Tocqueville's political economy

Tocqueville's Political Economy

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  Swedberg, Richard ^a  

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References (569)

1. Mary Simpson, ed., Correspondence & Conversations of Alexis de Tocqueville with Nassau William Senior from 1834 to 1859 (London: Henry S. King, 1872), 1:iii, emphasis added.
2. I have chosen to translate "moeurs" as "mores" and to see them as an early version of what Durkheim calls "social facts" and Weber "convention." For a discussion of how to translate Tocqueville's term moeurs, see chapter 4, note 18.
3. The situation in scholarship on Tocqueville may well be about to change, thanks especially to the works by Jean-Louis Benoît, Michael Drolet, and Eric Keslassy.
4. See Jean-Louis Benoît, Tocqueville moraliste (Paris: Honoré Champion éditeur, 2004);
5. Jean-Louis Benoît and Eric Keslassy, eds., Alexis de Tocqueville: Textes économiques (Paris: Agora, 2005);
6. Michael Drolet, Tocqueville, Democracy, and Social Reform (New York: Palgrave, 2003);
7. Eric Keslassy, Le libéralisme de Tocqueville à l'épreuve du paupérisme (Paris: L'Harmattan, 2000)
8. "Question sociale et démocratie dans l'oeuvre de Tocqueville" (Ph.D. diss., Université Paris Dauphin, 2006).
9. See also in this context the following two early texts: Seymour Drescher, "Industrialization and Democracy," in Dilemmas of Democracy: Tocqueville and Modernization (Pittsburgh: University of Pittsburgh Press, 1968), 51-87
10. Michael Hereth, "Der Verlust der Freiheit durch Hingabe an die Ökonomie: Versuch über die Stellung derÖkonomie im Denken von Alexei de Tocqueville," in Michael Hereth, Grundprobleme der Politischen Ökonomie (Munich: R. Piper and Company, 1977), 246-58.
11. For social economics, see Richard Swedberg, Schumpeter: A Biography (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1991)
12. Max Weber and the Idea of Economic Sociology (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1998).
13. Joseph Schumpeter, History of Economic Analysis (London: George Allen and Unwin, 1954), 12-24.
14. Max Weber, The Methodology of the Social Sciences (New York: The Free Press, 1948), 64-65.
15. Schumpeter, History of Economic Analysis, 820.
16. Tocqueville, Oeuvres complètes (Paris: Gallimard, 1977), vol. 13, part 1, pp. 361-62 (my trans.). Tocqueville to Louis de Kergorlay, September 28, 1834. About a year earlier Tocqueville had planned to start a journal in "economics and politics" with his friends Gustave de Beaumont and statistician André-Michel Guerry; see André Jardin, Tocqueville: A Biography (New York: Farrar, Strauss, Giroux, 1988), 192.
17. John Stuart Mill, Essays on Politics and Society, Part 1 (On Liberty), vol. 18 of Collected Works (London: Routledge and Kegan Paul, 1977), 18:156.
18. Tocqueville, Oeuvres complètes, vol. 13, part 1, p. 107. Tocqueville to Kergorlay, July 23, 1827, emphasis added. According to Aristotle, thinking is "the sweetest of all delights"; Nietzsche felt it bordered on "intoxication"; and Socrates (as one commentator has phrased it) said that "thought's quest is a kind of delirious love." See Hannah Arendt, The Life of the Mind (New York: Harcourt, 1978), 91, 123, 179.
19. Tocqueville, Oeuvres complètes (Paris: Gallimard, 1998), 14:166. Tocqueville to his father, Hervé de Tocqueville, January 24, 1831.
20. Tocqueville, Démocratie en Amérique, ed. Eduardo Nolla (Paris: Librairie Philosophique J. Vrin, 1990), 2:5.
21. Tocqueville's notebooks from his trip to North America have been translated as Tocqueville, Journey to America, trans. George Lawrence (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1959). For early drafts and additions to Democracy in America, see especially Tocqueville, Démocratie. Tocqueville filled fifteen notebooks with interviews, impressions, and comments on various topics. One of these notebooks has been lost and two are devoted to legal topics. Tocqueville arranged some of his comments alphabetically under general headings, such as "Bankruptcy," "Association," and "Jury." For a description of the notebooks, see Tocqueville, Oeuvres complètes (Paris: Gallimard, 1957), vol. 5, part 1, [p. 57].
22. John Stuart Mill, The Later Letters of John Stuart Mill, 1849-1873, vol. 15 of Collected Works (London: Routledge and Kegan Paul, 1972), 719.
23. The phrase comes from the influential work by Charles Sellers, The Market Revolution: Jacksonian America, 1815-1846 (New York: Oxford University Press, 1991).
24. Edward Pessen, Jacksonian America: Society, Personality, and Politics (Homewood, IL: Dorsey Press, 1969), 96. For similar overall assessments of the dynamic nature of the U.S. economy, see Glyndon Van Deusen, The Jacksonian Era, 1828- 1848 (New York: Harper and Brothers, 1959); Sellers, Market Revolution; Melvyn Stokes and Stephen Conway, eds., The Market Revolution in America: Social, Political, and Religious Expressions, 1800-1880 (Charlottesville: University Press of Virginia, 1996). See also in this context Douglass North, The Economic Growth of the United States, 1790-1860 (Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall, 1961).
25. See, e.g., Daniel Boorstin, The Americans: The Democratic Experience (New York: Vintage, 1974), 115
26. Samuel Huntington, Who Are We? (New York: Simon and Schuster, 2004), 70;
27. George Probst, ed., The Happy Republic: A Reader in Tocqueville's America (New York: Harper and Brothers, 1962), 3;
28. Scott Sandage, Born Losers: A History of Failure in America (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2005), 39.
29. See, e.g., John Crowley, The Invention of Comfort: Sensibilities and Design in Early Britain and Early America (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 2001).
30. See, e.g., Patricia Cline Cohen, A Calculating People: The Spread of Numeracy in Early America (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1982). This work begins as follows: "When Alexis de Tocqueville visited the United States in 1830, he found a people intent on material acquisition and an atmosphere permeated by an anxious spirit of gain . . . Americans were always calculating how to improve their lot. . . . 'Their minds', Tocqueville said, were 'accustomed to definite calculations' " (3).
31. See, e.g., Edward Pessen, "The Egalitarian Myth and the American Social Reality:Wealth, Mobility, and Equality in the 'Era of the Common Man,' " American Historical Review 76 (1971): 989-1034;
32. Lynn L. Marshall and Seymour Drescher, "American Historians and Tocqueville's Democracy," Journal of American History 55 (1968): 512-32.
33. The two outstanding works on the genesis of Democracy in America are Schleifer's The Making of Democracy and Eduardo Nolla's annotated edition of Democracy in America. George Wilson Pierson's equally outstanding Tocqueville and Beaumont in America is also interesting in this context since it focuses exclusively on Tocqueville's stay in America and does not discuss the process of writing Democracy in America. See Tocqueville, Démocratie; Pierson, Tocqueville and Beaumont in America; Schleifer, The Making of Democracy.
34. E.g., Tocqueville, Democracy in America, trans. Arthur Goldhammer (New York: The Library of America, 2004), 184; Tocqueville, Journey, 264, cf. 74-75. The French phrase is "l'esprit d'entreprise."
35. Tocqueville, Journey, 271.
36. Tocqueville, Démocratie, 2:119. Tocqueville's position on the nature of money would later infuriate Ezra Pound, who expressed his contempt for Tocqueville in his famous Cantos ("Monsieur de Tocqueville may pass in Europe for American history"). Matthew Mancini, Alexis de Tocqueville and American Intellectuals: From His Time to Ours (Lanham, MD: Rowman and Littlefield, 2006), 50.
37. Tocqueville, Journey, 172.
38. Tocqueville commented frequently on bankruptcy during his trip to the United States (see Tocqueville, Journey, 104, 117, 181-82, 245, 279). In Democracy in America he notes that there was no legislation against bankruptcy in the United States and that bankruptcy was closely related to the bold and audacious behavior that Americans displayed in business (130, 257, 731-32). For additional material, see Gustave de Beaumont and Alexis de Tocqueville, The Penitentiary System in the United States and Its Application in France (New York: Augustus M. Kelley, 1970), 70-71;
39. Gustave de Beaumont, Marie, or Slavery in the United States: A Novel of Jacksonian America (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1999), 221-22.
40. The first comprehensive bankruptcy legislation in the United States dates from the 1860s. For comments on Tocqueville's analysis of bankruptcy, see Scott Sandage, Born Losers: A History of Failure in America (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2005), 90-91;
41. Jon Elster, Political Psychology (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1993), 113-14.
42. Tocqueville, Démocratie, 2:65, emphasis added.
43. Tocqueville, Democracy in America, 642.
44. Tocqueville, Démocratie, 1:42.
45. Tocqueville, Democracy in America, 466.
46. Pierson, Tocqueville and Beaumont in America, 141. The quote comes from a letter from Tocqueville to Chabrol, June 20, 1831.
47. Tocqueville, Journey, 342.
48. Tocqueville, Democracy in America, 309. It is presumably in the same sense that one should understand Tocqueville's statement that it is the poor as opposed to the rich who hold political power in the United States ("the poor man governs"; p. 276).
49. Tocqueville, Démocratie, 2:66.
50. Tocqueville, Democracy in America, 246, 695, emphasis added.
51. Tocqueville, Oeuvres complètes, vol. 13, part 1, p. 374. Tocqueville to Kergorlay, probably from the end of January 1835.
52. Tocqueville, Oeuvres complètes (Paris: Gallimard, 1967), vol. 8, part 1, p. 112.
53. Tocqueville, Oeuvres complètes, vol. 13, part 1, p. 374.
54. For a discussion of Tocqueville's term "social state," see Michael Zuckert, "On Social State," in Paul Augustine Lawler and Joseph Alulis, eds., Tocqueville's Defense of Human Liberty (New York: Garland, 1993), 3-17.
55. See, in particular, Pierre Rosanvallon, "The History of the Word 'Democracy' in France," Journal of Democracy 6, no. 4 (1995): 140-54.
56. Tocqueville, Democracy in America, 3.
57. Tocqueville, Oeuvres complètes, ed. Beaumont (Paris: Michel Lévy Frères, 1866), 7:135. Tocqueville to Count Molé, August 1835. See also Tocqueville, Democracy in America, 3.
