Inflammation: A link between hypertension and atherosclerosis

Current Hypertension Reviews

Volumn 5, Issue 1, 2009, Pages 40-48

  Cachofeiro, Victoria ^a   Miana, María ^a   de las Heras, Natalia ^a   Martín Fernández, Beatriz ^a   Ballesteros, Sandra ^a   Balfagón, Gloria ^b   Lahera, Vicente ^a  

^a SCHOOL OF MEDICINE   (Spain)

^b UNIVERSIDAD AUTÓNOMA DE MADRID   (Spain)

Author keywords

Atherosclerosis; Cardiovascular disease; Endothelial dysfunction; Hypertension; Inflammation; Oxidative stress

Indexed keywords

ANGIOTENSIN II; ASCORBIC ACID; C REACTIVE PROTEIN; CANDESARTAN; CATALASE; CD40 LIGAND; COPPER ZINC SUPEROXIDE DISMUTASE; ENDOTHELIN 1; GLUTATHIONE; GLUTATHIONE PEROXIDASE; GLUTATHIONE REDUCTASE; HYDROCHLOROTHIAZIDE; IMMUNOGLOBULIN ENHANCER BINDING PROTEIN; INTERCELLULAR ADHESION MOLECULE 1; INTERLEUKIN 1BETA; INTERLEUKIN 6; MONOCYTE CHEMOTACTIC PROTEIN 1; OLMESARTAN; REACTIVE OXYGEN METABOLITE; SUPEROXIDE DISMUTASE; TROPONIN; TUMOR NECROSIS FACTOR ALPHA; VASCULAR CELL ADHESION MOLECULE 1;

ACUTE CORONARY SYNDROME; ATHEROSCLEROSIS; CARDIOVASCULAR DISEASE; CARDIOVASCULAR RISK; CYTOKINE RELEASE; DIASTOLIC BLOOD PRESSURE; ENDOTHELIAL DYSFUNCTION; HUMAN; HYPERTENSION; INFLAMMATION; MEAN ARTERIAL PRESSURE; OXIDATIVE STRESS; PHARMACOLOGICAL BLOCKING; PRIORITY JOURNAL; PROGNOSIS; PROTEIN BLOOD LEVEL; PROTEIN DEGRADATION; PROTEIN EXPRESSION; PROTEIN FUNCTION; PROTEIN PHOSPHORYLATION; RENIN ANGIOTENSIN ALDOSTERONE SYSTEM; REVIEW; SYSTOLIC BLOOD PRESSURE; UBIQUITINATION; VASCULITIS;

EID: 65949101465     PISSN: 15734021     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.2174/157340209787314333     Document Type: Review

References (113)

