Epidural steroids in the management of chronic spinal pain: A systematic review

Pain Physician

Volumn 10, Issue 1, 2007, Pages 185-212

  Abdi, Salahadin ^a   Datta, Sukdeb ^b   Trescot, Andrea M ^c,i   Schultz, David M ^d   Adlaka, Rajive ^e   Atluri, Sairam L ^f   Smith, Howard S ^g   Manchikanti, Laxmaiah ^h,j  

^a UNIVERSITY OF MIAMI MILLER SCHOOL OF MEDICINE   (United States)

^b VANDERBILT UNIVERSITY SCHOOL OF MEDICINE   (United States)

^c UNIVERSITY OF FLORIDA   (United States)

^d UNIVERSITY OF MINNESOTA MEDICAL SCHOOL   (United States)

^e Pain Control Associates   (United States)

^f Tristate Pain Management   (United States)

^g ALBANY MEDICAL COLLEGE   (United States)

^h PAIN MANAGEMENT CENTER OF PADUCAH   (United States)

ⁱ The Pain Center   (United States)

^j University of Louisville School of Medicine   (United States)

more..

Author keywords

Axial pain; Caudal; Cervicalgia; Epidural steroids; Failed back surgery syndrome; Interlaminar; Low back pain; Postlaminectomy syndrome; Radiculopathy; Spinal pain; Transforaminal

Indexed keywords

AMITRIPTYLINE; BETAMETHASONE; BUPIVACAINE; GLUCOSE; HYALURONIDASE; LIDOCAINE; LOCAL ANESTHETIC AGENT; MEPREDNISONE; METHYLPREDNISOLONE; METHYLPREDNISOLONE ACETATE; MORPHINE SULFATE; PLACEBO; PREDNISOLONE DERIVATIVE; PROCAINE; STEROID; TRIAMCINOLONE; TRIAMCINOLONE ACETONIDE;

ANALGESIA; BACKACHE; BRAIN EMBOLISM; CEREBRAL BLINDNESS; CERVICAL SPINE; CERVICOBRACHIAL NEURALGIA; CHORIORETINOPATHY; CHRONIC PAIN; CLINICAL TRIAL; COST EFFECTIVENESS ANALYSIS; DIZZINESS; DRUG DOSAGE FORM COMPARISON; DYSPHONIA; EVIDENCE BASED MEDICINE; FEVER; FLUSHING; GAS EMBOLISM; GLUCOSE BLOOD LEVEL; HEADACHE; HEMATOMA; HICCUP; HUMAN; HYPERTENSION; INFECTION; INJECTION SITE ABSCESS; INJECTION SITE INFECTION; INJECTION SITE PAIN; INSOMNIA; INTRACRANIAL HYPERTENSION; LAMINECTOMY; LEG PAIN; LIPOMATOSIS; LOW BACK PAIN; LUMBAR SPINE; LUNG EMBOLISM; MEDICAL LITERATURE; MENINGITIS; MENTAL HEALTH; META ANALYSIS; MICTURITION DISORDER; MUSCLE SPASM; NAUSEA; NAUSEA AND VOMITING; NERVE INJURY; OCCLUSIVE CEREBROVASCULAR DISEASE; OUTCOME ASSESSMENT; PARESTHESIA; PHYSICAL CAPACITY; PNEUMOCEPHALUS; PNEUMOTHORAX; POSTOPERATIVE PAIN; RADICULAR PAIN; RADICULOPATHY; RETINA HEMORRHAGE; REVIEW; SIDE EFFECT; SINGLE DRUG DOSE; SPINAL CORD INJURY; SPINAL PAIN; SYNCOPE; SYSTEMATIC REVIEW; TREATMENT OUTCOME; WORK RESUMPTION;

ADRENAL CORTEX HORMONES; BACK PAIN; CERVICAL VERTEBRAE; CHRONIC DISEASE; CLINICAL TRIALS; HUMANS; INJECTIONS, EPIDURAL; LUMBAR VERTEBRAE; TREATMENT OUTCOME;

EID: 33847167051     PISSN: 15333159     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: None     Document Type: Review

References (305)

1. Manchikanti L. Medicare in interventional pain management: a critical analysis. Pain Physician 2006; 9:171-198.
2. Specialty utilization data files from CMS available at: http://www.cms.hhs.gov/physicians/pfs.
3. Abdi S, Lucas LF, Datta S. Role of epidural steroids in the management of chronic spinal pain: a systematic review of effectiveness and complications. Pain Physician 2005; 8:127-143.
4. Boswell M, Hansen H, Trescot A, Hirsch J. Epidural steroids in the management of chronic spinal pain and radiculopathy. Pain Physician 2003; 6:319-334.
5. Kepes ER, Duncalf D. Treatment of backache with spinal injections of local anesthetics, spinal and systemic steroids. Pain 1985; 22:33-47.
6. Koes BW, Scholten RJ, Mens JM, Bouter LM. Efficacy of epidural steroid injections for low back pain and sciatica: a systematic review of randomized clinical trials. Pain 1995; 63:279-288.
7. Koes BW, Scholten RJ, Mens JMA, Bouter LM. Epidural steroid injections for low back pain and sciatica: an updated systematic review of randomized clinical trials. Pain Digest 1999; 9:241-247.
8. Nelemans PJ, deBie RA, deVet HC, Sturmans F. Injection therapy for subacute and chronic benign low back pain. Spine 2001; 26:501-515.
9. Rozenberg S, Dubourg G, Khalifa P, Paolozzi L, Maheu E, Ravaud P. Efficacy of epidural steroids in low back pain and sciatica: a critical appraisal by a French task force of randomized trials. Revue du Rhumatisme 1999; 66:79-85.
10. Bogduk N. Epidural steroids for low back pain and sciatica. Pain Digest 1999; 9:226-227.
11. Airaksinen O, Brox JI, Cedraschi C, Hildebrandt J, Klaber-Moffett J, Kovacs F, Mannion AF, Reis S, Staal JB, Ursin H and Zanoli G. Chapter 4: European guidelines for the management of chronic nonspecific low back pain. Eur Spine J 2006; 15:S192-S300.
12. Cannon DT, April CN. Lumbosacral epidural steroid injections. Arch Phys Med Rehabil 2000; 83:S87-S98.
13. McQuay HJ, Moore RA, Eccleston C, Morley S, Williams AC. Systematic review of outpatient services for chronic pain control. Health Technol Assess 1997; 1:1-135.
14. Tonkovich-Quaranta LA, Winkler SR. Use of epidural corticosteroids in low back pain. Ann Pharmacother 2000; 34:1165-1172.
15. Watts RW, Silagy CA. A meta-analysis on the efficacy of epidural corticosteroids in the treatment of sciatica. Anaesth Intensive Care 1995; 23:564-569.
16. Boswell MV, Shah RV, Everett CR, Sehgal N, Mckenzie-Brown AM, Abdi S, Bowman RC, Deer TR, Datta S, Colson JD, Spillane WF, Smith HS, Lucas-Levin LF, Burton AW, Chopra P, Staats PS, Wasserman RA, Manchikanti L. Interventional techniques in the management of chronic spinal pain: evidence-based practice guidelines. Pain Physician 2005; 8:1-47.
17. Manchikanti L, Staats PS, Singh V, Schultz DM, Vilims BD, Jasper JF, Kloth DS, Trescot AM, Hansen HC, Falasca TD, Racz GB, Deer T, Burton AW, Helm S, Lou L, Bakhit CE, Dunbar EE, Atluri SL, Calodney AK, Hassenbusch S, Feler CA. Evidence-based practice guidelines for interventional techniques in the management of chronic spinal pain. Pain Physician 2003; 6:3-80.
18. Manchikanti L, Singh V, Kloth DS, Slipman CW, Jasper JF, Trescot AM, Varley KG, Atluri SL, Giron C, Curran MJ, Rivera JJ, Baha A, Bakhit CE, Reuter M. Interventional techniques in the management of chronic pain: part 2.0. Pain Physician 2001; 4:24-96.
19. Manchikanti L, Singh V, Bakhit CE, Fellows B. Interventional techniques in the management of chronic pain: part 1.0. Pain Physician 2000; 3:7-42.
20. Verhaak PF, Kerssens JJ, Dekker J, Sorbi MJ, Bensing JM. Prevalence of chronic benign pain disorder among adults: a review of the literature. Pain 1998; 77:231-239.
21. Elliott AM, Smith BH, Hannaford PC, Smith WC, Chambers WA. The course of chronic pain in the community: results of a 4-year follow-up study. Pain 2002; 99:299-307.
22. Lawrence RC, Helmick CG, Arnett FC. Estimates of the prevalence of arthritis and selected musculoskeletal disorders in the United States. Arthritis Rheum 1998; 41:778-799.
23. Cassidy JD, Carroll LJ, Cotê P. The Saskatchewan Health and Back Pain Survey: the prevalence of low back pain and related disability in Saskatchewan adults. Spine 1998; 23:1860-1867.
24. Guo HR, Tanaka S, Halperin WE, Cameron LL. Back pain prevalence in US industry and estimates of lost workdays. Am J Public Health 1999; 89:1029-1035.
25. Côté P, Cassidy JD, Carroll L. The Saskatchewan Health and Back Pain Survey. The prevalence of neck pain and related disability in Saskatchewan adults. Spine 1998; 23:1689-1698.
26. Linton SJ, Hellsing AL, Hallden K. A population based study of spinal pain among 35-45-year old individuals. Spine 1998, 23:1457-1463.
27. Miemelainen R, Videman T, Battie MC. Prevalence and characteristics of upper or mid-back pain in Finnish men. Spine 2006; 31:1846-1849.
28. Walker BF, Muller R, Grant WD. Low back pain in Australian adults: prevalence and associated disability. J Manip Physiol Ther 2004; 27:238-244.
29. Bot SD, van der Waal JM, Terwee CB, van der Windt DA, Schellevis FG, Bouter LM, Dekker J. Incidence and prevalence of complaints of the neck and upper extremity in general practice. Ann Rheum Dis 2005; 64:118-123.
30. Bressler H B, Keyes WJ, Rochon PA, Badley E. The prevalence of low back pain in the elderly. A systemic review of the literature. Spine 1999; 24:1813-1819.
31. Cecchi F, Debolini P, Lova RM, Macchi C, Bandinelli S, Bartali B, Lauretani F, Benvenuti E, Hicks G, Ferrucci L. Epidemiology of back pain in a representative cohort of Italian persons 65 years of age and older: the InCHIANTI study. Spine 2006; 31:1149-1155.
32. Mortimer M, Pernold G, Wiktorin C. Low back pain in a general population. Natural course and influence of physical exercise--a 5-year follow-up of the Musculoskeletal Intervention Center-Norrtalje Study. Spine 2006; 31:3045-3051.
33. Cassidy JD, Cote P, Carroll LJ, Kristman V. Incidence and course of low back pain episodes in the general population. Spine 2005; 30:2817-2823.
34. Hestbaek L, Leboeuf-Yde C, Manniche C. Low back pain: what is the long-term course? A review of studies of general patient populations. Eur Spine J 2003; 12:149-165.
35. Croft PR, Lewis M, Papageorgiou AC, Thomas E, Jayson MI, Macfarlane GJ, Silman AJ. Risk factors for neck pain: a longitudinal study in the general population. Pain 2001; 93:317-325.
36. Côté P, Cassidy JD, Carroll LJ, Kristman V. The annual incidence and course of neck pain in the general population: a population-based cohort study. Pain 2004; 112:267-273.
37. Enthoven P, Skargren E, Oberg B. Clinical course in patients seeking primary care for back or neck pain: a prospective 5-year follow-up of outcome and health care consumption with subgroup analysis. Spine 2004; 29:2458-2465.
38. Elder LA, Burdorf A. Prevalence, incidence, and recurrence of low back pain in scaffolders during a 3-year follow-up study. Spine 2004; 29:E101-E106.
39. Croft PR, Papageorgiou AC, Thomas E, Macfarlane GJ, Silman AJ. Short-term physical risk factors for new episodes of low back pain. Prospective evidence from the South Manchester Back Pain Study. Spine 1999; 24:1556-1561.
40. Miedema HS, Chorus AM, Wevers CW, van der Linden S. Chronicity of back problems during working life. Spine 1998; 23:2021-2028.
41. Thomas E, Silman AJ, Croft PR, Papageorgiou AC, Jayson MI, Macfarlane GJ. Predicting who develops chronic low back pain in primary care: a prospective study. Brit Med J 1999; 318:1662-1667.
42. Jackson JL, Passamonti M. The outcomes among patients presenting in primary care with a physical symptom at 5 years. J Gen Intern Med 2005; 20:1032-1037.
43. Jones GT, Johnson RE, Wiles NJ, Chaddock C, Potter RG, Roberts C, Symmons DP, Macfarlane GJ. Predicting persistent disabling low back pain in general practice: a prospective cohort study. Br J Gen Pract 2006; 56:334-341.