58. See especially Tocqueville, Democracy in America, 53-57.
59. See Pierson, Tocqueville and Beaumont in America, 126-28, 368-70, 425; Lively, Social and Political Thought, 46-47.
60. Tocqueville, Democracy in America, 617. For Tocqueville on consumption, see especially 617-22, 531-35.
61. Crowley, Invention of Comfort, 142ff. See also the entry for "comfort" in Noah Webster, An American Dictionary of the English Language (New York: S. Converse, 1828), n.p. According to Max Weber, the ascetic Protestants viewed expenditures for what in English is called "comfort" as ethically permissible, as opposed to expenditures for luxuries. Weber, The Protestant Ethic and the Spirit of Capitalism (New York: Routledge, 1992), 115, 252n82.
62. Tocqueville, Democracy in America, 532.
63. Tocqueville, Démocratie, 2:125.
64. Tocqueville, Democracy in America, 627.
65. Tocqueville, Démocratie, 2:139. For some clarity from Tocqueville's side about the meaning of these terms, see 2:257.
66. "In view of the system's expansion wherever a capitalist society matures to a certain point, it seems clear that its victory in the United States was inevitable. Then [by 1840] it was not so apparent. English competition, technical difficulties, its high expense, the lure of opposition, were all important obstacles to its growth." Pessen, Jacksonian America, 119.
67. The full definition reads: "Habitual diligence in any employment, either bodily or mental; steady attention to business; assiduity; opposed to sloth and idleness." Webster, An American Dictionary, n.p. In France, the word industrie had begun to mean diligent work as well as manufacturing activities in the last decade of the 1700s. See Michael James, "Pierre-Louis Roederer, Jean-Baptiste Say, and the Concept of Industrie," History of Political Economy 9, no. 4 (Winter 1977): 455-76.
68. Tocqueville, Democracy in America, 750. Tocqueville's argument (as well as that of Montesquieu) belongs to the family of doux commerce, as discussed in Albert O. Hirschman, The Passions and the Interests: Political Arguments for Capitalism before Its Triumph (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1997).
69. Beaumont and Tocqueville, The Penitentiary System, 147-48.
70. Tocqueville, Democracy in America, 464.
71. Tocqueville, Démocratie, 1:307.
72. Tocqueville, Journey, 182.
73. Tocqueville, Démocratie, 2:139.
74. See especially Robert Gannett, "Bowling Ninepins in Tocqueville's Township," American Political Science Review 97, no. 1 (2003): 1-16.
75. "The private corporation . . . became a frequent subject of conversation [between Tocqueville and his informants]." Schleifer, The Making of Democracy
76. Schleifer also discusses Tocqueville's search for printed material on economic organizations in the United States and identifies several of the works Tocqueville used (see 75-80, 313n30).
77. See, e.g., Naomi Lamoreaux, "The Firm after 1800," in Joel Mokyr, ed., The Oxford Encyclopedia of Economic History (New York: Oxford University Press, 2005), 2:318-24;
78. "Business Organization," in Historical Statistics of the United States (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2006), 3:477-582.
79. Lamoreaux's articles also contain a discussion of the single proprietorship as well as different types of partnerships at the time of Tocqueville's visit. For the legal dimension of the different types of economic organizations at the time of his visit, see Lawrence Friedman, A History of American Law (New York: Simon and Schuster, 1985), 188-201.
80. Tocqueville, Journey, 232-33, 252-53.
81. See Lamoreaux, "The Firm after 1800" and "Business Organization."
82. Tocqueville, Démocratie, 2:104.
83. Tocqueville, Democracy in America, 647.
84. Tocqueville, Democracy in America, 597.
85. Tocqueville, Démocratie, 2:257-58, 272.
86. Undated entry from Tocqueville, Journey, 272. Tocqueville's statements about there being no state were made in letters from June 1831 (see Tocqueville, Démocratie, 1:xxvi, note 53).
87. This point has been made by James Schleifer; see especially Schleifer, The Making of Democracy, 73-84. "Tocqueville's ideas on American technology, in particular, were more extensive and profound than has been recognized" (84). Pierson, who in his famous Tocqueville and Beaumont in America had attacked Tocqueville for ignoring the economy, acknowledged, after reading Schleifer's study, that he had made a mistake in this respect. "Tocqueville paid considerably more attention to the American economy than I and others have supposed." George W. Pierson, preface to Schleifer, The Making of Democracy, xvii.
88. Tocqueville, Journey, 271.
89. Tocqueville, Démocratie, 1:75-76.
90. Tocqueville, Democracy in America, 238-42.
91. Tocqueville, Democracy in America, 679.
92. The French terms are "richesse" and "prospérité." For a summary of what Tocqueville has to say on prosperity, see Joa ̃o Carlos Espada, "The Perils of Prosperity," Journal of Democracy 11, no. 1 (2000): 135-41.
93. Tocqueville, Démocratie, 2:280; Tocqueville, Democracy in America, 695.
94. Tocqueville, Démocratie, 1:184.
95. Volume 2 of Democracy in America ends with the words "prosperity or misery"-"prospérité ou . . . misères"); the same expression can also be found in the last few pages of volume 1. See Tocqueville, Democracy in America, 474, 834.
96. Tocqueville, Democracy in America, 585.
97. Tocqueville, Oeuvres complètes, vol. 13, part 1, p. 225. Tocqueville to Kergorlay, June 29, 1831.
98. See, e.g., Tocqueville, Democracy in America, 34, 320, 280, 462.
99. Tocqueville, Democracy in America, 365.
100. One could argue that Tocqueville also had difficulty analyzing the French in Canada with his scheme; he said it was their ethnic background that kept them from becoming as "democratic" and entrepreneurial in economic matters as the English in Canada. For Tocqueville on Canada, see Tocqueville, Democracy in America, 328-29, 354, 471; Jacques Vallée, Tocqueville au Bas-Canada (Montreal: Editions du Jour, 1973);
101. Simon Langlois, "Alexis de Tocqueville, sociologue au Bas-Canada," Tocqueville Review 27, no. 2 (2006): 553-75.
102. By formal interviews I mean interviews that Tocqueville carefully recorded in his notes. See Tocqueville, Journey. He probably spoke to and sought information from more women than what his notebooks indicate.
103. This estimate is based on a list compiled by Pierson of the people with whom Tocqueville and Beaumont became acquainted while they were in the United States. Pierson also names the individuals who contributed the most to Tocqueville's and Beaumont's understanding of the United States, and of these nineteen individuals none was a woman. See Pierson, Tocqueville and Beaumont in America, 782-86. For Tocqueville's interviews in the United States, see also the discussion in chapter 4 in this book.
104. Tocqueville, Oeuvres complètes, 14:103. Tocqueville to his sister-in-law Emile (married to Hippolyte de Tocqueville), June 9, 1831.
105. Tocqueville, Democracy in America, 706.
106. See Lawrence Friedman, A History of American Law (New York: Simon and Schuster, 1985), 208-11.
107. Tocqueville, Democracy in America, 708.
108. For an elaboration of this argument, see Richard Swedberg, "The Centrality of Materiality: On Theorizing the Economy," in Trevor Pinch and Richard Swedberg, eds., Living in a Material World (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 2008).
109. Catherine Beecher, A Treatise on Domestic Economy (New York: Schocken Books, 1977), 4-12. Beecher also comments directly on Democracy in America on pp. 23-24, 225. The references to Tocqueville in Beecher's book, which soon became very popular, "introduced Tocqueville's second volume to probably more readers than any other single source." Mancini, Alexis de Tocqueville and American Intellectuals, 45.
110. Tocqueville, Democracy in America, 708.
111. Pierson calls Tocqueville's knowledge of the South "meager" (Tocqueville and Beaumont in America, 391). See also James Crouthamel, "Tocqueville's South," Journal of the Early Republic 2, no. 4 (1982): 381-401. Among Tocqueville's questionable statements on economic matters, according to Crouthamel, are the ideas that all whites owned slaves, that primogeniture was central in the South, and that all enterprising figures in the South had originally come from the North.
112. Tocqueville, Oeuvres complètes, 14:165. Tocqueville to Edouard de Tocqueville, January 20, 1832. Tocqueville says that it would take six months to get to know the South well and two years for all of the United States.
113. Tocqueville, Democracy in America, 444.
114. Tocqueville, Journey, 240.
115. Tocqueville, De la démocratie en Amérique, ed. Eduardo Nolla (Paris: Librairie Philosophique J. Vrin, 1990), 1:276.
116. Tocqueville, Oeuvres complètes, vol. 3, part 2, p. 87. The quote, according to the same source, is hard to date but may come from 1841.
117. Tocqueville, Democracy in America, 393.
118. Tocqueville, Democracy in America, 367. I have changed the translation of "l'usage même de la pensée" from "even the use of his mind" to "even the use of thinking."
119. Tocqueville, Journey, 264.
120. Tocqueville, Democracy in America, 406.
121. Tocqueville, Journey, 264.
122. Tocqueville, Democracy in America, 393. "Inégalité réelle" and "inégalité imaginaire."
123. Tocqueville, Journey, 98.
124. Tocqueville, Democracy in America, 394.
125. Tocqueville, Démocratie, 1:264.
126. Tocqueville, Democracy in America, 394.
127. Richard Resh, "Alexis de Tocqueville and the Negro: Democracy in America Reconsidered," Journal of Negro History 48, no. 4 (1963): 259.
128. Tocqueville, Journey, 199.
129. Tocqueville, Democracy in America, 378.
130. John Locke, Two Treatises of Government (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1980), 287, 194. Earlier versions of the general argument can be found in Grotius and the doctrine of res nullius in Roman law. (I thank Laura Ford for this information.)
131. Lindsay Robertson, Conquest by Law: How the Discovery of America Dispossessed Indigenous Peoples of Their Lands (New York: OxfordUniversity Press, 2005).
132. Tocqueville, Democracy in America, 372-73.
133. While there was much complexity in the property systems of Native Americans, there was in general more emphasis on users' rights and less on those of nominal owners than in European legal systems.
134. See, e.g., Wilcomb Washburn, The Indian in America (New York: Harper and Row, 1975), 32.
135. Tocqueville, Démocratie, 1:253.
136. See Ronald Satz, American Indian Policy in the Jacksonian Era (Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1975);
137. Michael Paul Rogin, Fathers and Children: Andrew Jackson and the Subjugation of the American Indian (New York: Vintage, 1976). Satz refers occasionally to Tocqueville's analysis; see American Indian Policy, 97-98.
