review of effectiveness and complications of adhesiolysis in the management of chronic spinal pain: An update. Pain Physician 2007; 10:129-146.
30. Manchikanti L, Boswell MV, Rivera JJ, Pampati V, Damron KS, McManus CD, Brandon DE, Wilson SR. A randomized, controlled trial of spinal endoscopic adhesiolysis in chronic refractory low back and lower extremity pain. BMC Anesthesiol 2005; 5:10.
31. Manchikanti L, Rivera JJ, Pampati V, Damron KS, McManus CD, Brandon DE, Wilson SR. One day lumbar epidural adhesiolysis and hypertonic saline neurolysis in treatment of chronic low back pain: A randomized, double-blind trial. Pain Physician 2004; 7:177-186.
32. Heavner JE, Racz GB, Raj P. Percutaneous epidural neuroplasty. Prospective evaluation of 0.9% NaCl versus 10% NaCl with or without hyaluronidase. Reg Anesth Pain Med 1999; 24:202-207.
33. Epter RS, Helm S, Hayek SM, Benyamin RM, Smith HS, Abdi S. Systematic Review of percutaneous adhesiolysis and management of chronic low back pain in post lumbar surgery syndrome. Pain Physician 2009; 12:361-378.
34. Manchikanti L, Saini B, Singh V. Spinal endoscopy and lysis of epidural adhesions in the management of chronic low back pain. Pain Physician 2001; 4:240-265.
35. Hayek SM, Helm S, Benyamin RM, Singh V, Bryce DA, Smith HS. Effectiveness of spinal endoscopic adhesiolysis in post lumbar surgery syndrome: A systematic review. Pain Physician 2009; 12:419-435.
36. Meyerson BA, Linderoth B. Mechanisms of spinal cord stimulation in neuropathic pain. Neurol Res 2000; 22:285-292.
37. Barolat G, Sharan AD. Future trends in spinal cord stimulation. Neurol Res 2000; 22:279-284.
38. North RB, Kidd DH, Lee MS, Piantodosi S. Spinal cord stimulation versus re-operation for the failed back surgery syndrome: A prospective, randomized study design. Sterotact Funct Neurosurg 1994; 62:267-272.
39. North RB, Kidd DH, Farrokhi F, Piantadosi SA. Spinal cord stimulation versus repeated lumbosacral spine surgery for chronic pain: A randomized, controlled trial. Neurosurgery 2005; 56:98-107.
40. Kemler MA, Barendse GA, van Kleef M, de Vet HC, Rijks CP, Furnee CA, van den Wildenberg FA. Spinal cord stimulation in patients with chronic reflex sympathetic dystrophy. N Engl J Med 2000; 343:618-624.
41. Manchikanti L, Singh V, Derby R, Schultz DM, Benyamin RM, Prager JP, Hirsch JA. Reassessment of evidence synthesis of occupational medicine practice guidelines for interventional pain management. Pain Physician 2008; 11:393-482.
42. Kumar K, Taylor RS, Jacques L, Eldabe S, Meglio M, Molet J, Thomson S, O'Callaghan J, Eisenberg E, Milbouw G, Buchser E, Fortini G, Richardson J, North RB. Spinal cord stimulation versus conventional medical management for neuropathic pain: A multicentre randomised controlled trial in patients with failed back surgery syndrome. Pain 2007; 132:179-188.
43. Bala MM, Riemsma RP, Nixon J, Kleijnen J. Systematic review of the (cost-) effectiveness of spinal cord stimulation for people with failed back surgery syndrome. Clin J Pain 2008; 24:757-758.
44. American College of Occupational and Environmental Medicine (ACOEM). Low Back Disorders Chapter. In Occupational Medicine Practice Guidelines: Evaluation and Management of Common Health Problems and Functional Recovery of Workers, Second Edition. American College of Occupational and Environmental Medicine, Elk Grove Village, 2007.
45. American College of Occupational and Environmental Medicine (ACOEM). Chronic Pain Chapter (revised 2008). In: Occupational Medicine Practice Guidelines: Evaluation and Management of Common Health Problems and Functional Recovery of Workers, Second Edition. American College of Occupational and Environmental Medicine, Elk Grove Village, Epublished August 14, 2008.
46. Manchikanti L, Singh V, Derby R, Helm S, Trescot AM, Staats PS, Prager JP, Hirsch JA. Review of occupational medicine practice guidelines for interventional pain management and potential implications. Pain Physician 2008; 11:271-289.
47. Manchikanti L, Singh V, Helm S, Trescot AM, Hirsch JA. A critical appraisal of 2007 American College of Occupational and Environmental Medicine (ACOEM) practice guidelines for interventional pain management: An independent review utilizing AGREE, AMA, IOM, and other criteria. Pain Physician 2008; 11:291-310.
48. Koes BW, Scholten RJ, Mens JMA, Bouter LM. Efficacy of epidural steroid injections for low-back pain and sciatica: A systematic review of randomized clinical trials. Pain 1995; 63:279-288.
49. West S, King V, Carey TS, Lohr KN, McKoy N, Sutton SF, Lux L. Systems to Rate the Strength of Scientific Evidence, Evidence Report, Technology Assessment No. 47. AHRQ Publication No. 02-E016. Rockville, MD: Agency for Healthcare Research and Quality, 2002. www.thecre.com/ pdf/ahrq-system-strength.pdf
50. Datta S, Lee M, Falco FJE, Bryce DA, Hayek SM. Systematic assessment of diagnostic accuracy and therapeutic utility of lumbar facet joint interventions. Pain Physician 2009; 12:437-460.
51. Falco FJE, Erhart S, Wargo BW, Bryce DA, Atluri S, Datta S, Hayek SM. Systematic review of diagnostic utility and therapeutic effectiveness of cervical facet joint interventions. Pain Physician 2009; 12:323-344.
52. Buenaventura RM, Datta S, Abdi S, Smith HS. Systematic review of therapeutic lumbar transforaminal epidural steroid injections. Pain Physician 2009; 12:233-251.
53. Patel VB, Manchikanti L, Singh V, Schultz DM, Hayek SM, Smith HS. Systematic review of intrathecal infusion systems for long-term management of chronic non-cancer pain. Pain Physician 2009; 12:345-360.
54. Helm S, Hayek S, Benyamin RM, Manchikanti L. Systematic review of the effectiveness of thermal annular procedures in treating discogenic low back pain. Pain Physician 2009; 12:207-232.
55. Rupert MP, Lee M, Manchikanti L, Datta S, Cohen SP. Evaluation of sacroiliac joint interventions: A systematic appraisal of the literature. Pain Physician 2009; 12:399-418.
56. Atluri S, Datta S, Falco FJ, Lee M. Systematic review of diagnostic utility and therapeutic effectiveness of thoracic facet joint interventions. Pain Physician 2008; 11:611-629.
57. Staal JB, de Bie R, de Vet HC, Hildebrandt J, Nelemans P. Injection therapy for subacute and chronic low-back pain. Cochrane Database Syst Rev 2008; 3:CD001824.
58. van Tulder M, Furlan A, Bombardier C, Bouter L, Editorial Board of the Cochrane Collaboration Back Review Group. Updated method guidelines for systematic reviews in the Cochrane Collaboration Back Review Group. Spine 2003; 28:1290-1299.
59. Salaffi F, Stancati A, Silvestri CA, Ciapetti A, Grassi W. Minimal clinically important changes in chronic musculoskeletal pain intensity measured on a numerical rating scale. Eur J Pain 2004; 8:283-291.
60. Bombardier C. Outcome assessments in the evaluation of treatment of spinal disorders: Summary and general recommendations. Spine 2000; 25:3100-3103.
61. Manchikanti L, Boswell MV, Giordano J. Evidence-based interventional pain management: Principles, problems, potential, and applications. Pain Physician 2007; 10:329-356.
62. Manchikanti L. Evidence-based medicine, systematic reviews, and guidelines in interventional pain management: Part 1: Introduction and general considerations. Pain Physician 2008; 11:161-186.
63. Manchikanti L, Hirsch JA, Smith HS. Evidence-based medicine, systematic reviews, and guidelines in interventional pain management: Part 2: Randomized controlled trials. Pain Physician 2008; 11:717-773.
64. Manchikanti L, Benyamin R, Helm S, Hirsch JA. Evidence-based medicine, systematic reviews, and guidelines in interventional pain management: Part 3: Systematic reviews and meta-analysis of randomized trials. Pain Physician 2009; 12:35-72.
65. Manchikanti L, Singh V, Smith HS, Hirsch JA. Evidence-based medicine, systematic reviews, and guidelines in interventional pain management: Part 4: Observational studies. Pain Physician 2009; 12:73-108.
66. Berg AO, Allan JD. Introducing the third U.S. Preventive Services Task Force. Am J Prev Med 2001; 20:S3-S4.
67. Guyatt G, Gutterman D, Baumann MH, Addrizzo-Harris D, Hylek EM, Phillips B, Raskob G, Lewis SZ, Schünemann H. Grading strength of recommendations and quality of evidence in clinical guidelines. Report from an American College of Chest Physicians Task Force. Chest 2006; 129:174-181.
68. Kumar K, Taylor RS, Jacques L, Eldabe S, Meglio M, Molet J, Thomson S, O'Callaghan J, Eisenberg E, Milbouw G, Buchser E, Fortini G, Richardson J, North RB. The effects of spinal cord stimulation in neuropathic pain are sustained: A 24-month follow-up of the prospective randomized controlled multicenter trial of the effectiveness of spinal cord stimulation. Neurosurgery 2008; 63:762-770.
69. North RB, Kidd DH, Petrucci L, Dorsi MJ. Spinal cord stimulation electrode design: A prospective, randomized, controlled trial comparing percutaneous with laminectomy electrodes: Part II - clinical outcomes. Neurosurgery 2005; 57:990-995.
70. North RB, Kidd DH, Olin J, Sieracki JM, Farrokhi F, Petrucci L, Cutchis PN. Spinal cord stimulation for axial low back pain: A prospective, controlled trial comparing dual with single percutaneous electrodes. Spine 2005; 30:1412-1418.
71. Kumar K, Toth C. The role of spinal cord stimulation in the treatment of chronic pain postlaminectomy. Curr Pain Headache Rep 1998; 2:85-92.
72. Devulder J, De Laat M, Van Bastelaere M, Rolly G. Spinal cord stimulation: A valuable treatment for chronic failed back surgery patients. J Pain Symptom Manage 1997; 13:296-301.
73. De La Porte C, Van de Kelft E. Spinal cord stimulation in failed back surgery syndrome. Pain 1993; 52:55-61.
74. Van Buyten JP, Van Zundert J, Vueghs P, Vanduffel L. Efficacy of spinal cord stimulation: 10 years of experience in a pain centre in Belgium. Eur J Pain 2001; 5:299-307.
75. Fiume D, Sherkat S, Callovini GM, Parziale G, Gazzeri G. Treatment of the failed back surgery syndrome due to lumbo-sacral epidural fibrosis. Acta Neurochir Suppl 1995; 64:116-118.
76. North RB, Ewend MG, Lawton MT, Kidd DH, Piantadosi S. failed back surgery syndrome: 5-year follow-up after spinal cord stimulator implantation. Neurosurgery 1991; 28:692-699.
77. Dario A. Treatment of failed back surgery syndrome. Neuromodulation 2001; 4:105-110.
78. De La Porte C, Siegfried J. Lumbosacral spinal fibrosis (spinal arachnoiditis). Its diagnosis and treatment by spinal cord stimulation. Spine 1983; 8:593-603.
79. Burchiel KJ, Anderson VC, Brown FD, Fessler RG, Friedman WA, Pelofsky S, Weiner RL, Oakley J, Shatin D. Prospective, multicenter study of spinal cord stimulation for relief of chronic back and extremity pain. Spine 1996; 21:2786-2794.
80. Kay AD, McIntyre MD, Macrae WA, Varma TR. Spinal cord stimulation - a long-term evaluation in patients with chronic pain. Br J Neurosurg 2001; 15:335-341.
81. Kavar B, Rosenfeld JV, Hutchinson A. The efficacy of spinal cord stimulation for chronic pain. J Clin Neurosci 2000; 7:409-413.
82. North RB, Campbell JN, James CS, Conover-Walker MK,Wang H, Piantadosi S, Rybock JD, Long DM. failed back surgery syndrome: 5-year follow-up in 102 patients undergoing repeated operation. Neurosurgery 1991; 28:685-690.