1. Turpie AGG. Burden of disease: medical and economic impact of acute coronary syndromes. Am J Mang Care 2006; 12(16 suppl): S430-4.
2. Viles-Gonzalez JF, Fuster V, Badimon JJ. Atherothrombosis: a wide spread disease with unpredictable and life-threatening consequences. Eur Heart J 2004; 25:1197-207.
3. Hansson GK. Inflammation, atherosclerosis, and coronary artery diseas. N Engl J Med 2005; 352: 1685-95.
4. Rodriguez JA, Orbe J, Paramo JA. Metalloproteases, vascular remodeling, and atherothrombotic syndromes. Rev Esp Cardio 2007; 60: 959-67.
5. Lusis AJ. Atherosclerosis. Nature 2000; 407: 233-41.
6. Weissberg PL. Atherogenesis: current understanding of the cause of atheroma. Heart 2000; 83: 247-52.
7. Libby P. Inflammation in atherosclerosis. Nature 2002; 420: 868-74.
8. Newby AC, Zaltsman AB. Fibrous cap formation or destruction: The critical importance of vascular smooth muscle cell proliferation, migration and matrix formation. Cardiovasc Res 1999; 41: 345-60.
9. Naghavi M, Libby P, Falk E, et al. From vulnerable plaque to vulnerable patient: a call for new definitions and risk assessment strategies: Part II. Circulation 2003; 108: 1772-8.
10. Jones CB, Sane DC, Herrington DM. Matrix metalloproteinase: a review of their structure and role in acute coronary syndrome. Cardiovasc Res 2003; 59: 812-23.
11. Davies MJ. The pathophysiology of acute coronary syndromes. Heart 2000; 83: 361-6.
12. Rabbani R, Topol EJ. Strategies to achieve coronary arterial plaque stabilization. Cardiovas Res 1999; 41: 402-17.
13. Dzau V. Pathobiology of atherosclerosis and plaque complications. Am Heart J, 1994;128: 1300-4.
14. Naghavi M, John R, Naguib S, et al. pH Heterogeneity of human and rabbit atherosclerotic plaques; a new insight into detection of vulnerable plaque. Atherosclerosis 2002: 164: 27-35.
15. Janeway ChA, Travers P (Eds). Immunology. The immune system in health and disease, 2a ed. Londres, Current Biology Limited, 1996.
16. Ridker PM, Cook NR. Clinical utility of very high and very low levels of C-reactive protein across the full range of Framingham risk scores. Circulation 2004; 109: 1955-9.
17. Gotschich EC. C-reactive protein. A historical overview. Ann NY Acad Sci 1989; 557: 9-18.
18. Verma S, Szmitko PE, Yeh ET. C-reactive protein: structure affects function. Circulation 2004; 109:1914-7.
19. Black S, Kushner I, Samols D. Creactive protein- J Biol Chem 2004; 279: 48487-90.
20. Ridker PM, Brown NJ, Vaughan DE, Harrison DG, Mehta JL. Established and emerging plasma biomarkers in the prediction of first atherothrombotic events. Circulation 2004; 109(25 Suppl 1): IV 6-IV 19.
21. Bassuk SS, Rifai N, Ridker PM. High-sensitivity C-reactive protein Clinical importance. Curr Probl Cardiol 2004; 29: 439-93.
22. Ridker PM, Cushman M, Stampfer MJ, Tracy RP, Hennekens CH. Inflammation, aspirin, and the risk of cardiovascular disease in apparently healthy men. N Engl J Med 1997; 336: 973-9.
23. Ridker PM, Hennekens CH, Buring JE, Rifai N. C-reactive protein and other markers of inflammation in the prediction of cardiovascular disease in women. N Engl J Med 2000; 342: 836-43.
24. Thompson S, Kienaast J, Pyke S, Haverkate F, Van de Loo JC. Hemostatic factors and the risk of myocardial infarction or sudden death in patients with angina pectoris. N Engl J Med 1995; 332: 635-41.
25. Haverkate F, Thompson SG, Pyke SD, Gallimore JR, Pepys MB. Production of C-reactive protein and risk of coronary events in stable and unstable angina. European Concerted Action on Thrombosis and Disabilities Angina Pectoris Study Group. Lancet 1997; 349: 462-6.
26. Heeschen C, Hamm CW, Bruemmer J, Simoons ML. Predictive value of C-reactive protein and troponin T in patients with unstable angina a comparative analysis. CAPTURE Investigators. Chimeric c7E3 AntiPlatelet Therapy in Unstable angina REfractory to standard treatment trial, J Am Coll Cardiol 2000; 35: 1535-42.
27. Morrow DA, Rifai N, Antman EM, et al. C-reactive protein is a potent predictor of mortality independently of and in combination with troponin T in acute coronary syndromes a TIMI 11A substudy. Thrombolysis in Myocardial Infarction, J Am Coll Cardiol 1998; 31:1460-5.
28. Lindahl B, Toss H. Siegbahn A, Venge P, Wallentin L. Markers of myocardial damage and inflammation in relation to long-term mortality in unstable coronary artery disease. FRISC Study Group. Fragmin during Instability in Coronary Artery Disease. N Engl J Med 2000; 343: 1139-47.
29. Sabatine MS, Morrow DA, Jablonski KA, et al. Prognostic significance of the centers for disease control/american heart association high-sensitivity C-reactive protein cut points for cardiovascular and other outcomes in patients with stable coronary artery disease. Circulation 2007; 115: 1528-36.
30. Ridker PM, Rifai N, Pfeffer MA et al., Inflammation, pravastatin, and the risk of coronary events after myocardial infarction in patients with average cholesterol levels. Cholesterol and Recurrent Events (CARE) Investigators, Circulation 1998; 98: 839-44.
31. Kuller LH, Tracy RP, Shaten J, Meilahn EN. Relation of C-reactive protein and coronary heart disease in the MRFIT nested case-control study. Multiple Risk Factor Intervention Trial. Am J Epidemiol 1996; 144: 537-47.
32. Ridker PM, Cushman M, Stampfer MJ, Tracy RP, Hennekens CH. Inflammation, aspirin, and the risk of cardiovascular disease in apparently healthy men. N Engl J Med 1997; 336: 973-9.
33. Ridker PM, Hennekens CH, Buring JE, Rifai N. C-reactive protein and other markers of inflammation in the prediction of cardiovascular disease in women. N Engl J Med 2000; 342: 836-43.
34. Blake GJ, Rifai N, Buring JE, Ridker PM. Blood pressure, C-reactive protein, and risk of future cardiovascular events. Circulation 200; 108: 2993-9.
35. Heitzer T, Schlinzig T, Krohn K, Meinertz T, Münzel T. Endothelial dysfunction, oxidative stress, and risk of cardiovascular events in patients with coronary artery disease. Circulation 2001; 104: 2673-8.
36. Bonetti PO, Lerman LO, Lerman A. