Aqueous geochemistry and oxygen isotope compositions of acid mine drainage from the Río Tinto, SW Spain, highlight inconsistencies in current models

Chemical Geology

Volumn 265, Issue 3-4, 2009, Pages 321-334

  Hubbard, Christopher G ^a,b   Black, Stuart ^a   Coleman, Max L ^a,b  

^a UNIVERSITY OF READING   (United Kingdom)

^b CALIFORNIA INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY   (United States)

Author keywords

Acid mine drainage; Oxygen isotopes; Pyrite oxidation; R o Tinto

Indexed keywords

ACID MINE DRAINAGE; EXPERIMENTAL STUDY; GEOCHEMISTRY; ISOTOPIC ANALYSIS; ISOTOPIC COMPOSITION; MASS BALANCE; MICROBIOLOGY; NUMERICAL MODEL; OXIDATION; OXYGEN ISOTOPE; PYRITE; VEIN (GEOLOGY);

ANDALUCIA; EURASIA; EUROPE; HUELVA [ANDALUCIA]; RIO TINTO [(RVR) HUELVA]; SOUTHERN EUROPE; SPAIN;

EID: 67650248441     PISSN: 00092541     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1016/j.chemgeo.2009.04.009     Document Type: Article

References (110)

1. Aguilera A., Souza-Egipsy V., Gómez F., and Amils R. Development and structure of eukaryotic biofilms in an extreme acidic environment, Río Tinto SW, Spain. Microb. Ecol. 53 (2007) 294-305
2. Aguilera A., Zettler E., Gómez F., Amaral-Zettler L., Rodríguez N., and Amils R. Distribution and seasonal variability in the benthic eukaryotic community of Río Tinto SW, Spain, an acidic, high metal extreme environment. Syst. Appl. Microbiol. 30 (2007) 531-546
3. Alpers C.N., Nordstrom D.K., and Spitzley J. Extreme acid mine drainage from a pyritic massive sulfide deposit: the Iron Mountain end-member. In: Jambor J.L., Blowes D.W., and Ritchie A.I.M. (Eds). Environmental Aspects of Mine Wastes (2003), Mineralogical Association of Canada
4. Amils R., González-Toril E., Fernández-Remolar D., Gómez F., Aguilera A., Rodríguez N., Malki M., García-Moyano A., Fairén A.G., de la Fuente V., and Sanz J.L. Extreme environments as Mars terrestrial analogs: the Rio Tinto case. Planet. Space Sci. 55 (2007) 370-381
5. Avery D. Not on Queen Victoria's Birthday: the Story of the Rio Tinto Mines (1974), Collins, London
6. Balci N., Shanks III W.C., Mayer B., and Mandernack K.W. Oxygen and sulfur isotope systematics of sulfate produced by bacterial and abiotic oxidation of pyrite. Geochim. Cosmochim. Acta 71 (2007) 3796-3811
7. Ball J.W., and Nordstrom D.K. User's manual for WATEQ4F, with revised thermodynamic data base and test cases for calculating speciation of major, trace, and redox elements in natural waters. USGS Open-File Report (1991) 91-183
8. Bao H. Purifying barite for oxygen isotope measurement by dissolution and reprecipitation in a chelating solution. Anal. Chem. 78 (2006) 304-309
9. Basolo F., and Pearson R.G. Mechanisms of inorganic reactions - a study of metal complexes in solution (1967), John Wiley and Sons, New York
10. Betts R.H., and Voss R.H. Kinetics of oxygen exchange between sulfite ion and water. Can. J. Chem. 48 (1970) 2035-2041
11. Borda M.J., Elsetinow A.R., Strongin D.R., and Schoonen M.A. A mechanism for the production of hydroxyl radical at surface defect sites on pyrite. Geochim. Cosmochim. Acta 67 (2003) 935-939
12. Borda M.J., Strongin D.R., and Schoonen M.A. A vibrational spectroscopic study of the oxidation of pyrite by ferric iron. Am. Mineral. 88 (2003) 1318-1323
13. Bottrell S.H. Stable isotopes in aqueous sulphate as tracers of natural and contaminant sulphate sources: a reconnaissance study of the Xingwen karst aquifer, Sichuan, China. In: Parise M., and Gunn J. (Eds). Natural and Anthropogenic Hazards in Karst Areas: Recognition, Analysis and Mitigation. Geological Society, London, Special Publications vol. 279 (2007) 123-135
14. Brandt C., and van Eldik R. Kinetics and mechanism of the ironIII-catalyzed autoxidation of sulfurIV oxides in aqueous solution. The influence of pH, medium and aging. Transition Met. Chem. 23 (1998) 667-675
15. Braungardt C.B., Achterberg E.P., Elbaz-Poulichet F., and Morley N.H. Metal geochemistry in a mine-polluted estuarine system in Spain. Appl. Geochem. 18 (2003) 1757-1771
16. Brown E., Skougstad M.W., and Fishman M.J. Methods for Collection and Analysis of Water Samples for Dissolved Minerals and Gases: Techniques of Water-Resources Investigations of the U.S. Geological Survey (1970), U.S. Government Printing Office, Washington, DC
17. Brunner B., Mielke R.E., and Coleman M. Abiotic oxygen isotope equilibrium fractionation between sulfite and water. American Geophysical Union, Fall Meeting 2006, abstract #V11C-0601 (2006)
18. Brunner B., Yu J.-Y., Mielke R.E., MacAskill J.A., Madzunkov S., McGenity T.J., and Coleman M. Different isotope and chemical patterns of pyrite oxidation related to lag and exponential growth phases of Acidithiobacillus ferrooxidans reveal a microbial growth strategy. Earth Planet. Sci. Lett. 270 (2008) 63-72
19. Buckby T. 2003. Processes of persistent metal contamination in the Río Tinto, South West Spain. Ph.D. thesis, Reading Univ.
20. Buckby T., Black S., Coleman M.L., and Hodson M.E. Fe-sulfate-rich evaporative mineral precipitates from the Rio Tinto, southwest Spain. Mineral. Mag. 67 (2003) 263-278
21. Butler T.W. Isotope geochemistry of drainage from an acid mine impaired watershed, Oakland, California,. Appl. Geochem. 22 (2007) 416-1426
22. Cánovas C.R., Olias M., Nieto J.M., Sarmiento A.M., and Cerón J.C. Hydrogeochemical characteristics of the Odiel and Tinto rivers SW Spain. Factors controlling metal contents. Sci. Total Environ. 373 (2007) 363-382
23. Cánovas C.R., Hubbard C.G., Olias M., Nieto J.M., Black S., and Coleman M.L. Hydrochemical variations and contaminant load in the Río Tinto Spain during flood events. J. Hydrol. 350 (2008) 25-40
24. Celle-Jeanton H., Travi Y., and Blavoux B. Isotopic typology of the precipitation in the Western mediterranean region at three different time scales. Geophys. Res. Lett. 28 (2001) 1215-1218
25. Chapman B.M., Jones D.R., and Jung R.F. Processes controlling metal-ion attenuation in acid-mine drainage streams. Geochim. Cosmochim. Acta 47 (1983) 1957-1973
26. Chiba H., and Saki H. Oxygen isotope exchange rate between dissolved sulfate and water at hydrothermal temperatures. Geochim. Cosmochim. Acta 49 (1985) 993-1000
27. Cortecci G., Dinelli E., Boschetti T., Arbizzani P., Pompilio L., and Mussi M. The Serchio River catchment, northern Tuscany: geochemistry of stream waters and sediments, and isotopic composition of dissolved sulfate. Appl. Geochem. 23 (2008) 1513-1543
28. Descostes M., Vitorge P., and Beaucaire C. Pyrite dissolution in acidic media. Geochim. Cosmochim. Acta 68 (2004) 4559-4569
29. Druschel G., and Borda M. Comment on "Pyrite dissolution in acidic media" by M. Descostes, P. Vitorge, and C. Beaucaire. Geochim. Cosmochim. Acta 70 (2006) 5246-5250
30. 3+. Geochim. Cosmochim. Acta 67 (2003) 4457-4469
31. Druschel G.K., Hamers R.J., Luther G.W.I., and Banfield J.F. Kinetics and mechanism of trithionate and tetrathionate oxidation at low pH by hydroxyl radicals. Aquat. Geochem. 9 (2003) 145-164
32. Druschel, G.K., Baker, B.J., Gihring, T.M., Banfield, J.F., 2004. Acid mine drainage biogeochemistry at Iron Mountain, California. Geochem. Trans. 5 (2), 13-32.
33. Elbaz-Poulichet F., Braungardt C., Achterberg E., Morley N., Cossa D., Beckers J.-M., Nomérange P., Cruzado A., and Leblanc M. Metal biogeochemistry in the Tinto-Odiel rivers Southern Spain and in the Gulf of Cadiz: a synthesis of the results of TOROS project. Cont. Shelf Res. 21 (2001) 1961-1973
34. Ermakov A.N., Poskrebyshev G.A., and Purmal A.P. Sulfite oxidation: the state-of-the-art of the problem. Kinet. Catal. 38 (1997) 295-308
35. Epstein S., and Mayeda T. Variation of O-18 content of waters from natural sources. Geochim. Cosmochim. Acta 4 (1953) 213-224
36. Fernández-Remolar D.C., Morris R.V., Gruener J.E., Amils R., and Knoll A.H. The Rio Tinto basin, Spain: mineralogy, sedimentary geobiology, and implications for interpretation of outcrop rocks at Meridiani Planum, Mars. Earth Planet. Sci. Lett. 240 (2005) 149-167
37. Fuge R., Pearce F.M., Pearce N.G., and Perkins W.T. Geochemistry of Cd in the secondary environment near abandoned metalliferous mines, Wales. Appl. Geochem. Suppl. Iss. 2 (1993) 29-35
38. Gammons C.H., Nimick D.A., Parker S.R., Snyder D.M., McCleskey R.B., Amils R., and Poulson S.R. Photoreduction fuels biogeochemical cycling of iron in Spain's acid rivers. Chem. Geol. 252 (2008) 202-213
39. Goldhaber M.B. Experimental study of metastable sulfur oxyanion formation during pyrite oxidation at pH 6-9 and 30 °C. Am. J. Sci. 283 (1983) 193-217
40. Gonzalez-Toril E., Gomez F., Rodriguez N., Fernandez-Remolar D., Zuluaga J., Marin I., and Amils R. Geomicrobiology of the Tinto River, a model of interest for biohydrometallurgy. Hydrometallurgy 71 (2003) 301-309
41. Gonzalez-Toril E., Llobet-Brossa E., E.O. C., Amann R., and Amils R. Microbial ecology of an extreme acidic environment, the Tinto River. Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 69 (2003) 4853-4865
42. Gould W.D., McCready R.G.L., Rajan S., and Krouse H.R. Stable isotope composition of sulfate produced during bacterial oxidation of various metal sulfides. In: Salley J., McCready R.G.L., and Wichlacz P.L. (Eds). Biohydrometallurgy 1989, CANMET SP89-10 (1989) 81-92
43. Hamer, W.J., Wu, Y.-C., 1972. J. Phys. Chem. Ref. Data 1, 1047.
44. Hamlin, S.N., Alpers, C.N., 1995. Hydrogeology and geochemistry of acid mine drainage in ground water in the vicinity of Penn Mine and Camanche Reservoir, Calaveras County, California: first-year summary. USGS Water Resources Investigating Report 94-4040.
45. Hamlin, S.N., Alpers, C.N., 1996. Hydrogeology and geochemistry of acid mine drainage in ground water in the vicinity of Penn Mine and Camanche Reservoir, Calaveras County, California: second-year summary, 1992-93. USGS Water Resources Investigating Report 96-4257.
46. Haubrich F., and Tichomirowa M. Sulfur and oxygen isotope geochemistry of acid mine drainage - the polymetallic sulfide deposit "Himmelfahrt Fundgrube" in Freiberg Germany. Isot. Environ. Health Stud. 38 (2002) 121-138
47. Hochella M.F., Moore J.N., Golla U., and Putnis A. A TEM study of samples from acid mine drainage systems: metal-mineral association with implications for transport. Geochim. Cosmochim. Acta 63 (1999) 3395-3406
48. Hoering T.C., and Kennedy J.W. The exchange of oxygen between sulfuric acid and water. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 79 (1957) 56-60
49. Holt B.D., Kumar R., and Cunningham P.T. Oxygen-18 study of the aqueous-phase oxidation of sulfur dioxide. Atmos. Environ. 15 (1981) 557-566
50. Huie R.E., and Neta P. Rate constants for some oxidations of SIV by radicals in aqueous-solutions. Atmos. Environ. 21 (1987) 1743-1747
51. Hudson-Edwards K.A., Schell C., and Macklin M.G. Mineralogy and geochemistry of alluvium contaminated by metal mining in the Rio Tinto area, southwest Spain. Appl. Geochem. 14 (1999) 1015-1030
52. Jambor J.L., Nordstrom D.K., and Alpers C.N. Metal-sulfate salts from sulfide mineral oxidation. In: Alpers C.N., Jambor J.L., and Nordstrom D.K. (Eds). Sulfate Minerals - Crystallography, Geochemistry and Environmental Significance. Reviews in Mineralogy and Geochemistry vol. 40 (2000), Mineralogical Society of America, Washington D.C
53. Kelly D.P. Thermodynamic aspects of energy conservation by chemolithotrophic sulfur bacteria in relation to the sulfur oxidation pathways. Arch. Microbiol. 171 (1999) 219-229
54. Knoller K., Fauville A., Mayer B., Strauch G., Friese K., and Veizer J. Sulfur cycling in an acid mining lake and its vicinity in Lusatia, Germany. Chem. Geol. 204 (2004) 303-323
55. Kolthoff J.M., Meehan E.J., Sandell E.B., and Bruckenstein S. Quantitative Chemical Analysis. 4th Ed. (1969), MacMillan, New York. USA
56. Kroopnick P., and Craig H. Atmospheric oxygen: isotopic composition and solubility fractionation. Science 175 (1972) 54-55
57. 2O and oxidized sulfur intermediates. Earth Planet. Sci. Lett. 107 (1991) 90-94
58. Kwong Y.T.J., Swerhone G.W., and Lawrence J.R. Galvanic sulphide oxidation as a metal-leaching mechanism and its environmental implications. Geochem. Expl. Env. Anal. 3 (2003) 337-344
59. Leblanc M., Morales J.A., Borrego J., and Elbaz-Poulichet F. 4,500 year-old mining pollution in southwestern Spain: long-term implications for modern mining pollution. Econ. Geol. 95 (2000) 655-662
60. 2 and its dependence on temperature. Geochim. Cosmochim. Acta 71 (2007) 5072-5088
61. López-Archilla A.I., Marin I., and Amils R. Microbial community composition and ecology of an acidic aquatic environment: the Tinto River, Spain. Microb. Ecol. 41 (2001) 20-35
62. López-Archilla A.I., Gerard E., Moreira D., and Lopez-Garcia P. Macrofilamentous microbial communities in the metal-rich and acidic River Tinto, Spain. FEMS Microbiol. Lett. 235 (2004) 221-228
63. Lowson R.T. Aqueous pyrite oxidation by molecular oxygen. Chem. Rev. 82 (1982) 461-491
64. Luther III, G.W., 1987. Pyrite oxidation and reduction: molecular orbital theory considerations. Geochim. Cosmochim. Acta 51, 3193-3199.
65. Luther III, G.W., 1997. Comment on "Confirmation of a sulfur-rich layer on pyrite after oxidative dissolution by Fe(III) ions around pH 2" by K. Sasaki, M. Tsunekawa, T. Ohtsuka, and H. Konno. Geochim. Cosmochim. Acta 61, 3269-3271.
66. McGuire M.M., Edwards K.J., Banfield J.F., and Hamers R.J. Kinetics, surface chemistry, and structural evolution of microbially mediated sulfide mineral dissolution. Geochim. Cosmochim. Acta 65 (2001) 1243-1258
67. Migaszewski Z.M., Galuszka A., Halas S., Dołe{ogonek}gowska S., Da{ogonek}bek J., and Starnawska E. Geochemistry and stable sulfur and oxygen isotope ratios of the Podwiśniówska pit pond water generated by acid mine drainage (Holy Cross Mountains, south-central Poland). Appl. Geochem. 23 (2008) 3620-3634
68. Millero F.J. The Physical Chemistry of Natural Waters (2001), John Wiley and Sons Inc., New York
69. Moses C.O., Nordstrom D.K., Herman J.S., and Mills A.L. Aqueous pyrite oxidation by dissolved oxygen and by ferric iron. Geochim. Cosmochim. Acta 51 (1987) 1561-1571
70. Nehlig P., Cassard D., and Marcoux E. Geometry and genesis of feeder zones of massive sulfide deposits: constraints from the Rio Tinto ore deposit Spain. Miner. Depoita. 33 (1998) 137-149
71. Nesbitt H.W., and Muir I.J. X-ray photoelectron spectroscopic study of a pristine pyrite surface reacted with water-vapor and air. Geochim Cosmochim. Acta 58 (1994) 4667-4679
72. Nordstrom D.K., and Wilde F.D. Reduction-oxidation potential electrode method. National Field Manual for the Collection of Water Quality Data, U.S. Geological Survey Techniques of Water-Resources Investigations, Book 9; Chapter 6.5 (1998)
73. Nordstrom D.K., and Alpers C.N. Geochemistry of Acid Mine Waters. In: Plumlee G.D., and Logsdon M.J. (Eds). The Environmental Geochemistry of Mineral Deposits. Part A: Processes, Techniques, and Health Issues (1999), Society of Economic Geologists
74. Nordstrom D.K., Alpers C.N., Ptacek C.J., and Blowes D. Negative pH and extremely acidic mine waters from Iron Mountain, California. Environ. Sci. Technol. 34 (2000) 254-258
75. Nordstrom D.K., Wright W.G., Mast M.A., Bove D.J., and Rye R.O. Aqueous-sulfate stable isotopes - a study of mining-affected and undisturbed acidic drainage. Chapter E8 In USGS Professional Paper (2007) 1651
76. Olias M., Canovas C.R., Nieto J.M., and Sarmiento A.M. Evaluation of the dissolved contaminant load transported by the Tinto and Odiel rivers South West Spain. Appl. Geochem. 21 (2006) 1733-1749
77. Parkhurst D.L., and Appelo C.A.J. User's guide to PHREEQC version 2 - a computer program for speciation, batch-reaction, one-dimensional transport, and inverse geochemical calculations. USGS Water Resources Investigations Report (1999) 99-4259
78. Parro V., Rodriguez-Manfredi J.A., Briones C., Compostizo C., Herrero P.L., Vez E., Sebastian E., Moreno-Paz M., Garcia-Villadangos M., Fernandez-Calvo P., Gonzalez-Toril E., Perez-Mercader J., Fernandez-Remolar D., and Gomez-Elvira J. Instrument development to search for biomarkers on Mars: terrestrial acidophile, iron-powered chemolithoautotrophic communities as model systems. Planet. Space Sci. 53 (2005) 729-737