44. Kaaria S, Luukkonen R, Riihimaki H, Kirjonen J, Leino-Arjas R. Persistence of low back pain reporting among a cohort of employees in a metal corporation: A study with 5-, 10-, and 28-year follow-ups. Pain 2006; 120:131-137.
45. Leboeuf-Yde C, Gronstvedt A, Borge JA, Lothe J, Magnesen E, Nilsson O, Rosok G, Stig LC, Larsen K. The Nordic back pain subpopulation program: a 1-year prospective multicenter study of outcomes of persistent low-back pain in chiropractic patients. J Manipulative Physiol Ther 2005; 28:90-96.
46. Kadam UT, Thomas E, Croft PR. Is chronic widespread pain a predictor of all-cause morbidity? A 3 year prospective population based study in family practice. J Rheumatol 2005; 32:1341-1348.
47. Kovacs FM, Fernández C, Cordero A, Muriel A, Gonzalez-Lujan L, Gil del Real MT. Spanish Back Pain Research Network. Non-specific low back pain in primary care in the Spanish National Health Service: a prospective study on clinical outcomes and determinants of management. BMC Health Serv Res 2006; 6:57.
48. Saastamoinen P, Leino-Arjas P, Laaksonen M, Lahelma E. Socio-economic differences in the prevalence of acute, chronic and disabling chronic pain among ageing employees. Pain 2005; 114:364-371.
49. Bunketorp L, Stener-Victorin E, Carlsson J. Neck pain and disability following motor vehicle accidents: a cohort study. Eur Spine J 2005; 14:84-89.
50. Frank AO, De Souza LH, Frank CA. Neck pain and disability: a cross-sectional survey of the demographic and clinical characteristics of neck pain seen in a rheumatology clinic. Int J Clin Pract 2005; 59:173-182.
51. Hartvigsen J, Frederiksen H, Christensen K. Physical and mental function and incident low back pain in seniors: a population-based two-year prospective study of 1387 Danish Twins aged 70 to 100 years. Spine 2006; 31:1628-1632.
52. Jacob T. Low back pain incident episodes: a community-based study. Spine J 2006; 6:306-310.
53. Weiner DK, Kim YS, Bonino P, Wang T. Low back pain in older adults: are we utilizing healthcare resources wisely? Pain Med 2006; 7:143-150.
54. Ekman M, Jönhagen S, Hunsche E, Jonsson L. Burden of illness of chronic low back pain in Sweden: a cross-sectional, retrospective study in primary care setting. Spine 2005; 30:1777-1785.
55. Ritzwoller DP, Crounse L, Shetterly S, Rublee D. The association of comorbidities, utilization and costs for patients identified with low back pain. BMC Musculoskelet Disord 2006; 7:72.
56. Vogt MT, Kwoh CK, Cope DK, Osial TA, Culyba M, Starz TW. Analgesic usage for low back pain: impact on health care costs and service use. Spine 2005; 30:1075-1081.
57. Ricci JA, Stewart WF, Chee E, Leotta C, Foley K, Hochberg MC. Back pain exacerbations and lost productive time costs in United States workers. Spine 2006; 31:3052-3060.
58. White AG, Birnbaum HG, Mareva MN, Daher M, Vallow S, Schein J, Katz N. Direct costs of opioid abuse in an insured population in the United States. J Manag Care Pharm 2005; 11:469-479.
59. Luo X, Pietrobon R, Sun SX, Liu GG, Hey L. Estimates and patterns of direct health care expenditures among individuals with back pain in the United States. Spine 2004; 29:79-86.
60. Leigh JP, Markowitz SB, Fahs M, Shin C, Landrigan PJ. Occupational injury and illness in the United States. Estimates of costs, morbidity, and mortality. Arch Intern Med 1997; 157:1557-1568.
61. Freedman VA, Martin LG, Schoeni RF. Recent trends in disability and functioning among older adults in the united states. JAMA 2002; 288:3137-3146.
62. Hurwitz EL, Morgenstern H, Yu F. Cross-sectional and longitudinal associations of low-back pain and related disability with psychological distress among patients enrolled in the UCLA Low-Back Pain Study. J Clin Epidemiol 2003; 56:463-471.
63. Maetzel A, Li L. The economic burden of low back pain: a review of studies published between 1996 and 2001. Best Pract Res Clin Rheumatol 2002; 16:23-30.
64. Bell G, Kidd D, North R. Cost-effectiveness analysis of spinal cord stimulation in treatment of failed back surgery syndrome. J Pain Symp Manage 1997; 13:286-295.
65. de Lissovoy G, Brown RE, Halpern M, Hassenbusch SJ, Ross E. Cost-effectiveness of long-term intrathecal morphine therapy for pain associated with failed back surgery syndrome. Clin Ther 1997; 19:96-112.
66. Macario A, Pergolizzi JV. Systematic literature review of spinal decompression via motorized traction for chronic discogenic low back pain. Spine 2006; 6:171-178.
67. Murtagh J, Foerster V. Radiofrequency neurotomy for lumbar pain [Issues in emerging health technologies, issue 83]. Ottawa: Canadian Agency for Drugs and Technologies in Health; 2006.
68. Khadilkar A, Milne S, Brosseau L, Robinson V, Saginur M, Shea B, Tugwell P, Wells G. Transcutaneous electrical nerve stimulation (TENS) for chronic low-back pain. Cochrane Database Syst Rev 2005; 3:CD003008.
69. French SD, Cameron M, Walker BF, Beggars JW, Esterman AJ. A Cochrane review of superficial heat or cold for low back pain. Spine 2006; 31:998-1006.
70. Clarke JA, van Tulder MW, Blomberg SE, de Vet HC, van der Heijden GJ, Bronfort G. Traction for low-back pain with or without sciatica. Cochrane Database Syst Rev 2005; 4:CD003010.
71. Kay TM, Gross A, Goldsmith C, Santaguida PL, Hoving J, Bronfort G, Cervical Overview Group. Exercises for mechanical neck disorders. Cochrane Database Syst Rev 2005; 3:CD004250.
72. Chow RT, Barnsley L. Systematic review of the literature of low-level laser therapy (LLLT) in the management of neck pain. Laser Surg Med 2005; 37:46-52.
73. Singh K, Ledet E, Carl A. Intradiscal therapy: a review of current treatment modalities. Spine 2005; 30:S20-S26.
74. Taylor RS, Taylor RJ, Fritzell P. Balloon kyphoplasty and vertebroplasty for vertebral compression fractures: a comparative systematic review of efficacy and safety. Spine 2006; 31:2747-2755.
75. Gibson JN, Waddell G. Surgery for degenerative lumbar spondylosis: updated Cochrane Review. Spine 2005; 30:2312-2320.
76. Weinstein JN, Tosteson TD, Lurie JD, Tosteson AN, Hanscom B, Skinner JS, Abdu WA, Hilibrand AS, Boden SD, Deyo RA. Surgical vs nonoperative treatment for lumbar disk herniation: the Spine Patient Outcomes Research Trial (SPORT): a randomized trial. JAMA 2006; 296:2441-2450.
77. Schofferman J, Reynolds J, Herzog R, Covington E, Dreyfuss P, O'Neill C. Failed back surgery: etiology and diagnostic evaluation. Spine J 2003; 3:400-403.
78. Slipman CW, Shin CH, Patel RK, Isaac Z, Huston CW, Lipetz JS, Lenrow DA, Braverman DL, Vresilovic EJ Jr. Etiologies of failed back surgery syndrome. Pain Med 2002; 3:200-214.
79. Waguespack A, Schofferman J, Slosar P, Reynolds J. Etiology of long-term failures of lumbar spine surgery. Pain Med 2002; 3:18-22.
80. Boden S, Bohlman H. The Failed Spine. Lippincott, Williams & Wilkins, Philadelphia, PA, 2003.
81. Sampath P, Bendebba M, Davis JD, Ducker T. Outcome in patients with cervical radiculopathy. Prospective, multi-center study with independent clinical review. Spine 1999; 24:591-597.
82. Law JD, Lehman RAW, Kirsch WM. Reoperation after lumbar intervertebral disc surgery. J Neurosurg 1978; 48:259-263.
83. Waddell G, Kummel EG, Lotto WN, Graham JD, Hall H, McCulloch JA. Failed lumbar disc surgery and repeat surgery following industrial injury. J Bone Joint Surg (Am) 1979; 61:201-207.
84. Bogduk N, Christophidis N, Cherry D. Epidural use of steroids in the management of back pain. Report of working party on epidural use of steroids in the management of back pain. National Health and Medical Research Council. Canberra, Commonwealth of Australia, 1994, pp 1-76.
85. Manchikanti L, Pakanati RR, Pampati V. Comparison of three routes of epidural steroid injections in low back pain. Pain Digest 1999; 9:277-285.
86. Byrod G, Otani K, Brisby H, Rydevik B, Olmarker K. Methylprednisolone reduces the early vascular permeability increase in spinal nerve roots induced by epidural nucleus pulposus application. J Orthop Res 2000; 18:983-987.
87. Flower RJ, Blackwell GJ. Anti-inflammatory steroid induced biosynthesis of a phospholipase A2 inhibitor which prevents prostaglandin generation. Nature 1979; 278:456-459.
88. Lundin A, Magnuson A, Axelsson K, Nilsson O, Samuelsson L. Corticosteroids preoperatively diminishes damage to the C-fibers in microscopic lumbar disc surgery. Spine 2005; 30:2362-2367.
89. Nicol GD, Klingberg DK, Vasko MR. Prostaglandin E2 enhances calcium conductance and stimulates release of substance P in avian sensory neurons. J Neurosci 1992; 12:1917-1927.
90. Hua SY, Chen YZ. Membrane receptor-mediated electrophysiological effects of glucocorticoid on mammalian neurons. Endocrinology 1989; 124:687-691.
91. Hayashi N, Weinstein JN, Meller ST, Lee HM, Spratt KF, Gebhart GF. The effect of epidural injection of betamethasone or bupivacaine in a rat model of lumbar radiculopathy. Spine 1998; 23:877-885.
92. Lee HM, Weinstein JN, Meller ST, Hayashi N, Spratt KF, Gebhart GF. The role of steroids and their effects on phospholipase A2: an animal model of radiculopathy. Spine 1998; 23:1181-1196.
93. Minamide A, Tamaki T, Hashizume H, Yoshida M, Kawakami M, Hayashi N. Effects of steroids and lipopolysaccharide on spontaneous resorption of herniated intervertebral discs: an experience study in the rabbit. Spine 1998; 23:870-876.
94. Kingery WS, Castellote JM, Maze M. Methylprednisolone prevents the development of autotomy and neuropathic edema in rats, but has no effect on nociceptive thresholds. Pain 1999; 80:555-566.
95. West S, King V, Carey T, Lohr K, McKoy N, Sutton S, Lux L. Systems to rate the strength of scientific evidence. Evidence Report/Technology Assessment No. 47 University of North Carolina: Agency for Healthcare Research and Quality. AHRQ Publication No. 02-E016; April 2002.
96. van Tulder M, Assendelft W, Koes B, Bouter LM. Method guidelines for systematic reviews in the Cochrane Collaboration Back Review Group for Spinal Disorders. Spine 1997; 22:2323-2330.
97. Manchikanti L, Abdi S, Lucas LF. Evidence synthesis and development of guidelines in interventional pain management. Pain Physician 2005; 8:73-86.
98. Shekelle PG, Andersson G, Bombardier C, Cherkin D, Deyo R, Keller R, Lee C, Liang M, Lipscomb B, Spratt K. A brief introduction to the critical reading of the clinical literature. Spine 1994; 19(suppl):2028S-2031S.
99. McGregor AH, Anjarwalla NK, Stambach T. Does the method of injection alter the outcome of epidural injections? J Spinal Disord 2001; 14:507-510.
100. Carette S, Leclaire R, Marcoux S, Morin F, Blaise GA, St-Pierre A, Truchon R, Parent F, Levesque J, Bergeron V, Montminy P, Blanchette C. Epidural corticosteroid injections for sciatica due to herniated nucleus pulposus. N Engl J Med 1997; 336:1634-1640.
101. Snoek W, Weber H, Jorgensen B. Double-blind evaluation of extradural methylprednisolone for herniated lumbar disc. Acta Orthop Scand 1977; 48:635-641.
102. Cuckler JM, Bernini PA, Wiesel SW, Booth RE Jr, Rothman RH, Pickens GT. The use of epidural steroid in the treatment of radicular pain. J Bone Joint Surg 1985; 67:63-66.
103. Dilke TF, Burry HC, Grahame R. Extradural corticosteroid injection in the management of lumbar nerve root compression. Br Med J 1973; 2:635-637.
104. Serrao JM, Marks RL, Morley SJ, Goodchild CS. Intrathecal midazolam for the treatment of chronic mechanical low back pain: a controlled comparison with epidural steroid in a pilot study. Pain 1992; 48:5-12.
105. Klenerman L, Greenwood R, Davenport HT, White DC, Peskett S. Lumbar epidural injections in the treatment of sciatica. Br J Rheumatol 1984; 23:35-38.
106. Rocco AG, Frank E, Kaul AF, Lipson SJ, Gallo JP. Epidural steroids, epidural morphine and epidural steroids combined with morphine in the treatment of post-laminectomy syndrome. Pain 1989; 36:297-303.
107. Ridley MG, Kingsley GH, Gibson T, Grahame R. Outpatient lumbar epidural corticosteroid injection in the management of sciatica. Br J Rheumatol 1988; 27:295-299.
108. Rogers P, Nash T, Schiller D and Norman J. Epidural steroids for sciatica. Pain Clinic 1992; 5:67-72.
109. Castagnera L, Maurette P, Pointillart V, Vital JM, Erny P, Senegas J. Long-term results of cervical epidural steroid injection with and without morphine in chronic cervical radicular pain. Pain 1994; 58:239-243.
110. Hernandez R, Lopez F. Assessment of pain intensity in patients with diabetic polyneuropathy treated with peridural 2% lidocaine methylprednisolone acetate vs peridural 2% lidocaine. Anestesia en Mexico 1999; 11:65-69.
111. Kikuchi A, Kotani N, Sato T, Takamura K, Sakai I, Matsuki A. Comparative therapeutic evaluation of intrathecal versus epidural methylprednisolone for long-term analgesia in patients with intractable postherpetic neuralgia. Reg Anesth Pain Med 1999; 24:287-293.
112. Helliwell M, Robertson JC, Ellia RM. Outpatient treatment of low back pain and sciatica by a single extradural corticosteroid injection. Br J Clin Pract 1985; 39:228-231.
113. Stav A, Ovadia L, Sternberg A, Kaadan M, Weksler N. Cervical epidural steroid injection for cervicobrachialgia. Acta Anaesthesiol Scand 1993; 37:562-566.
114. Buchner M, Zeifang F, Brocai DR, Schiltenwolf M. Epidural corticosteroid injection in the conservative management of sciatica. Clin Orth Rel Res 2000; 375:149-156.
115. Valat JP, Giraudeau B, Rozenberg S, Goupille P, Bourgeois P, Micheau-Beaugendre V, Soubrier M, Richard S, Thomas E. Epidural corticosteroid injections for sciatica: a randomised, double blind, controlled clinical trial. Ann Rheum Dis 2003; 62:639-43.
116. Kraemer J, Ludwig J, Bickert U, Owczarek V, Traupe M. Lumbar epidural perineural injection: a new technique. Eur Spine J 1997; 6:357-361.
117. Pirbudak L, Karakurum G Oner U, Gulec A, Karadasli H. Epidural corticosteroid injection and amitriptyline for the treatment of chronic low back pain associated with radiculopathy. Pain Clinic 2003; 15:247-253.
118. Bronfort G, Evans RL, Maiers M, Anderson AV. Spinal manipulation, epidural injections, and self-care for sciatica: a pilot study for a randomized clinical trial. J Manipulative Physiol Ther 2004; 278:503-508.
119. Wilson-MacDonald J, Burt G, Griffin D, Glynn C. Epidural steroid injection for nerve root compression: a randomized, controlled trial. J Bone Joint Surg Br 2005; 87-B:352-355.
120. Arden NK, Price C, Reading I, Stubbing J, Hazelgrove J, Dunne C, Michel M, Rogers P, Cooper C, WEST Study Group. A multicentre randomized controlled trial of epidural corticosteroid injections for sciatica: the WEST study. Rheumatology (Oxford) 2005; 44:1399-1406.
121. Bush K, Hillier S. Outcome of cervical radiculopathy treated with periradicular/epidural corticosteroid injections: a prospective study with independent clinical review. Eur Spine J 1996; 5:319-325.
122. Rull BM, Miralles M, Aure S. Therapeutic epidural infiltrations in the lumbar nerve roots. Revista de Ortopedia y Traumatologia 1996; 40:209-217.
123. Caglar S, Erdine S, Aldemir T. The results of the epidural steroid injections in patients with radiculopathies due to lumbar disc herniations. Fizik Tedavi Rehabilitasyon Dergisi 1995; 19:186-190.
124. Rivest C, Katz JN, Ferrante FM, Jamison RN. Effects of epidural steroid injection on pain due to lumbar spinal stenosis or herniated discs: a prospective study. Arthritis Care Res 1998; 11:291-297.
125. Koning HM, Koning AJ; Bruinen TCM; Koster HG; Heybroek E. The period of pain relief following a successful epidural steroid injection for low back pain. Pain Clinic 2002; 13:331-338.
126. Andersen KH, Mosdal C. Epidural application of corticosteroids in low back pain and sciatica. Acta Neurochir 1987; 87:52-53.
127. Warfield CA, Crews DA. Epidural steroid injection as a predictor of surgical outcome. Surg Gyn Obstet 1987; 164:457-458.
128. Fukusaki M, Kobayashi I, Hara T, Sumikawa K. Symptoms of spinal stenosis do not improve after epidural steroid injection. Clin J Pain 1998; 14:148-151.
129. Stav A, Ovadia L, Landau M, Weksler N, Berman M. Epidural steroid injection in the treatment of lumbar and cervical pain syndromes: a preliminary retrospective comparison. Pain Clinic 1991; 4:95-112.
130. Lin EL, Lieu V, Halevi L, Shamie AN, Wang JC. Cervical epidural steroid injections for symptomatic disc herniations. J Spinal Disord Tech 2006; 19:183-186.
131. Mangar D, Thomas PB. Epidural steroid injections in the treatment of cervical and lumbar pain syndromes. Reg Anesth 1991; 16:246.
132. Shulman M. Treatment of neck pain with cervical epidural steroid injection. Reg Anesth 1986; 11:92-94.
133. Catchlove RFH, Braha R. The use of cervical epidural nerve blocks in the management of chronic head and neck pain. Can Anaesth Soc J 1984; 31:188-191.
134. Berman AT, Garbarino JL Jr, Fisher SM, Bosacco SJ. The effects of epidural injection of local anesthetics and corticosteroids in patients with lumbosciatic pain. Clin Orthop 1984; 188:144-151.
135. Purkis IE. Cervical epidural steroids. Pain Clinic 1986; 1:3-7.
136. Rowlingson JC, Kirschenbaum LP. Epidural analgesic techniques in the management of cervical pain. Anesth Analg 1986; 65:938-942.
137. Warfield CA, Biber MP, Crews DA, Dwarakanath, GK. Epidural steroid injection as a treatment for cervical radiculitis. Clin J Pain 1988; 4:201-204.
138. Cicala RS, Thoni K, Angel JJ. Long-term results of cervical epidural steroid injections. Clin J Pain 1989; 5:143-145.
139. Pawl RP, Anderson W, Shulman M. Effect of epidural steroids in the cervical and lumbar region on surgical intervention for discogenic spondylosis. Clin J Pain 1985; 1:181-185.
140. Ferrante FM, Wilson SP, Iacobo C, Orav EJ, Rocco AG, Lipson S. Clinical classification as a predictor of therapeutic outcome after cervical epidural steroid injection. Spine 1993; 18:730-736.
141. Klein GR, Vaccaro AR, Cwik J, Seitchik S, Viscusi ER, Albert TJ. Efficacy of cervical epidural steroids in the treatment of cervical spine disorders. Am J Anesthesiol 2000; 9:547-552.
142. Ozyalcin S, Yucel A, Erdine S. Epidural steroid injection in the treatment of cervical pain syndromes: a retrospective follow up study. Angri Dergisi 1996; 8:9-14.
143. Hickey RF. Outpatient epidural steroid injections for low back pain and lumbosacral radiculopathy. NZ Med J 1987; 100:54-59.
144. Heyse-Moore GH. A rational approach to the use of epidural medication in the treatment of sciatic pain. Acta Orthop Stand 1978; 49:366-370.
145. Harley C. Extradural corticosteroid infiltration: a follow-up study of 50 cases. Ann Phy Med 1966; 9:22-28.
146. Sharma S, Stedman R. Epidural steroids: a retrospective analysis of the efficacy of high and low dose therapy. Anesthesiology 1998; 3A:A1135.
147. Rosen CD, Kahanovitz N, Bernstein R, Viola K. A retrospective analysis of the efficacy of epidural steroid injections. Clin Orthop 1988; 228:270-272.
148. Arnhoff FN, Triplett HB, Pokorney B. Follow-up status of patients treated with nerve blocks for low back pain. Anesthesiology 1977; 46:170-178.
149. Jamison RN, VadeBoncouer T, Ferrante FM. Low back pain patients unresponsive to an epidural steroid injection: identifying predictive factors. Clin J Pain 1991; 7:311-317.
150. Hopwood MB, Abram SE. Factors associated with failure of lumbar epidural steroids. Reg Anesth 1993; 18:238-243.
151. Reale C, Turkiewicz AM, Reale CA, Stabile S, Borgonuovo P, Apponi F. Epidural steroids as a pharmacological approach. Clin Exp Rheumatol 2000; 18: S65-S66.
152. Bowman SJ, Wedderburn L, Whaley A, Grahame R, Newman S. Outcome assessment after epidural corticosteroid injection for low back pain and sciatica. Spine 1993; 18:1345-1350.
153. Jurmand SH. Cortiotherapie peridurate des lombalgies et des sciatiques d'origine discale. Concours Medicale 1972; 94:5061-5070.
154. Ito R. The treatment of low back pain and sciatica with epidural corticosteroids injection and its pathophysiologic basis. J Jpn Orthop Assoc 1971; 45:769-777.
155. Brown FW. Management of discogenic pain using epidural and intrathecal steroids. Clin Orthop 1977; 129:72-78.
156. Warr AC, Wilkinson JA, Burn JM, Langdon L. Chronic lumbosciatica syndrome treated by epidural injection and manipulation. Practitioner 1977; 209:53-59.
157. Papagelopoulos PJ, Petrou HG, Triantafyllidis PG, Vlamis JA, Psomas-Pasalis M, Korres DS, Stamos KG. Treatment of lumbosacral radicular pain with epidural steroid injections. Orthopedics 2001; 24:145-149.
158. Silva J, Costa AO, Simoes MT, Neto RR. Management of radicular pain from lumbar herniated disc using beta-methasone epidural injection. Revista Brasileira de Ortopedia 1999; 34:165-168.
159. Wang JC, Lin E, Brodke DS, Youssef JA. Epidural injections for the treatment of symptomatic lumbar herniated discs. J Spinal Disord Tech 2002; 15:269-272.
160. Price C, Arden N, Coglan L, Rogers P. Cost-effectiveness and safety of epidural steroids in the management of sciatica. Health Technol Assess 2005; 9:1-58, iii.
161. Schaufele MK, Hatch L, Jones W. Interlaminar versus transforaminal epidural injections for the treatment of symptomatic lumbar intervertebral disc herniations. Pain Physician 2006; 9:361-366.
162. Riew KD, Park JB, Cho YS, Gilula L, Patel A, Lenke LG, Bridwell KH. Nerve root blocks in the treatment of lumbar radicular pain: a minimum five-year follow-up. J Bone Joint Surg Am 2006; 88:1722-1725.
163. Ng L, Chaudhary N, Sell P. The efficacy of corticosteroids in periradicular infiltration for chronic radicular pain: a randomized, double-blind, controlled trial. Spine 2005; 30:857-862.
164. Riew KD, Yin Y, Gilula L, Bridwell KH, Lenke LG, Lauryssen C, Goette K. The effect of nerve-root injections on the need for operative treatment of lumbar radicular pain. J Bone Joint Surg AM 2000; 82: 1589-1593.
165. Karppinen J, Malmivaara A, Kurunlahti M, Kyllonen E, Pienimaki T, Nieminen P, Ohinmaa A, Tervonen O, Vanharanta H. Periradicular infiltration for sciatica. Spine 2001; 26:1059-1067.
166. Karppinen J, Ohinmaa A, Malmivaara A, Kurunlahti M, Kyllonen E, Pienimaki T, Nieminen P, Tervonen O, Vanharanta H. Cost effectiveness of periradicular infiltration for sciatica. Spine 2001; 26:2587-2595.
167. Devulder J, Deene P, De Laat M, Van Bastelaere M, Brusselmans G, Rally G. Nerve root sleeve injections in patients with failed back surgery syndrome: a comparison of three solutions. Clin J Pain 1999; 15:132-135.
168. Kolsi J, Delecrin J, Berthelot JM, Thomas L, Prost A, Maugars Y. Efficacy of nerve root versus interspinous injections of glucocorticoids in the treatment of disc-related sciatica: a pilot, prospective, randomized, double-blind study. Joint Bone Spine 2000; 67:113-118.
169. Vad VB, Bhat AL, Lutz GE, Cammisa F. Transforaminal epidural steroid injections in lumbosacral radiculopathy: a prospective randomized study. Spine 2002; 27:11-16.
170. Thomas E, Cyteval C, Abiad L, Picot MC, Taourel P, Blotman F. Efficacy of transforaminal versus interspinous corticosteroid injection in discal radiculalgia: a prospective, randomised, double-blind study. Clin Rheumatol 2003; 22:299-304.
171. Anderberg L, Annertz M, Persson L, Brandt L, Saveland H. Transforaminal steroid injections for the treatment of cervical radiculopathy: a
172. Autio RA, Karppinen J, Niinimaki J, Ojala R, Kurunlahti M, Haapea M, Vanharanta H, Tervonen O. Determinants of spontaneous resorption of intervertebral disc herniations. Spine 2006; 31:1247-1252.
173. Tong HC, Williams JC, Haig AJ, Geisser ME, Chiodo A. Predicting outcomes of transforaminal epidural injections for sciatica. Spine J 2003; 3:430-434.
174. Kolstad F, Leivseth G and Nygaard O. Transforaminal steroid injections in the treatment of cervical radiculopathy. A prospective outcome study. Acta Neurochir (Wien) 2005; 147:1065-1070.