138. Tocqueville, Democracy in America, 376.
139. Tocqueville, Démocratie, 1:263.
140. Tocqueville, Journey, 331-32.
141. Tocqueville, Democracy in America, 391.
142. Tocqueville, Journey, 329.
143. See especially the argument that evil is directly related to the incapacity to think, since it means to accept prejudices, in Hannah Arendt, Eichmann in Jerusa lem: A Report on the Banality of Evil (New York: Viking Press, 1963) and in her "Thinking and Moral Responsibility," in Responsibility and Judgment (New York: Schocken Books, 2003), 159-89.
144. Blaise Pascal, Pensées (London: Penguin, 1995), 247.
145. While both Tocqueville and Beaumont did the research for the report, the main text was written by Beaumont since Tocqueville was incapable of writing his part (pp. 1-130 in the English translation from 1833). He did, however, read and comment on Beaumont's text; he also wrote a number of appendices that together make up about a third of the volume (150-274). It is generally assumed that Beaumont and Tocqueville shared the opinions expressed in the report. See on these points especially Michelle Perrot in Tocqueville, Oeuvres complètes (Paris: Gallimard, 1984), vol. 4, part 1, pp. 22-23. A long preface was added by the authors to the second edition of 1836; see Tocqueville, Oeuvres complètes, vol. 4, part 1, pp. 87-151. For The Penitentiary System, see also chapter 5 in Drolet, Tocqueville.
146. Tocqueville, Democracy in America, 239. At one point in Democracy in America Tocqueville states that there are no "prolétaires" in the United States. Henry Reeve translated this as there being no "paupers" in the country. The Goldhammer translation (which is used in this book) instead renders "prolétaires" as "proletarians." See Tocqueville, Democracy in America (New York: Adlard and Saunders, 1837), 1:226; Tocqueville, Democracy in America, 273.
147. Tocqueville, Democracy in America, 244.
148. The two texts that were eliminated can be found in Tocqueville, Oeuvres complètes, vol. 4, part 1, pp. 319-24. For Francis Lieber's willful attitude to the text in The Penitentiary System, see Mancini, Alexis de Tocqueville and American Intellectuals, 35-39.
149. Beaumont and Tocqueville, The Penitentiary System, 181. When the first translation of The Penitentiary System was reprinted in the 1960s, the appendix was again removed, this time because it was "of questionable relevance today; however relevant [it] may have been in the past." Beaumont and Tocqueville, On the Penitentiary System in the United States and Its Application in France (Carbondale: Southern Illinois University Press, 1964), x.
150. Tocqueville, Oeuvres complètes, vol. 4, part 1, pp. 319, 322.
151. Beaumont and Tocqueville, The Penitentiary System, 274.
152. Tocqueville, Oeuvres complètes, vol. 4, part 1, p. 322. Tocqueville notes some time later in the 1830s that according to the statistics in Economie politique chrétienne (1834) by Villeneuve-Bargemont, the number of poor people is 5 percent in France; cf. Tocqueville, Oeuvres complètes (Paris: Gallimard, 1989), 16:143.
153. See, e.g., Joan Underhill Hannon, "Poverty in the Antebellum Northeast: The View from New York State's Poor Relief Rolls," Journal of Economic History 44, no. 4 (1984): 1009-10.
154. Joan Underhill Hannon, "The Generosity of Antebellum Poor Relief," Journal of Economic History 44, no. 3 (1984): 818.
155. See also Hannon, "Poverty in the Antebellum Northeast," 1007-32.
156. Beaumont and Tocqueville, The Penitentiary System, 204.
157. For a similar example, see Tocqueville, Democracy in America, 681. Planned obsolescence is "a uniquely American invention" and is usually seen as being introduced on a large scale in the United States in 1923 when General Motors started to sell cars based on new style rather than on new technology. See Giles Slide, Made to Break: Technology and Obsolescence in America (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2006), 3-4.
158. Beaumont and Tocqueville got the story slightly wrong. The British authorities had introduced a treadmill in the early 1800s, but it did have a productive purpose.
159. See, e.g., D. H. Shayt, "Stairway to Redemption: America's Encounter with the British Prison Treadmill," Technology and Culture 30, no. 4 (1989): 908-38.
160. See, e.g., Hilde Rigaudias-Weiss, Les enquêtes ouvrières en France entre 1830 et 1848 (New York: Arno Press, 1975), 22.
161. Beaumont and Tocqueville, The Penitentiary System, 50.
162. Robert K. Merton introduced the notion of multiple discoveries in 1961. This discovery was itself a multiple, as Merton himself has quipped.
163. See Merton, "Singletons and Multiples in Scientific Discovery," Proceedings of the American Philosophical Society 105, no. 5 (October 1961): 470-86.
164. According to economic historian Joel Mokyr, the theory of multiple discoveries (or, rather, the notion that if one person had not made an invention, it would have been done by somebody else) "is not applicable to scores of . . . important inventions." Mokyr, The Lever of Riches: Technological Creativity and Economic Progress (New York: Oxford University Press, 1990), 13.
165. There is one vague reference to Tocqueville's scheme in the prison book. At one point, it says that "there is even more equality in the prison than in society." (To which the translator has added: "Is this intended as a gentle cut?" Beaumont and Tocqueville, The Penitentiary System, 32.
166. Beaumont and Tocqueville, The Penitentiary System, 24; Tocqueville, Oeuvres complètes, vol. 4, part 1, p. 319.
167. Tocqueville, Oeuvres complètes, vol. 13, part 1, p. 374. Tocqueville to Kergorlay, probably written toward the end of January 1835.
168. Seymour Drescher argues that the study by Tocqueville and Beaumont can be seen as part of the French tradition of "elite humanitarianism." Drescher, Dilemmas of Democracy: Tocqueville and Modernization (Pittsburgh: University of Pittsburgh Press, 1968), 124-50.
169. For a very different way to situate Tocqueville and Beaumont's study in the French reform movement of prisons, see Michel Foucault, Discipline and Punish: The Birth of the Prison (New York: Vintage, 1977), 234-35.
170. While staying at his castle, Tocqueville regularly visited the poor. Ampère on Tocqueville, in Tocqueville, Oeuvres complètes (Paris: Gallimard, 1970), 11:439.
171. Michael Katz, In the Shadow of the Poorhouse: A Social History of Welfare in America (New York: Basic Books, 1996). "Every town or city that had established a poorhouse before the early 1820s reported a reduction in the cost of poor-relief and an improved moral climate" (24).
172. See especially Tocqueville, Démocratie, 2:135-42, 154-59.
173. Tocqueville, Democracy in America, 649.
174. Tocqueville, Democracy in America, 649.
175. Tocqueville, Démocratie, 2:162.
176. Françoise Mélonio, Tocqueville and the French (Charlottesville: University of Virginia Press, 1998), 219n70, 229n59.
177. Tocqueville might have had an indirect influence on U.S. economics. According to one scholar, "the social sciences in America-economics, sociology, history, political science-were founded or developed by scholars deeply familiar with and influenced by Tocqueville" (Mancini, Alexis de Tocqueville and American Intellectuals, 75). Mancini also shows how Tocqueville influenced the work of U.S. economist Francis Bowen (1811-90), who revised Henry Reeve's translation of Democracy in America in 1862 (72-76, 116; for Bowen more generally, see Joseph Dorfman, The Economic Mind in American Civilization, 1606-1865 [New York: Viking, 1946], 2:835-44).
178. Pierson, Tocqueville and Beaumont in America, 764. See also pp. 175, 762-65.
179. Gary Wills, "Did Tocqueville 'Get' America?" New York Review of Books 51, no. 7 (April 29, 2004): 54.
180. Mill, Collected Works, 18:56.
181. See, e.g., Alan Kahan, Aristocratic Liberalism: The Social and Political Thought of Jacob Burckhardt, John Stuart Mill and Alexis de Tocqueville (New Brunswick, NJ: Transaction Publishers, 2001), 41-46
182. "Aristocracy in Tocqueville," Tocqueville Review 27, no. 2 (2006): 323-48;
183. Roger Boesche, The Strange Liberalism of Alexis de Tocqueville (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1987), 85-86.
184. According to Talcott Parsons, "Tocqueville was the apologist of a fully aristocratic society." Parsons, The Structure of Social Action (New York: The Free Press, 1968), xiv.
185. Fernand Braudel, "Alexis de Tocqueville's Recollections," Society 26 (March- April 1989): 68.
186. As yet another example of an attempt to explain Tocqueville's opinions by referring to class position, one can mention Sartre's characterization of Tocqueville in the 1848 revolution as expressing the views of "the upper bourgeoisie." See Jean-Paul Sartre, Critique of Dialectical Reason, vol. 1 (London: Verso, 2004), 759, 764.
187. Tocqueville, Oeuvres complètes, vol. 3, part 2, p. 87. The quote, according to this source, is hard to date but may come from 1841.
188. Tocqueville, Recollections (London: Macdonald, 1970), 217. The quote comes from a passage marked for omission by Tocqueville. For a very similar statement, see Simpson, Correspondence, 1:69.
189. Tocqueville, Oeuvres complètes, 14:387-88. Tocqueville to Mary Mottley, August 2, 1833. The translation is from Olivier Zunz and Alan Kahan, eds., The Tocqueville Reader (Oxford: Blackwell, 2002), 152.
190. Simpson, Correspondence, 1:100. Robespierre fell on July 27, 1794 (9 Thermidor). Tocqueville also compared the position of the aristocrats after 1789 to that of blacks in the United States and to the Algerians.
191. Simpson, Correspondence, 1:139. Tocqueville's statement is from 1850. See note 19 for an attempt to estimate what a franc in Tocqueville's time is worth in today's money.
192. Tocqueville, Oeuvres complètes, vol. 3, part 2, p. 87.
193. Pierson, Tocqueville and Beaumont in America, 35. One indication that they did not succeed in getting their money back is that in 1837, when Tocqueville was courting the electorate in Valognes, he proudly stated that he had paid himself for his governmental "mission" to the United States. See Tocqueville, Oeuvres complètes, vol. 3, part 2, p. 42.
194. Pierson, Tocqueville and Beaumont in America, 6. Olivier Zunz, "Tocqueville and the Americans: Democracy in America as Read in Nineteenth-Century America," in Cheryl Welch, ed., The Cambridge Companion to Tocqueville (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2006), 362. Tocqueville's failure to make any money on the U.S. editions of his work was not only due to his lack of business acumen but also to circumstances over which he had little control. See Tocqueville, Oeuvres complètes, 7:70-72, 77-80.