79. Pellicori D.A., Gammons C.H., and Poulson S.R. Geochemistry and stable isotope composition of the Berkeley pit lake and surrounding mine waters, Butte, Montana. Appl. Geochem. 20 (2005) 2116-2137
80. Qureshi R.M. 1986. The isotopic composition of aqueous sulfate a laboratory investigation. Ph.D. thesis, Waterloo Univ.
81. Reedy B.J., Beattie J.K., and Lowson R.T. A vibrational spectroscopic O-18 tracer study of pyrite oxidation. Geochim. Cosmochim. Acta 55 (1991) 1609-1614
82. Reedy B.J., Beattie J.K., and Lowson R.T. O-18 sulfate isotopomers monitored by infrared-spectroscopy. Appl. Spectrosc. 48 (1994) 691-694
83. Rimstidt J., and Vaughan D. Pyrite oxidation: a state-of-the-art assessment of the reaction mechanism. Geochim. Cosmochim. Acta 67 (2003) 873-880
84. Romero A., Gonzalez I., and Galan E. Estimation of potential pollution of waste mining dumps at Pena del Hierro Pyrite Belt, SW Spain as a base for future mitigation actions. Appl. Geochem. 21 (2006) 1093-1108
85. 2O: fundamental oxidation mechanisms. Am. Mineral. 84 (1999) 1549-1561
86. Ruiz F., González-Regalado M.L., Borrego J., Morales J.A., Pendón J.G., and Muñoz J.M. Stratigraphic sequence, elemental concentrations and heavy metal pollution in Holocene sediments from the Tinto-Odiel Estuary, southwestern Spain. Environ. Geol. 34 (1998) 270-278
87. Salkield L.U. A Technical History of the Rio Tinto Mines: Some Notes on Exploitation from pre-Phoenician Times to the 1950s (1987), The Institute of Mining and Metallurgy, London
88. Sánchez España J., López Pamo E., Santofimia E., Aduvire O., Reyes J., and Barettino D. Acid mine drainage in the Iberian Pyrite Belt (Odiel river watershed, Huelva, SW Spain): geochemistry, mineralogy and environmental implications. Appl. Geochem. 20 (2005) 1320-1356
89. Sasaki K., Tsunekawa M., Ohtsuka T., and Konno H. Confirmation of a sulfur-rich layer on pyrite after oxidative dissolution by FeIII ions around pH 2. Geochim. Cosmochim. Acta 59 (1995) 3155-3158
90. Schippers A., Jozsa P.G., and Sand W. Sulfur chemistry in bacterial leaching of pyrite. Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 62 (1996) 3424-3431
91. Schippers A., Rohwerder T., and Sand W. Intermediary sulfur compounds in pyrite oxidation: implications for bioleaching and biodepyritization of coal. Appl. Microbiol. Biotechnol. 52 (1999) 104-110
92. Seal II R.R. Stable-isotope geochemistry of mine waters and related solids. In: Jambor J.L., Blowes D.W., and Ritchie A.I.M. (Eds). Environmental Aspects of Mine Wastes (2003), Mineralogical Association of Canada
93. Seal II R.R., Hammarstrom J.M., Southworth C.S., Meier A.L., Haffner D.P., Schultz A.P., Plumlee G.S., Flohr M.J.K., Jackson J.C., Smith S.M., and Hageman P.L. Preliminary report on water quality associated with the abandoned Fontana and Hazel Creek mines, Great Smoky Mountains National Park, North Carolina and Tennessee. YSGS Open-File Report (1998) 98-476
94. Seal II R.R., Hammarstrom J.M., Johnson A.N., Piatak N.M., and Wandless G.A. Environmental geochemistry of a Kuroko-type massive sulfide deposit at the abandoned Valzinco mine, Virginia, USA. Appl. Geochem. 23 (2008) 320-342