175. Yang SC, Fu TS, Lai PL, Niu CC, Chen LH, Chen WJ. Transforaminal epidural steroid injection for discectomy candidates: an outcome study with a minimum of two-year follow-up. Chang Gung Med J 2006; 29:93-99.
176. Ng LC, Sell P. Outcomes of a prospective cohort study on peri-radicular infiltration for radicular pain in patients with lumbar disc herniation and spinal stenosis. Eur Spine J 2004; 13:325-329.
177. Karaeminogullari O, Sahin O, Boyvat F, Akgun RC, Gurun U, Demirors H, Tuncay IC, Tandogan RN. Transforaminal epidural steroid injection under computed tomography guidance in relieving lumbosacral radicular pain. Acta Orthop Traumatol Turc 2005; 39:416-420.
178. Michel JL, Lemaire S, Bourbon H, Reynier C, Lhoste A, Soubrier S, Dubost JJ, Ristori JM. Fluoroscopy guided L5-S1 transforaminal injection as a treatment for S1 radiculopathy. J Radiol 2004; 85:1937-1941.
179. Lutz GE, Vad VB, Wisneski RJ. Fluoroscopic transforaminal lumbar epidural steroids: an outcome study. Arch Phys Med Rehabil 1998; 79:1362-1366.
180. Dreyfuss P, Baker R, Bogduk N. Comparative effectiveness of cervical transforaminal injections with particulate and nonparticulate corticosteroid preparations for cervical radicular pain. Pain Med 2006; 7:237-242.
181. Berger O, Dousset V, Delmer O, Pointillart V, Vital JM, Caille JM. Evaluation of the efficacy of foraminal infusions of corticosteroids guided by computed tomography in the treatment of radicular pain by foraminal injection. J Radiol 1999; 80:917-925.
182. Melzer A, Seibel RM. Magnetic resonance (MR)-guided percutaneous pain therapy of degenerative spinal diseases. Semin Interv Radiol 1999; 16:143-150.
183. Sequeiros RB, Ojala RO, Klemola R, Vaara TJ, Jyrkinen L, Tervonen OA. MRI-guided periradicular nerve root infiltration therapy in low-field (0.23-T) MRI system using optical instrument tracking. Eur Radiol 2002; 12:1331-1337.
184. Zennaro H, Dousset V, Viaud B, Allard M, Dehais J, Senegas J, Caille JM. Periganglionic foraminal steroid injections performed under CT control. Am J Neuroradiol 1998; 19:349-352.
185. Groenemeyer DH, Gevargez A, Schindler O, Schirp S, Braun M. CT-guided periradicular injections of corticosteroids in the management of lumbar radiculopathy associated with disk herniation. J Radiol 2002; 1-12.
186. Buttermann GR. Lumbar disc herniation regression after successful epidural steroid injection. J Spinal Disord Tech 2002; 15:469-476.
187. Buttermann GR. The effect of spinal steroid injections for degenerative disc disease. Spine J 2004; 4:495-505.
188. Buttermann GR. Treatment of lumbar disc herniation: epidural steroid injection compared with discectomy. A prospective, randomized study. J Bone Joint Surg Am 2004; 86-A:670-679.
189. Cyteval C, Thomas E, Decoux E, Sarrabere MP, Cottin A, Blotman F, Taourel P. Cervical radiculopathy: open study on percutaneous periradicular foraminal steroid infiltration performed under CT control in 30 patients. AJNR Am J Neuroradiol 2004; 25:441-445.
190. Botwin KP, Gruber RD, Bouchlas CG, Torres-Ramos FM, Sanelli JT, Freeman ED, Slaten WK, Rao S. Fluoroscopically guided lumbar transformational epidural steroid injections in degenerative lumbar stenosis: an outcome study. Am J Phys Med Rehabil 2002; 81:898-905.
191. Lee JW, Kim SH, Lee IS, Choi JA, Choi JY, Hong SH, Kang HS. Therapeutic effect and outcome predictors of sciatica treated using transforaminal epidural steroid injection. AJR Am J Roentgenol 2006; 187:1427-1431.
192. Slipman CW, Lipetz JS, DePalma MJ, Jackson HB. Therapeutic selective nerve root block in the nonsurgical treatment of traumatically induced cervical spondylotic radicular pain. Am J Phys Med Rehabil 2004; 83:446-454.
193. Slipman C, Lipetz J, Jackson H, Plastaras C, Vresilovic E. Outcomes of therapeutic selective nerve root blocks for whiplash induced cervical radicular pain. Pain Physician 2001; 4:167-174.
194. Lutze M, Stendel R, Vesper J, Brock M. Periradicular therapy in lumbar radicular syndromes: methodology and results. Acta Neurochir 1997; 139:719-724.
195. Uhlenbrock D, Arlinghaus J. Results of CT-guided periradicular pain therapy. Rofo 1997; 166:528-534.
196. Le Chevallier PL, Videgrain M, Roulleau P, Delvert JC, Valat JP, Castaing J. Injection of the sacrolumbar roots: a complementary method of staging sciatica. 18 cases. Rev Rhum Mal Osteoartic 1978; 45:473-477.
197. Devulder J. Transforaminal nerve root sleeve injection with corticosteroids, hyaluronidase, and local anesthetic in the failed back surgery syndrome. J Spinal Disord 1998; 11:151-154.
198. Weiner BK, Fraser RD. Foraminal injection for lateral lumbar disc herniation. J Bone Joint Surg 1997; 79-B:804-807.
199. Narozny M, Zanetti M, Boos N. Therapeutic efficacy of selective nerve root blocks in the treatment of lumbar radicular leg pain. Swiss Med Wkly 2001; 131:75-80.
200. Friedman R, Li V, Mehrotra D, Mosuro Y, Atkinson G. Foraminal injection of a painful sacral nerve root using an epidural catheter: case report. Reg Anesth Pain Med 2002; 27:214-216.
201. Rosenberg SK, Grabinsky A, Kooser C, Boswell M. Effectiveness of transforaminal epidural steroid injections in low back pain: a one year experience. Pain Physician 2002; 5:266-270.
202. Schmid G, Vetter S, Gottmann D, Strecker EP. CT-guided epidural/ perineural injections in painful disorders of the lumbar spine: short- and extended-term results. Cardiovasc Intervent Radiol 1999; 22:493-498.
203. Groenmeyer DH, Seibel R, Schindler O, Schattauer K, Lange S, Schmidt A. Microinvasive CT guided periradicular therapy for treatment of chronical functional disorders of the spine. Weiner Medizinische Wochenschrift 1995; 145:129-139.
204. Slipman CW, Lipetz JS, Jackson HB, Rogers DP, Vresilovic EJ. Therapeutic selective nerve root block in the non-surgical treatment of atraumatic cervical spondylotic radicular pain: a retrospective analysis with independent clinical review. Arch Phys Med Rehabil 2000; 81:741-746.
205. Lee KS, Lin CL, Hwang SL, Howng SL, Wang CK. Transforaminal periradicular infiltration guided by CT for unilateral sciatica: an outcome study. Clin Imaging 2005; 29:211-214.
206. Sasso RC, Macadaeg K, Nordmann D, Smith M. Selective nerve root injections can predict surgical outcome for lumbar and cervical radiculopathy: comparison to magnetic resonance imaging. J Spinal Disord Tech 2005; 18:471-478.
207. Dashfield AK, Taylor MB, Cleaver JS, Farrow D. Comparison of caudal epidural with targeted steroid placement during spinal endoscopy for chronic sciatica: a prospective, randomized, double-blind trial. Br J Anaesth 2005; 94:514-519.
208. Anwar A, Zaidah I, Rozita R. Prospective randomized single blind study of epidural steroid injection comparing triamcinolone acetonide with methyl-prednisolone acetate. APLAR J Rheumatology 2005; 8:1-53.
209. Breivik H, Hesla PE, Molnar I, Lind B. Treatment of chronic low back pain and sciatica. Comparison of caudal epidural injections of bupivacaine and methylprednisolone with bupivacaine followed by saline. In: Bonica JJ, AlbeFesard D (eds). Advances in pain research and therapy. Vol. 1. Raven Press, New York, 1976, pp 927-932.
210. Bush K, Hillier S. A controlled study of caudal epidural injections of triamcinolone plus procaine for the management of intractable sciatica. Spine 1991; 16:572-575.
211. Mathews JA, Mills SB, Jenkins VM, Grimes SM, Morkel MJ, Mathews W, Scott CM, Sittampalam Y. Back pain and sciatica: controlled trials of manipulation, traction, sclerosant and epidural injections. Brit J Rheumatol 1987; 26:416-423.
212. Beliveau P. A comparison between epidural anesthesia with and without corticosteroids in the treatment of sciatica. Rheum Phys Med 1971; 11:40-43.
213. Blankenbaker DG, De Smet AA, Stanczak JD, Fine JP. Lumbar radiculopathy: treatment with selective lumbar nerve blocks: comparison of effectiveness of triamcinolone and betamethasone injectable suspensions. Radiology 2005; 237:738-741.