195. Tocqueville, Oeuvres complètes, vol. 6, part 1, p. 160. Tocqueville to Henry Reeve, February 6, 1856.
196. Tocqueville, Oeuvres complètes, vol. 8, part 3, p. 100. Tocqueville to Beaumont, April 8, 1853.
197. Gustave de Beaumont, ed., Memoir, Letters, and Remains of Alexis de Tocqueville (Boston: Ticknor and Fields, 1862), 1:45.
198. Tocqueville, Oeuvres complètes, vol. 13, part 2, p. 264. Tocqueville to Kergorlay, September 22, 1853.
199. See Jardin, Tocqueville, 288, 380-81, 479-80. See also Simpson, Correspondence, 1:110.
200. Mary Mottley had an annual income of 8,000-10,000 francs at the time of her marriage to Tocqueville. See Jardin, Tocqueville, 49; for information about her socioeconomic background, see Brogan, Alexis de Tocqueville, 96-97.
201. Files AT 363-68 in the Tocqueville Archives at the Archives départmentales de la Manche contain receipts of some of Tocqueville's expenses. See Vanessa Gendrin, Archives d'Alexis de Tocqueville (Saint-Lô: Archives départementales de la Manche, 2007), 363-69.
202. According to two experts on Tocqueville's correspondence, "very few" of his letters express a concern with money. See Tocqueville, Lettres choisies, souvenirs, 271. Tocqueville, Oeuvres complètes, 7:179. Tocqueville to Francis Lieber, September 1, 1856. A detailed study of how Tocqueville managed his economy on a dayto- day basis remains to be done. Some material for such a study is available in the Tocqueville Collection at the Archives départementales de la Manche. See, e.g., AT 363-69 in Gendrin, Archives d'Alexis de Tocqueville.
203. Tocqueville, Oeuvres complètes, vol. 6, part 2, p. 206. Tocqueville to Nassau Senior, November 15, 1857, emphasis in the original.
204. Jardin, Tocqueville, 51.
205. Tocqueville, Oeuvres complètes, 14:437. Tocqueville to Mary Mottley, June 13, 1841.
206. Tocqueville, Oeuvres complètes, 7:150. Tocqueville to Theodore Sedgwick, November 7, 1853.
207. Tocqueville, Oeuvres complètes, 7:196. Tocqueville to Theodore Sedgwick, April 13, 1857.
208. See, e.g., Keslassy, Libéralisme; Drolet, Tocqueville.
209. Mélonio and Guellec, "Les années de formation," 103.
210. According to Michael Drolet, Tocqueville had also "studied the work of . . . Ricardo." While Tocqueville may well have read Comte Tanneguy Duchâtel's articles on Ricardo in the Globe in the 1820s, as Drolet argues, I have found no clear evidence that he had worked with and penetrated Ricardo's writings in the original. For a reference to Ricardo in Tocqueville's notes on Say, see Tocqueville, Oeuvres complètes, 16:429. Cf.MichaelDrolet, "Democracy and Political Economy: Tocqueville's Thought on J.-B. Say and T. R. Malthus," History of European Ideas 29 (2003): 160-64. I am grateful to Michael Drolet for information on this issue.
211. There is no study of what newspapers Tocqueville read; it is also clear that he did not introduce everything he read in the newspapers into his own thinking. According to George Armstrong Kelly's cautious formulation, "it is not unlikely that he [Tocqueville] read the Globe," a journal of Saint-Simonian inspiration (after 1830) that often contained articles on liberal political economy. Kelly, The Humane Comedy: Constant, Tocqueville and French Liberalism (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1992), 4. Michael Drolet (who refers to the quote by Kelly) explores what Tocqueville may have learned from reading the Globe, especially from the articles on political economy by Comte Tanneguy Duchâtel. See Drolet, "Democracy and Political Economy."
212. For the section on the physiocrats in The Old Regime Tocqueville relied heavily on Eugène Daire, Physiocrates (Geneva: Slatkine Reprints, 1971), which contains excerpts from the works of Quesnay, Le Trosne, Mercier de la Rivière, and others. Tocqueville also studied the work of Turgot very carefully during this period. See chapter 10 for an analysis of Tocqueville's view of the physiocrats.
213. For the history of early French economic thought, including the work of Jean-Baptiste Say, I have benefited from the knowledge of my colleague Philippe Steiner. See, e.g., his introduction to Jean-Baptiste Say, Cours d'économie politique et autres essais (Paris: GF-Flammarion, 1996);
214. (with Alain Beraud), "France, Economics in, before 1870" (forthcoming in The New Palgrave Dictionary of Economics);
215. "La théorie de l'entrepreneur chez Jean-Baptiste Say et la tradition Cantillon-Knight," L'Actualité économique, Revue d'analyse économique 73, no. 4 (1997): 611-27.
216. See also Lucette Le Van-Lemesle, "La promotion de l'économie politique en France au XIXe siècle jusqu'à son introduction dans les facultés (1815-1881)," Revue d'histoire moderne et contemporaine 27 (April-June 1980): 270-94.
217. Nicolas Baudeau, "Avertissement de l'Auteur," Ephémérides du citoyen, book 1, vol. 1 (1767), as cited in Philippe Steiner, La "science nouvelle" de l'économie politique (Paris: Presses Universitaires de France, 1998), 117-18. I thank Philippe Steiner for drawing my attention to this statement.
218. In a letter to Beaumont dated December 7, 1828, Tocqueville writes: "you know well that you have promised me not to open Say" (Tocqueville, Oeuvres complètes, vol. 8, part 1, p. 72). Françoise Mélonio, who is the editor of the volume in Tocqueville's collected works that contains his notes on Say, dates these to "1828-1829?" Tocqueville, Oeuvres complètes, 16:425. According to a letter from Beaumont to his father, dated April 25, 1831, "we are now doing political economy with Say for full force." Gustave de Beaumont, Lettres d'Amérique (Paris: Presses Universitaires de France, 1973), 27.
219. "L'économie sociale": Jean-Baptiste Say, Cours complet d'économie politique pratique (Paris: Rapilly, 1828), part 1, p. 2. While the term "social economy" is usually associated with Say, it had been used before him, e.g., in the 1790s by the Société de 1789. See, e.g., Brian Head, "The Origins of 'La Science Sociale' in France, 1770-1800," Australian Journal of French Studies 19, no. 2 (1982): 121.
220. But it should also be noted that Say made a sharp distinction between statistics and political economy; the former had to be used on the basis of the latter. I thank Philippe Steiner for this qualification.
221. Tocqueville, Oeuvres complètes, 16:425-35.
222. For the concept of industrie in the late 1700s and early 1800s, as well as Say's use of it, see Michael James, "Pierre-Louis Roederer, Jean-Baptiste Say, and the Concept of Industrie," History of Political Economy 9, no. 4 (Winter 1977): 455-76.
223. For a different view of the Tocqueville-Say relationship, see Drolet, "Democracy and Political Economy," 159-81.
224. See, e.g., Jean-Baptiste Duroselle, Les débuts du catholicisme social en France (1822-1870) (Paris: Presses Universitaires de France, 1951), 59-71.
225. Edouard de Tocqueville (1800-1874) was, according to André Jardin, more influenced by Villeneuve-Bargemont than was his brother. Edouard became rich through marriage and was an amateur expert on agricultural economics. See Jardin, Tocqueville, 46-48.
226. Tocqueville became a member of the section "Morale" in 1838 and Villeneuve- Bargemont in 1845. Villeneuve-Bargemont died in 1850. The name of the section was changed to "Morale et sociologie" in 1958.
227. According to Françoise Mélonio, Tocqueville made "an attentive reading" of Villeneuve-Bargemont's Economie politique chrétienne, ou, Recherche sur la nature et les causes du paupérisme en France et en Europe (Paris: Paulin, 1834); cf. Tocqueville, Oeuvres complètes, 16:21-22. See also the effort by Michael Drolet to outline the impact of Villeneuve-Bargemont on Tocqueville in Drolet, Tocqueville, 95-111.
228. E.g., Villeneuve-Bargemont, Economie politique chrétienne, 1:48.
229. For a discussion, see especially Schleifer, The Making of Democracy, 81, 313n37.
230. Steven Marcus, Engels, Manchester, and the Working Class (New York: Vintage, 1975), 39-40.
231. For the relationship between Tocqueville and Senior, see especially the work of Hugh Brogan, including his introduction to vol. 6, part 2 of Tocqueville, Oeuvres complètes, and "Pauperism and Democracy: Alexis de Tocqueville and Nassau Senior," in Eduardo Nolla, ed., Liberty, Equality, Democracy (New York: New York University Press, 1992), 129-41.
232. Nassau Senior, An Outline of the Science of Political Economy (London: George Allen and Unwin, [1836] 1938), 2. This edition is identical to the original 1836 edition except for the pagination.
233. Tocqueville, Oeuvres complètes, vol. 6, part 2, p. 79n10.
234. Simpson, Correspondence, 1:92.
235. Jardin, Tocqueville, 380.
236. See also Brogan, Alexis de Tocqueville, 287-89.
237. See, e.g., Peter Burke, The Art of Conversation (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1993).
238. Simpson, Correspondence, 1:141.
239. Tocqueville, Recollections, 67.
240. Tocqueville, Lettres choisies, souvenirs, 28. Tocqueville to Charles Stoffels, April 21, 1830.
241. Tocqueville, Oeuvres complètes, vol. 6, part 2, p. 68. Senior to Tocqueville, February 17, 1835. The reference is to a passage in Democracy in America that reads, "Nevertheless, it is easy to see that in English law the poor man's welfare has been sacrificed to that of the rich man, and the rights of the many to the privileges of a few" (268).
242. Tocqueville, Oeuvres complètes, vol. 6, part 2, p. 69. Tocqueville to Senior, February 21, 1835.
243. Tocqueville, Oeuvres complètes, vol. 6, part 2, p. 70.
244. Hugh Brogan makes a similar point when he argues that Senior's influence on Tocqueville was not very important when it came to the latter's general understanding of England and its economy. See Brogan, introduction to Tocqueville, Oeuvres complètes, vol. 6, part 2, p. 31.
245. Iris Wessel Mueller, John Stuart Mill and French Thought (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1956), 134. Mill to Aristide Guilbert, May 8, 1835.
246. John Stuart Mill, The Later Letters of John Stuart Mill, 1849-1873, vol. 17 of Collected Works (London: Routledge and Kegan Paul, 1972), part 4, p. 1962. John Stuart Mill to Aristide Guilbert, June 5, 1835.
247. Tocqueville, Oeuvres complètes, vol. 6, part 1, pp. 346, 351. Mill to Tocqueville, November 3, 1843;
248. Tocqueville to Mill, October 19, 1856.
249. Keith Tribe, "Political Economy and the Science of Economics in Victorian Britain," in Martin Daunton, ed., The Organization of Knowledge in Victorian Britain (New York: Oxford University Press, 2005), 122.
250. Tocqueville, Oeuvres complètes, vol. 6, part 1, p. 352; Beaumont, Memoir, 2:429. Tocqueville to Mill, February 9, 1859.
251. Tocqueville died on April 16, 1859.
252. Mill, Collected Works, 18:156.
253. Tocqueville, Oeuvres complètes, vol. 6, part 1, p. 332.
254. Mill to Tocqueville, December 30, 1840.
255. Mill, Collected Works, 18:198-99.
256. Tocqueville, Oeuvres complètes, vol. 6, part 1, p. 303. Tocqueville to Mill, October 3, 1835.
257. When translated into German, moral sciences became Geisteswissenschaften. After some time the Germans counterposed Geisteswissenschaften to Naturwissenschaften, arguing that the former have to take meaning into account, while the latter do not. This distinction, which is central to the work of scholars such as Dilthey, Weber, and Schutz, is missing in Mill.
258. John Stuart Mill, A System of Logic, vol. 8 of Collected Works (London: Routledge and Kegan Paul, 1974), part 2, pp. 875, 895. Mill's "ethology" ("the science of the formation of character") is sometimes equated with his "sociology," but this does not seem correct. One part of ethology-"political ethology" or "the science of national character"-is part of what Mill terms "sociology," but "ethology" itself is situated in between empirical reality and "psychology."
259. As is clear from Auguste Comte and Positivism (1865), Mill admired Comte precisely for his ambition to make social science or sociology into a true "positive" science, something that Tocqueville was not interested in. As predecessors to sociology, Mill mentions Montesquieu, Machiavelli, Turgot, Bentham and his followers, Adam Smith, and "the political economists universally" but not Tocqueville. John Stuart Mill, Auguste Comte and Positivism (Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 1973), 52.
260. Mill, Collected Works, vol. 8, part 2, p. 901, emphasis added.
261. Tocqueville, Oeuvres complètes, vol. 6, part 1, p. 344. Tocqueville to Mill, October 27, 1843.
262. John Stuart Mill, Principles of Political Economy with Some of Their Applications to Social Philosophy, vol. 3 of Collected Works (London: Routledge and Kegan Paul, 1965), 754, note a-a 48.
263. John Stuart Mill, Autobiography and Literary Essays, vol. 1 of Collected Works (London: Routledge and Kegan Paul, 1981), 466.
264. Did Tocqueville ever influence Mill in his economic analysis? It seems unlikely; e.g., Tocqueville is never mentioned in the only full-scale study of the French influence on Mill's economic work. See Magdeleine Apchié, Les sources françaises de certains aspects de la pensée économique de John Stuart Mill (Paris: Paul Hartmann, 1931).
265. Tocqueville, Oeuvres complètes, vol. 6, part 1, p. 330. Tocqueville to Mill, October 18, 1840.
266. Beaumont, Memoir, 1:367. Tocqueville to Stoffels, February 21, 1831.
267. Tocqueville, Oeuvres complètes, vol. 6, part 1, p. 176. Tocqueville to Beaumont, December 3, 1836.
268. See Chevalier, Lettres sur l'Amérique du Nord.
269. Oscar Haac, ed., The Correspondence of John Stuart Mill and Auguste Comte (New Brunswick, NJ: Transaction Publishers, 1995), 37.
270. Comte famously describes his method of "hygiéne cérébrale" in a letter to Mill, November 20, 1841. He began this practice a few years earlier. See, e.g., Robert K. Merton, "On Uses and Abuses of Classical Theory," in On Social Structure and Science (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1996), 29.
271. Pascal-one of Tocqueville's favorite authors-had another reason for not reading certain works that Tocqueville may have secretly shared: "People ask if I have myself read all the books I quote.-I reply that I have not; it would certainly have meant spending my life reading very bad books; but I read Escobar right through twice; and, as for the others, I got my friends to read them, but I did not use a single passage without reading it myself in the book quoted, going into the context involved, and reading the passage before and after it, to avoid all risk of quoting an objection as an answer, which would have been reprehensible and unjust" (Pensées, 331).
272. Tocqueville, Oeuvres complètes, vol. 6, part 1, p. 214. Tocqueville to Mill, November 10, 1836. Translation from Beaumont, Memoir, 2:37.
273. Tocqueville, Démocratie, 2:63. Tocqueville to Charles Stoffels, July 31, 1834, emphasis in the original.
274. François Furet, preface to Tocqueville, De la démocratie en Amérique (Paris: Flammarion, 1981), 1:17-46.
275. For a critique of Furet's position, see James Schleifer, "Tocqueville's Journey Revisited: What Was Striking and New in America," Tocqueville Review 27, no. 2 (2006): 403-24.
276. Charles-Augustin Sainte-Beuve, Causeries du lundi (Paris: Garnier, 1862), 15:105. Sainte-Beuve attributes the statement about Tocqueville to "someone very judicious and respectable" (himself?).
277. Tocqueville, Oeuvres complètes, vol. 8, part 1, p. 84. Tocqueville to Beaumont, September 16, 1829.
278. Boesche, Alexis de Tocqueville: Selected Letters, 64. Tocqueville to Charles Stoffels, October 22, 1831.
279. Tocqueville, Democracy in America, 15. The original French reads: "je suis assuré . . . de n'avoir jamais cédé qu'à mon insu au besoin d'apter les faits aux idées, au lieu de soumettre les idées aux faits."
280. Tocqueville, Démocratie, 2:182. For the same point, see also Tocqueville, "France before the Revolution," in Beaumont, Memoir, 1:239.
281. Tocqueville, Democracy in America, 494. Tocqueville uses the term idées, which I would argue covers what we today mean by ideas as well as concepts.
282. See Michael Zuckert, "On Social State," in Paul Augustine Lawler and Joseph Alulis, eds., Tocqueville's Defense of Human Liberty (New York: Garland, 1993), 3-17.
283. Tocqueville, Democracy in America, 750. "Moeurs commerciales."
284. Tocqueville, Démocratie, 2:77. Tocqueville to Ernest de Chabrol, November 19, 1832.
285. Boesche, Tocqueville, 64. Tocqueville to Charles Stoffels, October 22, 1831.
286. Tocqueville, Democracy in America, 32-33, 797, 803.
287. For an argument that Tocqueville learned to use the comparative method by studying Montesquieu, see Melvin Richter, "The Uses of Theory: Tocqueville's Adaptation of Montesquieu," in Melvin Richter, ed., Essays in Theory and History (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1970), 87.
288. While my emphasis is on learning by doing, I agree that Tocqueville knew and admired Montesquieu. See in this context also Seymour Drescher, "Tocqueville's Comparisons: Choices and Lessons," Tocqueville Review 27, no. 2 (2006): 480-516.
289. Pierson, Tocqueville and Beaumont in America, 403. Tocqueville to Ernest de Chabrol, October 31, 1831.
290. Tocqueville, Oeuvres complètes, 14:167. Tocqueville to his father, Hervé de Tocqueville, January 24, 1832.
291. For a fine description of Tocqueville's method in the United States, see Pierson, Tocqueville and Beaumont in America, 401-6.
292. Beaumont, Memoir, 1:27.
293. Pierson, Tocqueville and Beaumont in America, 620. The anecdote comes from Tocqueville's "24 heures à la Nouvelle Orléans." As mentioned earlier, Tocqueville considered two years enough time to study the United States (chapter 2, note 20).
294. The questionnaire is discussed a bit later in the chapter; Pierson also mentions a few others. See Pierson, Tocqueville and Beaumont in America, 112, 405-6.
295. See, e.g., Gérard Leclerc, L'observation de l'homme: Une histoire des enquêtes sociales (Paris: Editions du Seuil, 1979);
296. Hilde Rigaudias-Weiss, Les enquêtes ouvriè res en France entre 1830 et 1848 (New York: Arno Press, 1975);
297. Antoine Savoye, Les débuts de la sociologie empirique: Etudes socio-historiques (1830-1930) (Paris: Meridiens Klincksieck, 1994).
298. Letter dated November 19, 1831, signed by Beaumont and Tocqueville, and translated by "some American copyist, presumably in Phil," emphasis added. See Yale Tocqueville Manuscripts, B.I.f. #6 at Beinecke Rare Book andManuscript Library. Cited by permission of Beinecke Rare Book and Manuscript Library.
299. Tocqueville, Democracy in America, 15, emphasis added; the wording has also been slightly changed from the original formulation ("I never gave in to the temptation to tailor facts to ideas rather than adapt ideas to facts").
300. Max Weber, The Protestant Ethic Debate: Max Weber Answers His Critics, 1907-1910, ed. David Chalcraft and Austin Harrington (Liverpool: Liverpool University Press, 2001), 26-27.
301. Tocqueville, Democracy in America, 16.
302. Tocqueville, Democracy in America, 16. It is unclear what happened to these notes.
303. Tocqueville, Oeuvres complétes, 14:100. Tocqueville to his father, Hervé de Tocqueville, June 3, 1831.
304. Tocqueville, Oeuvres complétes, vol. 4, part 1, p. 16.
305. Michelle Perrot, introduction to Oeuvres complétes, vol. 4, part 1, p. 18. See also appendix 10, "Inquiry into the Penitentiary of Philadelphia (October, 1831)," in Beaumont and Tocqueville, The Penitentiary System, 187-98.While some interviews are summarized in a line or two, the longest is about two pages.
306. See chapter 1, note 4, for Tocqueville's notebooks.
307. Beaumont and Tocqueville, The Penitentiary System, 279-86.
308. Jardin, Tocqueville, 68.
309. Tocqueville, Oeuvres complétes, vol. 4, part 1, p. 17. Tocqueville to his father, Hervé de Tocqueville, October 7, 1831.
310. Tocqueville, Oeuvres complétes, vol. 4, part 1, p. 50. The quote comes from a text coauthored with Beaumont. information on the U.S. economy and its population.
311. Tocqueville, Oeuvres complétes, 7:60. Tocqueville to unknown recipient, 1835 or 1836.
312. See Drolet, "Tocqueville's Interest in the Social," 451-71.
313. Tocqueville, Democracy in America, 248-50.
314. Tocqueville, Oeuvres complétes, vol. 8, part 1, pp. 119, 137; Jardin, Tocqueville, 192-93. Tocqueville remained on friendly terms with Guerry till his death; see Brogan, Alexis de Tocqueville, 545. The journal never got off the ground.
315. Hacking, The Taming of Chance, 77. Hacking adds, "amateurs loved Guerry's book."
316. Tocqueville, Oeuvres complétes, vol. 5, part 1, pp. 33-54.
317. Beaumont, Memoir, 1:12. The translation has been slightly changed.
318. For an argument that Tocqueville started attending Guizot's lectures in 1828, see Robert Gannett, Tocqueville Unveiled: The Historian and His Sources for The Old Regime and the Revolution (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2003), 18-19. See also his "Bowling Ninepins in Tocqueville's Township," 1-16.
319. Larry Siedentop, introduction to François Guizot, The History of Civilization in Europe (London: Penguin, [1828] 1997), xxxi.
320. See Guizot, History.
321. About a hundred pages of notes that Tocqueville took from Guizot's lectures during the period May 1829-May 1830 have been preserved. The course was called "The History of Civilization in France." See Tocqueville, Oeuvres complétes, 16:439-534.
322. Tocqueville, Oeuvres complétes, vol. 8, part 1, p. 80. Tocqueville to Beaumont, August 30, 1829.
323. For the relationship of Tocqueville to Guizot, see especially the work of Larry Siedentop. See Siedentop, introduction to Guizot, History, vii-xxxvii; Tocqueville (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1994), 20-40; and "Two Liberal Traditions," in Alan Ryan, ed., The Idea of Freedom (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1979), 153-74.
324. Guizot, History, 14. While Tocqueville knew the lectures, on which this book is based, it is not clear whether he attended the course himself or if he just read the notes that Beaumont had taken. See Tocqueville, Oeuvres complétes, 16:441n1.
325. See Mill, "Of Definitions," chapter 8 in book 1 of Mill, Collected Works, vol. 8, part 1, pp. 133-54.
326. Guizot, History, 201.
327. Tocqueville, Oeuvres complétes, 16:472. The translation is from Jardin, Tocqueville, 83. 1979), 113ff.
328. A number of articles try to trace the term "social science" (or "science sociale") as far back as possible. According to one of these, Sieyés had used the term in 1788, in What Is the Third Estate? See Brian Head, "The Origins of 'La Science Sociale,'" Australian Journal of French Studies 19, no. 2 (1982): 124.
329. While it is often noted that the term "sociologie" was introduced by Comte in lecture 46 of the Course of Positive Philosophy, it appears to have a more complex history, as most words do. It can, e.g., be found in the work of Sieyés from the late 1780s. See Jacques Guilhaumou, Sieyés et l'ordre de la langue (Paris: Editions Kimé, 2002), 81.
330. For the history of homo economicus, see Joseph Persky, "The Ethology of Homo Economicus," Journal of Economic Perspectives 9, no. 2 (1995): 22-31.
331. John Stuart Mill, Essays on Economics and Society, vol. 4 of Collected Works (London: Routledge and Kegan Paul, 1967), 321, 322.
332. Emile Durkheim describes Mill's approach to the study of economics as follows: "the subject matter of economics . . . comprises not the realities given to immediate observation but merely conjectures that are the product of pure intellect." Durkheim, The Rules of Sociological Method (New York: The Free Press, 1938), 24.
333. The standard work on Tocqueville's view of England is Seymour Drescher's Tocqueville and England (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1964), which can be complemented on certain points with his Dilemmas of Democracy. Both works also contain much material of interest on Tocqueville's view of economic matters.
334. Schumpeter, History of Economic Analysis, 501.
335. Tocqueville, Journeys, 91.
336. Tocqueville, Oeuvres complétes, vol. 8, part 1, p. 126. Tocqueville to Beaumont, August 13, 1833. The translation is from Boesche, Alexis de Tocqueville: Selected Letters, 85.
337. Tocqueville, Oeuvres complétes, vol. 8, part 1, pp. 129-30. Beaumont to Tocqueville, August 24, 1833.
338. On this point, see Drescher, Tocqueville and England, 65-66.
339. Tocqueville, Journeys, 94.
340. See Drescher, Tocqueville and England, 66-67; Porter, The Rise of Statistical Thinking, 37; Drolet, "Tocqueville's Interest in the Social," 464-65.
341. Tocqueville, Journeys, 107.
342. Tocqueville, Journeys, 107-8.
343. Tocqueville, Oeuvres complétes, vol. 8, part 1, p. 122. Beaumont to Tocqueville, August 7, 1833.
344. On this point, see especially chapter 4 in Drescher, Dilemmas of Democracy.
345. Tocqueville, Journeys, 208.
346. For Tocqueville's trip to Ireland, see Tocqueville, Journeys, 118-92, and Emmet Larkin, ed., Alexis de Tocqueville's Journey in Ireland (Washington, DC: Catholic University of America Press, 1990).
347. Tocqueville, Journeys, 124.
348. Gustave de Beaumont, Ireland: Social, Political, and Religious (Cambridge, MA: Belknap Press, 2006), 130. This edition is a reprint of the original 1839 translation; it also contains a new translation of Beaumont's preface to the seventh French edition from 1863.
349. Tocqueville, Journeys, 121-22.
350. Tocqueville, Journeys, 116. For the same theme, see Tocqueville, Democracy in America, 40, 277, 606-7.
351. Tocqueville, Journeys, 116.
352. The term paupérisme originally came from England. According to Benoît, its first use in England was in 1815 and in France in 1829. See Benoît, Tocqueville moraliste, 205-6.
353. Tocqueville's Memoir on Pauperism was republished in France in 1915 and in 1983-84. 31, no. 2 (2003): 283-323.
354. Tocqueville, "Memoir on Pauperism," in Drescher, Tocqueville and Beaumont on Social Reform, 11, 14.
355. Michel Bressolette, "Tocqueville et le paupérisme," Annales de la faculté des lettres et sciences humaines de Toulouse 16 (June 1970): 67-78.
356. Tocqueville, "Memoir on Pauperism," in Drescher, Tocqueville and Beaumont on Social Reform, 7.
357. Tocqueville, Oeuvres complétes, 16:141.
358. A. J. Whyte, The Early Life and Letters of Cavour, 1810-1848 (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1925), 122.
359. Tocqueville, Oeuvres complétes, 16:142.
360. Tocqueville, Oeuvres complétes, 16:145.
361. See, e.g., the entries for savings banks and pawnshops in Charles Coquelin and Gilbert-Urbain Guillaumin, eds., Dictionnaire de l'économie politique (Paris: Librairie de Guillaumin et Cie, 1852).
362. Tocqueville, Oeuvres complétes, 16:23. Tocqueville to Duvergier, May 1837. Tocqueville was in a hurry when he wrote the first memoir and relied heavily on Senior. See Brogan, "Pauperism and Democracy," 129-41.
363. Tocqueville, Oeuvres complétes, 16:144.
364. Tocqueville, Oeuvres complétes, vol. 8, part 1, p. 93. Tocqueville to Beaumont, October 25, 1829, emphasis added.
365. See, e.g., Françoise Mélonio in Tocqueville, Lettres choisies, souvenirs, 270.
366. Tocqueville, Democracy in America, 185. The ship of state ("le vaisseau de l'Etat") is a common metaphor and Tocqueville uses it, e.g., in a letter from 1837 to Molé (cf. Tocqueville, Lettres choisies, souvenirs, 393n181).
367. Tocqueville, Democracy in America, 198-203.
368. Johann Wolfgang von Goethe, Faust (New York: The Modern Library, 1959), 69, emphasis added. The first part of Faust (from which this quote comes) was published in 1808.
369. Karl Marx, Early Political Writings (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1994), 70, 116.
370. Max Weber, From Max Weber (New York: Oxford University Press, 1946), 128.
371. André Jardin, "Tocqueville député sous la monarchie de juillet," Contrepoint, nos. 22-23 (1976): 169; Tocqueville, Oeuvres complétes, 14:40. Tocqueville to Abbé Lesueur, April 4, 1814.
372. Tocqueville, Oeuvres complétes, vol. 8, part 1, p. 93. Tocqueville to Beaumont, October 25, 1829.
373. Tocqueville, Oeuvres complétes, 11:57. Tocqueville to Royer-Collard, February 1838.
374. See Tocqueville, Oeuvres complétes, 11:74. Tocqueville to Royer-Collard, November 20, 1838; see also Tocqueville to Kergorlay from 1837, as cited by Olivier Zunz in Tocqueville, Democracy in America, 893-94.
375. André-Jean Tudesq, preface to Tocqueville, Oeuvres complétes (Paris: Gallimard, 1995), 10:23.
376. Tocqueville, Oeuvres complétes, 11:115. Tocqueville to Royer-Collard, September 15, 1843.
377. Tocqueville, Oeuvres complétes, 11:118. Tocqueville to Royer-Collard, September 29, 1844.
378. Tocqueville, "The European Revolution" & Correspondence with Gobineau (New York: Doubleday, 1959), 215-16. Tocqueville to Gobineau, August 27, 1844.
379. See Tocqueville, Oeuvres complétes, vol. 10.
380. For the history of the French railroad system, see Michael Stephen Smith, The Emergence of Modern Business Enterprise in France, 1800-1930 (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2006), 64ff., 80ff., 316ff.
381. Tocqueville, Oeuvres complétes, 10:625.
382. Smith, The Emergence of Modern Business Enterprise in France, 316.
383. Tocqueville, Oeuvres complétes, 10:637.
384. Drolet, Tocqueville, 165; Jean-Louis Benoît, Tocqueville: Un destin paradoxal (Paris: Bayard, 2005), 287.
385. Tocqueville, Journeys, 62.
386. Tocqueville, Oeuvres complétes, 10:659.
387. Georg Simmel, "Faithfulness and Gratitude," in The Sociology of Georg Simmel (New York: The Free Press, 1950), 383.
388. Tocqueville, Oeuvres complétes, 10:663.
389. Jardin, Tocqueville, 393. No source for the quote is given.
390. Tocqueville, Oeuvres complétes, 10:675. The work Tocqueville is referring to is Bernard-Benoît Remacle, Rapport à M. le ministre secrétaire d'Etat de l'Inté- rieur concernant les infanticides et les mort-nés (Paris, 1845).
391. Tocqueville, Oeuvres complétes, 10:608-13. "Rapport sur les biens communaux" (1843).
392. Tocqueville, Oeuvres complétes, 11:115. Tocqueville to Royer-Collard, September 15, 1843.
393. See, e.g., David Pinkney, Decisive Years in France, 1840-1847 (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1986); Fernand Braudel and Ernest Labrousse, Histoire économique et sociale de la France, vol. 3 (Paris: Presses Universitaires de France, 1976).