95. Smuda J., Dold B., Spangenberg J.E., and Pfeifer H.-R. Geochemistry and stable isotope composition of fresh alkaline porphyry copper tailings: Implications on sources and mobility of elements during transport and early stages of deposition. Chem. Geol. 256 (2008) 62-76
96. Spangenberg J., Dold B., Vogt M.-L., and Pfeifer H.R. The stable hydrogen and oxygen isotope composition of waters from mine tailings in different climatic environments. Environ. Sci. Tech. 41 (2007) 1870-1876
97. Sracek O., Choquette M., Gélinas P., Lefebvre R., and Nicholson R.V. geochemical characterization of acid mine drainage from a waste rock pile, Mine Doyon, Québec, Canada. J. Cont. Hydrol. 69 (2004) 45-71
98. Suzuki I., Chan C.W., and Takeuchi T.L. Oxidation of inorganic sulfur-compounds by Thiobacilli. In: Alpers C.N., and Blowes D.W. (Eds). Environmental Geochemistry of Sulfide Oxidation (1994), American Chemical Society
99. Taylor J.H., and Whelan P.F. The leaching of cupreous pyrites and the precipitation of copper at Rio Tinto, Spain. Trans. Inst. Min. Metall. 52 (1942) 35-96
100. Taylor B.E., and Wheeler M.C. Sulfur- and oxygen-isotope geochemistry of acid mine drainage in the western United States. In: Alpers C.N., and Blowes D.W. (Eds). Environmental Geochemistry of Sulfide Oxidation (1994), American Chemical Society
101. Taylor B.E., Wheeler M.C., and Nordstrom D.K. Isotope composition of sulfate in acid-mine drainage as measure of bacterial oxidation. Nature 308 (1984) 538-541
102. Taylor B.E., Wheeler M.C., and Nordstrom D.K. Stable isotope geochemistry of acid-mine drainage - experimental oxidation of pyrite. Geochim. Cosmochim. Acta 48 (1984) 2669-2678
103. Tornos F. Environment of formation and styles of volcanogenic massive sulfides: the Iberian Pyrite Belt. Ore Geol. Rev. 28 (2006) 259-307
104. van Everdingen R.O., and Krouse H.R. Isotope composition of sulfates generated by bacterial and abiological oxidation. Nature 315 (1985) 395-396
105. van Geen A., Adkins J.F., Boyle E.A., Nelson C.H., and Palanques A. A 120 yr record of widespread contamination from mining of the Iberian pyrite belt. Geology 25 (1997) 291-294
106. 18O in sulfate. In: Alpers C.N., and Blowes D.W. (Eds). Environmental Geochemistry of Sulfide Oxidation (1994), American Chemical Society
107. Vogel A.I. and Jeffery G.H. 1989. Textbook of quantitative chemical analysis, 5th edition Longman Scientific & Technical. Wiley, Harlow, Essex, England. 877 p.
108. Yu J.Y., McGenity T.J., and Coleman M.L. Solution chemistry during the lag phase and exponential phase of pyrite oxidation by Thiobacillus ferrooxidans. Chem. Geol. 175 (2001) 307-317
109. Zettler L.A.A., Gomez F., Zettler E., Keenan B.G., Amils R., and Sogin M.L. Eukaryotic diversity in Spain's River of Fire - this ancient and hostile ecosystem hosts a surprising variety of microbial organisms. Nature 417 (2002) 137--137
110. Zhang J.-Z., and Millero F.J. Kinetics of oxidation of hydrogen sulfide in natural waters. In: Alpers C.N., and Blowes D.W. (Eds). Environmental Geochemistry of Sulfide Oxidation (1994), American Chemical Society