214. Helsa PE, Breivik H. Epidural analgesia and epidural steroid injection for treatment of chronic low back pain and sciatica. Tidsskr Nor Laegeforen 1979; 99:936-939.
215. Revel M, Auleley GR, Alaoui S, Nguyen M, Duruoz T, Eck-Michaud S, Roux C, Amor B. Forceful epidural injections for the treatment of lumbosciatic pain with post-operative lumbar spinal fibrosis. Rev Rhum Engl Ed 1996; 63:270-277.
216. Meadeb J, Rozenberg S, Duquesnoy B, Kuntz JL, Le Loet X, Sebert JL, Le Goff P, Fallut M, Marty M, Blevin S, Guggenbuhl P, Chales G, Duvauferrier R. Forceful sacrococcygeal injections in the treatment of postdiscectomy sciatica. A controlled study versus glucocorticoid injections. Joint Bone Spine 2001; 68:43-49.
217. Manchikanti L, Pampati V, Rivera JJ, Beyer CD, Damron KS, Barnhill RC. Caudal epidural injections with sarapin steroids in chronic low back pain. Pain Physician 2001; 4:322-335.
218. Manchikanti L., Singh V, Rivera JJ, Pampati V, Beyer CD, Damron KS, Barnhill RC. Effectiveness of caudal epidural injections in discogram positive and negative chronic low back pain. Pain Physician 2002; 5:18-29.
219. Yates DW. A comparison of the types of epidural injection commonly used in the treatment of low back pain and sciatica. Rheum Rehab 1978; 17:181-186.
220. Waldman SD. The caudal epidural administration of steroids in combination with local anesthetics in the palliation of pain secondary to radiographically documented lumbar herniated disc: a prospective outcome study with 6-months follow-up. Pain Clinic 1998; 11:43-49.
221. Ciocon JO, Galindo-Ciocon D, Amaranath L, Galindo D. Caudal epidural blocks for elderly patients with lumbar canal stenosis. J Am Geriatr Soc 1994; 42:593-596.
222. Barré L, Lutz GE, Southern D, and Cooper G. Fuoroscopically Guided Caudal Epidural Steroid Injections for Lumbar Spinal Stenosis: a restrospective evaluation of long term efficacy. Pain Physician 2004; 7:187-193.
223. Hauswirth R, Michot F. Caudal epidural injection in the treatment of low back pain. Ischweizerische Medizinische Wochenschrift 1982; 112:222-225.
224. Goebert HW Jr, Jallo SJ, Gardner WJ, Wasmuth CE. Painful radiculopathy treated with epidural injections of procaine and hydrocortisone acetate: results in 113 patients. Anesth Analg 1961; 140:130-134.
225. Botwin KP, Gruber RD, Bouchlas CG, Torres-Ramos FM, Freeman TL, Staten WK. Complications of fluoroscopically guided transforaminal lumbar epidural injections. Arch Phys Med Rehabil 2000; 81:1045-1050.
226. Botwin KP, Castellanos R, Rao S, Hanna AF, Torres-Ramos FM, Gruber RD, Bouchlas CG, Fuoco GS. Complications of fluoroscopically guided interlaminar cervical epidural injections. Arch Phys Med Rehabil 2003; 84:627-633.
227. Botwin KP, Baskin M, and Rao S. Adverse effects of fluoroscopically guided interlaminar thoracic epidural steroid injections. Am J Phys Med Rehabil 2006; 85:14-23.
228. Botwin KP, Gruber RD, Bouchlas CG, Torres-Ramos FM, Hanna A, Rittenberg J, Thomas SA. Complications of fluoroscopically guided caudal epidural injections. Arch Phys Med Rehabil 2001; 80:416-424.
229. Furman MB, O'Brien EM, Zgleszewski TM. Incidence of intravascular penetration in transforaminal lumbosacral epidural steroid injections. Spine 2000; 25:2628-2632.
230. Furman MB, Giovanniello MT, O'Brien EM. Incidence of intravascular penetration in transforaminal cervical epidural steroid injections. Spine 2003; 28:21-25.
231. Manchikanti L, Cash KA, Pampati V, Damron KS, McManus CD. Evaluation of lumbar transforaminal epidural injections with needle placement and contrast flow patterns: a prospective, descriptive report. Pain Physician 2004; 7:217-224.
232. Manchikanti L, Bakhit CE, Pampati V. The role of epidurography in caudal neuroplasty. Pain Digest 1998; 8:277-281.234.
233. Manchikanti L, Cash KA, Pampati V, McManus CD, Damron KS. Evaluation of fluoroscopically guided caudal epidural injections. Pain Physician 2004; 7:81-92.
234. Derby R, Lee SH, Kim BJ, Chen Y, and Seo KS. Complications following cervical epidural steroid injections by expert interventionalists in 2003. Pain Physician 2004; 7:445-449.
235. Beckman WA, Mendez RJ, Paine GF, Mazzilli MA. Cerebellar herniation after cervical transforaminal epidural injection. Reg Anesth Pain Med 2006; 31:282-285.
236. Ludwig MA and Burns SP. Spinal cord infarction following cervical transforaminal epidural injection: a case report. Spine 2005; 30:E266-E268.
237. Rozin L, Rozin R, Koehler SA, Shakir A, Ladham S, Barmada M, Dominick J, Wecht CH. Death during transforaminal epidural steroid nerve root block (C7) due to perforation of the left vertebral artery. Am J Forensic Med Pathol 2003; 24:351-355.
238. Houten JK, Errico TJ. Paraplegia after lumbosacral nerve root block: report of three cases. Spine J 2002; 2:70-75.
239. Cousins MJ. An additional dimension to the efficacy of epidural steroids. Anesthesiology 2000; 93:565.
240. Brouwers PJ, Kottink EJ, Simon MA, Prevo RL. A cervical anterior spinal artery syndrome after diagnostic blockade of the right C6-nerve root. Pain 2001; 91:397-399.
241. Nash TP. Comment on A cervical anterior spinal artery syndrome after diagnostic blockade of the right C6-nerve root. Pain 2002; 91:217-218.
242. Karasek M and Bogduk N. Temporary neurologic deficit after cervical transforaminal injection of local anesthetic. Pain Med 2004; 5:202-205.
243. Huntoon MA. Anatomy of the cervical intervertebral foramina: vulnerable arteries and ischemic neurologic injuries after transforaminal epidural injections. Pain 2005; 117:104-111.
244. Ma DJ, Gilula LA, Riew KD. Complications of fluoroscopically guided extraforaminal cervical nerve blocks: an analysis of 1036 injections. J Bone Joint Surg Am 2005; 87:1025-1030.
245. Glaser SE and Falco F. Paraplegia following a thoracolumbar transforaminal epidural steroid injection. Pain Physician 2005; 8:309-314.
246. Huston CW, Slipman CW, Garvin C. Complications and side effects of cervical and lumbosacral selective nerve root injections. Arch Phys Med Rehabil 2005; 86:277-283.
247. Tiso RL, Cutler T, Catania JA, Whalen K. Adverse central nervous system sequelae after selective transforaminal block: the role of corticosteroids. Spine J 2004; 4:468-474.
248. Quintero N, Laffont I, Bouhmidi L, Rech C, Schneider AE, Garvardin T, Dizien O. Transforaminal epidural steroid injection and paraplegia: case report and bibliographic review. Ann Readapt Med Phys 2006; 49:242-247.
249. Bose B. Quadriparesis following cervical epidural steroid injections: case report and review of the literature. Spine J 2005; 5:558-563.
250. Huntoon MA, Martin DP. Paralysis after transforaminal epidural injection and previous spinal surgery. Reg Anesth Pain Med 2004; 29:494-495.
251. Bilir A, Gulec S. Cauda equina syndrome after epidural steroid injection: a case report. J Manipulative Physiol Ther 2006; 29:492-494.
252. Tripathi M, Nath SS, Gupta RK. Paraplegia after intracord injection during attempted epidural steroid injection in an awake-patient. Anesth Analg 2005; 100:1209-1211.
253. Reitman CA, Watters W. Subdural hematoma after cervical epidural steroid injection. Spine 2002; 27:E174-E176.
254. Ziai WC, Ardelt AA, Llinas RH. Brain-stem stroke following uncomplicated cervical epidural steroid injection. Arch Neurol 2006; 63:1643-1646.
255. Bromage RP, Benumof JL. Paraplegia following intracord injection during attempted epidural anesthesia under general anesthesia. Reg Anesth Pain Med 1998; 23:104-107.
256. Hodges SD, Castleberg RL, Miller T, Ward R, Thornburg C. Cervical epidural steroid injection with intrinsic spinal cord damage: two case reports. Spine 1998; 23:2137-2142.
257. Williams KN, Jackowski A, Evans PJ. Epidural hematoma requiring surgical decompression following repeated cervical epidural steroid injections for chronic pain. Pain 1990; 42:197-199.