394. While Guizot used this phrase in 1843, the general context of his speech indicates that he had a less crude meaning in mind. See Gabriel de Broglie, Guizot (Paris: Perrin, 2002), 333ff.
395. See especially Jardin, Tocqueville. For additional writings on Tocqueville's politics, see Jardin, "Tocqueville député sous la monarchie de juillet," 167-85; Jardin, "Tocqueville, homme politique," in Michael Hereth and Jutta Höffken, eds., Alexis de Tocqueville-Zur Politik in der Demokratie (Baden-Baden: Nomos Verlag, 1981), 93-119; and Benoît, Tocqueville, 239-324.
396. The admiration was mutual. When the first volume of Democracy in America appeared, Royer-Collard hailed it as a masterpiece and read it five times. See Kelly, The Humane Comedy, 29.
397. Tocqueville, Oeuvres complétes, 11:90. Tocqueville to Royer-Collard, August 15, 1840.
398. Boesche, Alexis de Tocqueville: Selected Letters, 153. Tocqueville to Royer- Collard, September 27, 1841.
399. Olivier Zunz, in Tocqueville, Democracy in America, 895. For the context, see Jardin, Tocqueville, 313.
400. Tocqueville, Oeuvres complétes, vol. 6, part 1, p. 335. Tocqueville to John Stuart Mill, March 18, 1841. For a more verbatim translation, see Boesche, Tocqueville, 151.
401. Tocqueville, Oeuvres complétes, vol. 6, part 1, p. 337. Mill to Tocqueville, August 9, 1842.
402. Tocqueville, Oeuvres (Paris: Gallimard, Bibliothéque de la Pléiade, 1991), 1:1085-1113.
403. Drescher, Tocqueville and Beaumont on Social Reform, 195; Tocqueville, Oeuvres, 1:1091.
404. Drescher, Tocqueville and Beaumont on Social Reform, 194-95.
405. Tocqueville, Oeuvres, 1:1088.
406. Quoted in Drescher, Tocqueville and Beaumont on Social Reform, 200.
407. Tocqueville, Oeuvres complétes, vol. 3, part 2, p. 123.
408. It is unclear exactly how much Tocqueville had invested and how much he lost. For a discussion, see Jardin, Tocqueville, 388, 391. these nonetheless "reflect his views more or less, although perhaps not his words."
409. Tocqueville, Oeuvres complétes, 14:235. Tocqueville to Edouard de Tocqueville, December 6, 1843.
410. Drescher, Tocqueville and England, 131.
411. The standard work on the history of this journal is Ruth Edwards, The Pursuit of Reason: The Economist, 1843-1993 (Boston: Harvard Business School Press, 1995). There is no information in this work on Tocqueville and The Economist.
412. Tocqueville, Oeuvres complétes, vol. 6, part 3, p. 78. Tocqueville to Lord Radnor, November 5, 1843.
413. Tocqueville, Oeuvres complétes, vol. 3, part 2, pp. 717-44.
414. Tocqueville, Recollections, 12.
415. John Stuart Mill, Essays on French History and Historians, vol. 20 of Collected Works (London: Routledge and Kegan Paul), 326.
416. Tocqueville, Democracy in America, trans. George Lawrence (New York: Doubleday, 1969), 753. A translation of Tocqueville's speech can be found on pp. 749-58.
417. Boesche, Tocqueville, 159. Tocqueville to Beaumont, September 19, 1842.
418. Beaumont, Memoir, 2:80; Tocqueville, Oeuvres complétes (Paris: Gallimard, 1983), 15:195. Tocqueville to Corcelle, September 17, 1844. Corcelle worked on Le Commerce with Tocqueville.
419. Tocqueville, "The European Revolution," 217-18. Tocqueville to Gobineau, October 4, 1844.
420. Tocqueville, Oeuvres complétes, vol. 6, part 1, p. 338. Mill to Tocqueville, August 9, 1842. For Tocqueville as a letter writer, see the introduction by Françoise Mélonio and Laurence Guellec to Tocqueville, Lettres choisies, souvenirs.
421. Jardin, "Tocqueville député sous la monarchie de juillet," 176-78.
422. Tocqueville, Writings on Empire and Slavery, 205.
423. See Seymour Drescher, The Mighty Experiment: Free Labor versus Slavery in British Emancipation (New York: Oxford University Press, 2004).
424. Tocqueville, Oeuvres complétes, vol. 6, part 1, pp. 326-27. See also Mancini, "Political Economy and Cultural Theory in Tocqueville's Abolitionism."
425. Drescher, Tocqueville and Beaumont on Social Reform, 100.
426. Tocqueville, Writings on Empire and Slavery, 215.
427. For the role of the economists during the July Monarchy, see, e.g., Yves Breton, "Les économists, le pouvoir politique et l'ordre social en France entre 1830 et 1851," Histoire, économie et société 2 (1985): 232-52.
428. Tocqueville,Writings on Empire and Slavery, 214. The translation has been slightly changed.
429. Tocqueville, Oeuvres complétes, vol. 3, part 1, p. 463.
430. Tocqueville, Democracy in America, 710.
431. Tocqueville, Oeuvres complétes, vol. 3, part 1, pp. 443, 445.
432. Tocqueville, Oeuvres complétes, vol. 3, part 1, p. 520. çaise contemporaine (Paris: Editions du Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique, 1977), 200-219.
433. Jardin, Tocqueville, 341. The translation has been changed.
434. The Muslim population in Algeria fell from around 3 million in 1830 to 2.7 million in 1860. See Robert DuPlessis, "The French Empire between 1789 and 1950," in Mokyr, The Oxford Encyclopedia of Economic History, 2:377.
435. Tocqueville, Writings on Empire and Slavery, 24.
436. Richter, "Tocqueville on Algeria," 365. Richter's article also includes a discussion of the opposition in the Chamber of Deputies to the cruelties of the French Army in Algeria.
437. Tocqueville, Writings on Empire and Slavery, 20.
438. For Bugeaud, see Richter, "Tocqueville on Algeria," 369-71. See also Douglas Porch, "Bugeaud, Galliéni, Lyautey: The Development of French Colonial Warfare," in Peter Paret, Makers of Modern Strategy from Machiavelli to the Nuclear Age (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1986), 376-407.
439. Beaumont, Memoir, 2:83-84; Tocqueville, Oeuvres complétes, vol. 15, part 1, p. 219. Tocqueville to Corcelle, October 11, 1846.
440. Tocqueville, Oeuvres complétes, vol. 5, part 2, p. 193.
441. A. Bussiére, "Le Maréchal Bugeaud et la colonisation de l'Algérie," Revue des deux mondes 4 (1853): 449-506.
442. Tocqueville, Oeuvres complétes, vol. 8, part 1, p. 451. Tocqueville to Beaumont, October 21, 1846. Beaumont's book on Algeria was never written.
443. Tocqueville, Oeuvres complétes, vol. 8, part 1, p. 451. Tocqueville to Beaumont, October 21, 1846.
444. Tocqueville, Writings on Empire and Slavery, 59.
445. André Jardin, "Tocqueville et l'Algérie," Revue des sciences morales & politiques 115 (1962): 66, 73. See also in this context Lutfalla, "Aux origines du libéralisme économique en France."
446. Jardin, Tocqueville, 332.
447. Tocqueville, Writings on Empire and Slavery, 130.
448. Tocqueville, Writings on Empire and Slavery, 195.
449. For a useful introduction to the debate about the Tocqueville Problem, as well as a contribution to it, see CherylWelch, "Colonial Violence and the Rhetoric of Evasion: Tocqueville on Algeria," Political Theory 31, no. 2 (2003): 235-64.
450. "The hypocrite is always trying to appear good, although he is evil." Søren Kierkegaard, The Concept of Irony with Continual Reference to Socrates (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1989), 256.
451. Tocqueville, Oeuvres complétes, 14:433. Tocqueville to Mary Mottley, May 30, 1841.
452. Tocqueville, Recollections, 83. Tocqueville says in a well-known passage in a letter to Mme. Swetchine that "I have never found the slightest pleasure in examining myself closely." Tocqueville, Oeuvres complétes, vol. 15, part 2, p. 313; Tocqueville to Mme. Swetchine, February 26, 1857.
453. Tocqueville, Oeuvres complétes, 14:387-88. Tocqueville to Mary Mottley, August 2, 1833.
454. Tocqueville, Democracy in America, 656-58.
455. Tocqueville, Democracy in America, 269
456. Tocqueville, Democracy in America, 408. The note was not included in the final manuscript.
457. Tocqueville, Oeuvres complétes, vol. 3, part 3, p. 185.
458. Emile Durkheim, The Elementary Forms of Religious Life (New York: The Free Press, 1995).
459. Boesche, Alexis de Tocqueville: Selected Letters, 252. Tocqueville to Kergorlay, December 15, 1850.
460. Tocqueville, Recollections, 133; cf. p. 71.
461. Raymond Aron, Main Currents in Sociological Thought (New York: Anchor Books, 1968), 1:311-12.
462. Søren Kierkegaard, Søren Kierkegaards Skrifter (Copenhagen: Søren Kierkegaard Research Center, 1997), 18:306.
463. Tocqueville, Recollections, 62.
464. See chapter 4, p. | | |.
465. Tocqueville, Recollections, 62-63.
466. Flaubert, Le dictionnaire des idées reçues, 326.
467. Tocqueville, Recollections, 76.
468. There is, to be more precise, no evidence that Tocqueville ever read Marx. In general, Tocqueville read few of his contemporaries, and the socialists were not among his favorites. For Marx's occasional use of Tocqueville's writings, see chapter 5, note 3.
469. Tocqueville, Recollections, 142.
470. Tocqueville, Recollections, 143.
471. For early surveys of the situation of workers in France, see Hilde Rigaudias- Weiss, Les enquêtes ouvriéres en France entre 1830 et 1848 (New York: Arno Press, 1975).
472. See, e.g., Jardin, Tocqueville, 416.
473. Tocqueville, Recollections, 85.
474. Drescher, Tocqueville and Beaumont on Social Reform, 180.
475. Gustave Flaubert, Sentimental Education (London: Penguin, 2004), 320.
476. The book is called The Road to Serfdom and Hayek discusses Tocqueville's speech on page 25. See Friedrich Hayek, The Road to Serfdom (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1944). For Tocqueville and neo-liberalism, including Hayek, see also chapter 5, note 33.