83. Oakley JC, Weiner RL. Spinal cord stimulation for complex regional pain syndrome: A prospective study of 19 patients at two centers. Neuromodulation 1999; 2:47-50.
84. Ohnmeiss DD, Rashbaum RF, Bogdanffy GM. Prospective outcome evaluation of spinal cord stimulation in patients with intractable leg pain. Spine 1996; 21:1344-1350.
85. Sanchez-Ledesma MJ, Garcia-March G, Diaz-Cascajo P, Gomez-Moreta J, Broseta J. Spinal cord stimulation in deafferentation pain. Stereotact Funct Neurosurg 1989; 53:40-45.
86. Simpson BA. Spinal cord stimulation in 60 cases of intractable pain. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry 1991; 54:196-199.
87. Van de Kelft E, De La Porte C. Long-term pain relief during spinal cord stimulation. The effect of patient selection. Qual Life Res 1994; 3:21-27.
88. Villavicencio AT, Leveque JC, Rubin R, Bulsara K, Gorecki JP. Laminectomy versus percutaneous electrode placement for spinal cord stimulation. Neurosurgery 2000; 46:399-406.
89. Wester K. Dorsal column stimulation in pain treatment. Acta Neurol Scand 1987; 75:151-155.
90. Kupers RC, Van den Oever R, Van Houdenhove B, Vanmechelen W, Hepp B, Nuttin B, Gybels JM. Spinal cord stimulation in Belgium: A nation-wide survey on the incidence, indications and therapeutic efficacy by the health insurer. Pain 1994; 56:211-216.
91. Van Buyten JP. Neurostimulation for chronic neuropathic back pain in failed back surgery syndrome. J Pain Symptom Manage 2006; 31:S25-S29.
92. Buvanendran A, Lubenow TJ. Efficacy of transverse tripolar spinal cord stimulator for the relief of chronic low back pain from failed back surgery. Pain Physician 2008; 11:333-338.
93. Atallah J, Armah FA, Wong D, Weis PA, Fahy BG. Use of spinal cord stimulator for treatment of lumbar radiculopathy in a patient with severe kyphoscoliosis. Pain Physician 2008; 11:555-559.
94. de Vos CC, Rajan V, Steenbergen W, van der Aa HE, Buschman HP. Effect and safety of spinal cord stimulation for treatment of chronic pain caused by diabetic neuropathy. J Diabetes Complications 2009; 23:40-45.
95. Slavin KV, Burchiel KJ, Anderson VC, Cooke B. Efficacy of transverse tripolar stimulation for relief of chronic low back pain: Results of a single center. Stereotact Funct Neurosurg 1999; 73:126-130.
96. Manca A, Kumar K, Taylor RS, Jacques L, Eldabe S, Meglio M, Molet J, Thomson S, O'Callaghan J, Eisenberg E, Milbouw G, Buchser E, Fortini G, Richardson J, Taylor RJ, Goeree R, Sculpher MJ. Quality of life, resource consumption and costs of spinal cord stimulation versus conventional medical management in neuropathic pain patients with failed back surgery syndrome (PROCESS trial). Eur J Pain 2008; 12:1047-1058.
97. North RB, Kidd D, Shipley J, Taylor RS. Spinal cord stimulation versus reoperation for failed back surgery syndrome: A cost effectiveness and cost utility analysis based on a randomized, controlled trial. Neurosurgery 2007; 61:361-368.
98. Kumar K, Malik S, Demeria D. Treatment of chronic pain with spinal cord stimulation versus alternative therapies: Cost-effectiveness analysis. Neurosurgery 2002; 51:106-115.
99. Melzack R, Wall PD. Pain mechanisms: A new theory. Science 1965; 150:971-979.
100. Hord ED, Cohen SP, Cosgrove GR, Ahmed SU, Vallejo R, Change Y, Stojanovic MP. The predictive value of sympathetic block for the success of spinal cord stimulation. Neurosurgery 2003; 53:626-633.
101. Schultz DM, Musley S, Beltrand P, Christensen J, Euler D, Warman E. Acute cardiovascular effects of epidural spinal cord stimulation. Pain Physician 2007; 10:677-685.