258. Dietrich CL, Smith CE. Epidural granuloma and intracranial hypotension resulting from cervical epidural steroid injection. Anesthesiology 2004; 100:445-447.
259. Saigal G, Donovan PMJ, Kozic D. Thoracic intradural Aspergillus abscess formation following epidural steroid injection. Am J Neuroradiol 2004; 25:642-644.
260. Waldman SD. Cervical epidural abscess after cervical epidural nerve block with steroids (Letter). Anesth Anal 1991; 72:717.
261. Mamourian AC, Dickman CA, Drayer BP, Sonntag VK. Spinal epidural abscess: three cases following spinal epidural injection demonstrated with magnetic resonance imaging. Anesthesiology 1993; 78:204-207.
262. Knight JW, Cordingley JJ, Palazzo MG. Epidural abscess following epidural steroid and local anesthetic injection. Anaesthesia 1997; 52:576-578.
263. Kaul S, Meena AK, Sundaram C, Reddy JM, Naik RT, Murthy JM. Spinal extradural abscess following local steroid injection. Neurol India 2000; 48:181-183.
264. Sabel M, Felsberg J, Neuen-Jacob E, Lichota A, Schnitzler A, Herdmann J. Enlargement of a chronic aseptic lumbar epidural abscess by intraspinal injections - a rare cause of progressive paraparesis. Zentralbl Neurochir 2000; 61:111-114.
265. Huang RC, Shapiro GS, Lim M, Sandhu HS, Lutz GE, Herzog RJ. Cervical epidural abscess after epidural steroid injection. Spine 2004; 29:E7-E9.
266. Parlier-Cuau C, Cartier RY, David P, Silva M, Doyon D. Subdural abscess. Rare complication of epidural infiltration: apropos of a case and review of the literature. J Radiol 1993; 74:205-209.
267. Hooten WM, Mizerak A, Carns PE. Discitis after lumbar epidural corticosteroid injection: a case report and analysis of the case report literature. Pain Med 2006; 7:46-51.
268. Finn KP and Case JL. Disk entry: a complication of transforaminal epidural injection--a case report. Arch Phys Med Rehabil 2005; 86:1489-1491.
269. Huang J, Kwa A. Lumbar discogram resulting from lumbar interlaminar epidural injection. J Clin Anesth 2004; 16:296-298.
270. Kabbara AK, Rosenberg SK, and Untal C. Methecillin-resistant staphyloccus aureus epidural abscess after transforaminal epidural steroid injection. Pain Physician 2004; 7:269-272.
271. Hooten WM, Kinney MO, Huntoon MA. Epidural abscess and meningitis after epidural corticosteroid injection. Mayo Clin Proc 2004; 79:682-686.
272. Yue WM, Tan SB. Distant skip level discitis and vertebral osteomyelitis after caudal epidural injection: s case report of a rare complication of epidural injections. Spine 2003; 28:E209-E211.
273. Simopoulos T, Peeters-Asdourian C. Pneumocephalus after cervical epidural steroid injection. Anesth & Anal 2001; 92:1576-1577.
274. Nishimura H, Uemura Y, Fukuda S, Kamada Y, Moriwaki T. Two cases of pyogenic cervical discitis presenting tetraparesis. No Shinkei Geka 2000; 28:631-637.
275. Hawley JS, J. P. Ney, and M. M. Swanberg. Subarachnoid pneumocephalus from epidural steroid injection. Headache 2005; 45:247-248.
276. Young WF. Transient blindness after lumbar epidural steroid injection: a case report and literature review. Spine 2002; 27:E476-E477.
277. Browning DJ. Acute retinal necrosis following epidural steroid injections. Am J Ophthalmol 2003; 136:192-194.
278. Iida T, Spaide RF, Negrao SG, Carvalho CA, and Yannuzzi LA. Central serous chorioretinopathy after epidural corticosteroid injection. Am J Ophthalmol 2001; 132:423-425.
279. Pizzimenti JJ, Daniel KP. Central serous chorioretinopathy after epidural steroids. Pharmacotherapy 2005; 25:1141-1146.
280. McAllister RK, McDavid AJ, Meyer TA, Bittenbinder TM. Recurrent persistent hiccups after epidural steroid injection and analgesia with bupivacaine. Anesth Analg 2005; 100:1834-1836.
281. Slipman CW, Chow DW, Lenrow DA, Blaugrund JE, and Chou LH. Dysphonia associated with epidural steroid injection: a case report. Arch Phys Med Rehabil 2002; 83:1309-1310.
282. Everett CR, Baskin MN, Novoseletsky D, Speach D, and Patel R. Flushing as a side effect following lumbar transforaminal epidural steroid injection. Pain Physician 2004; 7:427-429.
283. MacLean CA, Bachman DT. Documented arterial gas embolism after spinal epidural injection. Ann Emerg Med 2001; 38:592-595.
284. McMillan MR, Crumpton C. Cortical blindness and neurologic injury complicating cervical transforaminal injection for cervical radiculopathy. Anesthesiology 2003; 99:509-511.
285. Mateo E, Lopez-Alarcon MD, Moliner S, Calabuig E, Vivo M, De Andres J, Grau F. Epidural and subarachnoid pneumocephalus after epidural technique. Eur J Anesthesiol 1999; 16:413-417.
286. Katz JA, Lukin R, Bridenbaugh PO, Gunzenhauser L. Subdural intracranial air: an unusual cause of headache after epidural steroid injection. Anesthesiology 1991; 74:615-618.
287. Gutknecht DR. Chemical meningitis following epidural injections of corticosteroids (Letter). Am J Med 1987; 82:570.
288. Kusher FH, Olson JC. Retinal hemorrhage as a consequence of epidural steroid injection. Arch Opthalmol 1995; 113:309-313.
289. Elias M. A rare cause of radiculopathy following transforaminal epidural steroid injection. Pain Clinic 1998; 11:159-160.
290. Stohr M, Mayer K. Nerve-root damage from local injections. Dtsch Med Wochenschr 1976; 101:1218-1220.
291. Milhaud D, Heroum C, Charif M, Saulnier P, Pages M, Blard JM. Dural puncture and corticotherapy as risks factors for cerebral venous sinus thrombosis. Eur J Neruol 2000; 7:123-124.
292. Nelson DA, Landau WM. Intraspinal steroids: history, efficacy, accidentality, and controversy with review of United States Food and Drug Administration reports. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry 2001; 70:433-443.
293. Manchikanti L. Role of neuraxial steroids in interventional pain management. Pain Physician 2002; 5:182-199.
294. Delaney TJ, Rowlingson JC, Carron H, Butler A. Epidural steroid effects on nerves and meninges. Anesth Analg 1980; 58:610-614.
295. MacKinnon Se, Hudson AR, Gentilli R. Peripheral nerve injection injury with steroid agents. Plast Reconstr Surg 1982; 69:482-489.
296. Chino N, Awad EA, Kottke FJ. Pathology of propylene glycol administered by perineural and intramuscular injection in rats. Arch Phys Med Rehab 1974; 55:33-38.
297. Benzon HT, Gissen AJ, Strichartz GR, Avram MJ, Covino BG. The effect of polyethylene glycol on mammalian nerve impulses. Anesth Analg 1987; 66:553-559.
298. Abram SE, Marsala M, Yaksh TL. Analgesic and neurotoxic effects of intrathecal corticosteroids in rats. Anesthesiology 1994; 81:1198-1205.
299. Latham JM, Fraser RD, Moore RJ, Blumbergs PC, Bogduk N. The pathologic effects of intrathecal betamethasone. Spine 1997; 22:1558-1562.
300. Robustelli delta Cuna FS, Mella M, Magistrali G, Ricci M, Losurdo A, Goglio AM. Stability and compatibility of methylprednisolone acetate and ropivacaine hydrochloride in polypropylene syringes for epidural administration. Am J Health Syst Pharm 2001; 58:1753-1756.
301. Manchikanti L, Pampati V, Beyer CD, Damron KS, Cash KA, Moss TL. The effect of neuraxial steroids on weight and bone mass density: a prospective evaluation. Pain Physician 2000; 3:357-366.
302. Manchikanti L, Cash KA, Moss TL, Pampati V. Effectiveness of protective measures in reducing risk of radiation exposure in interventional pain management: a prospective evaluation. Pain Physician 2003; 6:301-305.
303. Manchikanti L, Cash KA, Moss TL, Rivera JJ, Pampati V. Risk of whole body radiation exposure and protective measures in fluoroscopically guided interventional techniques: a prospective evaluation. BMC Anesthesiol 2003; 3:2.
304. Manchikanti L, Cash KA, Moss TL, Pampati V. Radiation exposure to the physician in interventional pain management. Pain Physician 2002; 5:385-393.
305. Hopayiank K, Mugford M. Conflicting conclusions from two systematic reviews of epidural steroid injections for sciatica: which evidence should general practitioners heed? Br J Gen Pract 1999; 49:57-60.