477. Drescher, Tocqueville and Beaumont on Social Reform, 183.
478. Tocqueville, Recollections, 220.
479. Jardin, Tocqueville, 434.
480. Tocqueville, Recollections, 224.
481. For Wittgenstein's interest in kites, see Susan Sterret, Wittgenstein Flies a Kite: A Story of Models ofWings and Models of theWorld (New York: Pi Press, 2005).
482. Tocqueville, Recollections, 76.
483. Tocqueville, Oeuvres complétes, vol. 6, part 3, p. 135. Tocqueville to Harriet Grote, June 25, 1850.
484. Beaumont, Memoir, 2:104-5. Tocqueville, Oeuvres complétes, vol. 6, part 3, p. 135. Tocqueville to Harriet Grote, June 25, 1850.
485. The quote at the opening of the chapter comes from Montesquieu, Essai sur le goû t. Montesquieu, Oeuvres complétes (Paris: Editions du Seuil, 1964), 846. "Notre âme est faite pour penser."
486. Aron, Auguste Comte et Alexis de Tocqueville, 31, emphasis added. Tocqueville, Aron says, "illustre les dangers du penseur trop engagé."
487. Tocqueville, Oeuvres complétes, vol. 13, part 2, p. 230. Tocqueville to Kergorlay, December 15, 1850.
488. See also Charles de Grandmaison, "Séjour d'Alexis de Tocqueville en Touraine," Le Correspondant 114, no. 78 (1879): 930, 938.
489. Tocqueville, Oeuvres complétes, vol. 13, part 2, p. 312. Tocqueville to Kergorlay, dated 1856, possibly from the beginning of September.
490. François Furet, Interpreting the French Revolution (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1981), 16.
491. Tocqueville, Oeuvres complétes, vol. 6, part 1, p. 229. Tocqueville to Henry Reeve, August 2, 1857, emphasis added. For more details on this episode, see Tocqueville, Oeuvres complétes, vol. 8, part 3, p. 491. Tocqueville to Beaumont, July 25, 1857.
492. Tocqueville, Oeuvres complétes, vol. 8, part 2, p. 343. Tocqueville to Beaumont, December 26, 1850.
493. Tocqueville, Lettres choisies, souvenirs, 1173. Tocqueville to Charles de Montalembert, July 10, 1856.
494. Tocqueville, Oeuvres complétes, 11:442.
495. Tocqueville, Oeuvres complétes, 11:443.
496. Simpson, Correspondence, 1:204-5.
497. Tocqueville, Oeuvres complétes, vol. 13, part 2, p. 343. Tocqueville to Kergorlay, November 29, 1858.
498. Tocqueville, Oeuvres complétes, vol. 13, part 2, p. 363.
499. Tocqueville, Oeuvres complétes, vol. 13, part 2, pp. 229-30. Tocqueville to Kergorlay, December 15, 1850.
500. The statement that thinking is like being in love was made in a letter to Kergorlay dated July 23, 1827
501. see Tocqueville, Oeuvres complétes, vol. 13, part 1, p. 107.
502. Tocqueville, Oeuvres complétes, vol. 13, part 2, p. 230.
503. Tocqueville, Oeuvres complétes, vol. 13, part 2, p. 232.
504. Tocqueville, Oeuvres complétes, 16:230.
505. See, e.g., Mark Blaug, The Methodology of Economics (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1980), 140ff.
506. Tocqueville, Oeuvres complétes, 16:240.
507. Tocqueville, Oeuvres complétes, 16:241.
508. Tocqueville, Oeuvres complétes, 7:166. Tocqueville to Theodore Sedgwick, May 18, 1856.
509. Simpson, Correspondence, 2:36-42.
510. Tocqueville, Oeuvres complétes, vol. 8, part 1, p. 112. Tocqueville to Beaumont, April 4, 1832.
511. Tocqueville, Oeuvres complétes, vol. 13, part 2, p. 230. Tocqueville to Kergorlay, December 15, 1850.
512. Françoise Mélonio, preface to Tocqueville, L'ancien régime et la révolution (Paris: Flammarion, 1998), 16, emphasis added. The quote comes from a letter by Tocqueville written in 1852 but not further identified.
513. Furet, Interpreting the French Revolution, 151.
514. When this essay ("Etat sociale et politique de la France avant et depuis 1789") was republished in English in 1862 in an anthology by Gustave de Beau mont, it was given the title "France before the Revolution." Since the 1862 version is more easily accessible than the original 1836 version, I will cite the former.
515. Tocqueville, Oeuvres complétes, vol. 6, part 1, p. 298. Undated letter from John Stuart Mill to Tocqueville, written between early October and early November 1835.
516. Georges Lefebvre, in Tocqueville, Oeuvres complétes (Paris: Gallimard 1952), vol. 2, part 1, p. 13
517. Mill, Collected Works, 1:124, Mill to Senior, May 24, 1861; Furet, Interpreting the French Revolution, 133.
518. Tocqueville, "France before the Revolution," in Beaumont, Memoir, 1:252.
519. See chapter 4, p. 103, for a discussion of Tocqueville's similar reference to Cuvier in his analysis in Democracy in America.
520. Tocqueville, "France before the Revolution," 1:219.
521. See chapter 5, p. 140.
522. Tocqueville, "France before the Revolution," 1:227.
523. Tocqueville, The Old Regime, 1:195ff.
524. Tocqueville, Lettres choisies, souvenirs, 1200.
525. Tocqueville, The Old Regime, 1:164. See also 2:367.
526. Tocqueville, Democracy in America, 680.
527. Tocqueville, The Old Regime, 1:150.
528. Furet, Interpreting the French Revolution, 139.
529. Tocqueville, The Old Regime, 1:368.
530. Tocqueville, The Old Regime, 1:351.
531. On this project, see especially Gannett, Tocqueville Unveiled, 42-47.
532. See chapter 4, p. pp. 109-10, 114-15.
533. Tocqueville, Oeuvres complétes, vol. 13, part 2, pp. 245-50. Kergorlay to Tocqueville, August 2, 1852.
534. E.g., Furet, Interpreting the French Revolution, 91.
535. For landownership before the Revolution, see David Bien, "Aristocracy," in François Furet and Mona Ozouf, eds., A Critical Dictionary of the French Revolution (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1989), 616-28.
536. See, e.g., Tocqueville, The Old Regime, 1:222, 2:406.
537. Jon Elster, Political Psychology (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1993), 137n1.
538. Tocqueville, The Old Regime, 1:222.
539. Tocqueville, The Old Regime, 1:209.
540. Tocqueville may well have read the sections on the physiocrats in the two histories of economic thought that he had in his library by Blanqui and Villeneuve- Bargemont. Blanqui's work in particular contains a good discussion of the work of the physiocrats and Turgot.
541. Furet, Interpreting the French Revolution, 152.
542. Tocqueville, The Old Regime, 1:210.
543. Tocqueville, Oeuvres complétes, vol. 15, part 2, p. 89. Tocqueville to Corcelle, December 31, 1853.
544. Tocqueville, The Old Regime, 1:216-17, 396-97.
545. Tocqueville, Oeuvres complétes, vol. 15, part 2, p. 89. Tocqueville to Corcelle, December 31, 1853.
546. See chapter 5, chapter 1, p. 27.
547. Tocqueville, Oeuvres complétes, vol. 6, part 1, pp. 160-61. Tocqueville to Henry Reeve, February 6, 1856
548. Another key letter in this context is one Tocqueville wrote to his nephew Hubert. See Tocqueville, Oeuvres complétes, 14:295-96. Tocqueville to Hubert de Tocqueville, March 7, 1854.
549. Tocqueville, Oeuvres complétes, vol. 13, part 2, p. 325. Tocqueville to Kergorlay, February 3, 1857.
550. Tocqueville, Oeuvres complétes, ed. Beaumont, 7:410. Tocqueville to Sir G. C. Lewis, October 6, 1856.
551. Tocqueville, The Old Regime, 2:237. Similarly in Tocqueville to Kergorlay, May 16, 1858; see Tocqueville, Oeuvres complétes, vol. 13, part 2, p. 337.
552. Tocqueville, The Old Regime, 2:237.
553. Tocqueville, Oeuvres complétes, vol. 8, part 3, p. 522. Tocqueville to Beaumont, December 6, 1857.
554. Tocqueville, The Old Regime, 2:117.
555. For a discussion of the motives involved-"visceral fear, vanity, enthusiasm, spite and vindictiveness"-see Jon Elster, "The Night of August 4, 1789," Cahiers Vilfredo Pareto 45 (2007): 71-94.
556. Tocqueville, The Old Regime, 2:149.
557. Tocqueville, The Old Regime, 2:211.
558. Tocqueville, Oeuvres complétes, vol. 13, part 2, p. 337. Tocqueville to Kergorlay, February 3, 1857. The translation is by Boesche in his Alexis de Tocqueville: Selected Letters, 373.
559. Tocqueville, The Old Regime, 1:86.
560. Tocqueville, Oeuvres complétes, vol. 13, part 2, p. 303. Tocqueville to Kergorlay, July 29, 1856.
561. The quotes at the opening of the chapter come from, respectively, John Stuart Mill to Tocqueville, 1835, and Immanuel Kant, Critique of Pure Reason, trans. F. Max Müller (New York: Doubleday, 1966).
562. Kant, Critique of Pure Reason, 8.
563. See Weber, The Methodology of the Social Science, 63-65.
564. Boesche, Alexis de Tocqueville: Selected Letters, 294. Tocqueville to Corcelle, September 17, 1853. I thank Jeffrey Weintraub for drawing my attention to this quote.
565. Tocqueville, Oeuvres complétes, vol. 8, part 3, p. 604. Tocqueville to Beaumont, November 11, 1858.
566. Tocqueville, Oeuvres complétes, vol. 15, part 2, p. 91. Tocqueville to Corcelle, January 30, 1854. "Ma manie de rechercher la raison de toutes choses."
567. Tocqueville, Oeuvres complétes, vol. 8, part 3, p. 610. Tocqueville to Beaumont, December 7, 1858.
568. Tocqueville, Oeuvres complétes, vol. 13, part 2, p. 346. Tocqueville to Kergorlay, February 5, 1859. See also Oeuvres complétes, 7:245. Tocqueville to Edward Vernon Childe, February 4, 1859.
569. Gustave de Beaumont, "Memoir of Alexis de Tocqueville," in Beaumont, Memoir, 1:49.