102. Cherkin DC, Deyo RA, Loeser JD, Bush T, Waddell G. An international comparison of back surgery rates. Spine 1994; 19:1201-1206.
103. Slipman CW, Shin CH, Patel RK, Isaac Z, Huston CW, Lipetz JS, Lenrow DA, Braverman DL, Vresilovic EJ Jr. Etiologies of failed back surgery syndrome. Pain Med 2002; 3:200-21; discussion 214-217.
104. Long DM, Filtzer DL, BenDebba M, Hender NH. Clinical features of the failed-back syndrome. J Neurosurg 1988; 69:61-71.
105. Waguespack A., Schofferman J. Slosar P, Reynolds J. Etiology of long-term failures of lumbar spine surgery. Pain Med. 2002; 3:18-22.
106. Schofferman J, Reynolds J, Herzog R, Covington E, Dreyfuss P, O'Neill C. Failed back surgery: Etiology and diagnostic evaluation. Spine J 2003; 3:400-403.
107. Waguespack A, Schofferman J, Slosar P, Reynolds J. Etiology of long-term failures of lumbar spine surgery. Pain Med 2002; 3:18-22.
108. Dworkin RH, Backonja N, Rowbotham MC, Allen RR, Argoff CR, Bennett GJ, Bushnell MC, Farrar JT, Galer BS, Haythornthwaite JA, Hewitt DJ, Loeser JD, Max MB, Saltarelli M, Schmader KE, Stein C, Thompson D, Turk DC, Wallace MS, Watkins LR, Weinstein SM. Advances in neuropathic pain: Diagnosis, mechanism and treatment recommendations. Arch Neurol 2003; 60:1524-1534.
109. North RB, Kidd DH, Olin J, Sieracki JM, Farrokhi F, Petrucci L, Cutchis PN. Spinal cord stimulation for axial low back pain: a prospective, controlled trial comparing dual with single percutaneous electrodes. Spine 2005; 30:1412-1418.
110. Ohnmeiss DD, Rashbaum RF. Patient satisfaction with spinal cord stimulation for predominant complaints of chronic, intractable low back pain. Spine J; 1:358-363.
111. Spiller W, Musser J, Martin E. A case of intradural spinal cyst with operation and recovery. University Penn Med Bull 1903; 16:27-31.
112. Mendel K, Adler S. Zur kentnis der meningitis serosa spinalis. Berl Klin Wochenschr 1908; 45:1596-1602.
113. Horsley V. Chronic spinal meningitis: Its differential diagnosis and surgical treatment. Br Med J 1909; 1:513-517.
114. Stookey B. Adhesive spinal arachnoiditis simulating spinal cord tumor. Arch Neurol Psychiatr 1927; 17:151-178.
115. Elkington J. Meningitis serosa circumscripta spinalis (spinal arachnoiditis). Brain 1936; 59:181-203.
116. Wadia N, Dastur D. Spinal meningitides with radiculomyelopathy. J Neurol Sci Part 1 1969; 8:239-260, J Neurol Sci Part 2 1969; 8:261-297.
117. Smolik E, Nash F. Lumbar spinal arachnoiditis: A complication of the intervertebral disc operation. Ann Surg 1951; 133:490-495.
118. LCD for Spinal Cord Stimulation (Dorsal Column Stimulation) - 4S - 146AB-R2 (L26741). Effective Date 12/18/2008.
119. Woolf CJ, Doubell TP. The pathophysiology of chronic pain - increased sensitivity to low threshold A beta-fibre inputs. Curr Opin Neurobiol 1994; 4:525-534.
120. Devor M. Relation of foraminal (lateral) stenosis to radicular pain. Am J Neuroradiol 1996; 17:1615-1617.
121. Taylor RS. Epidemiology of refractory neuropathic pain. Pain Pract 2006; 6:22-26.
122. Freynhagen R, Baron R, Gockel U, Tölle TR. painDETECT: a new screening questionnaire to identify neuropathic components in patients with back pain. Curr Med Res Opin. 2006; 22:1911-1920.
123. Larkin TM, Dragovich A, Cohen SP. Acute renal failure during a trial of spinal cord stimulation: Theories as to a possible connection. Pain Physician 2008; 11:681-686.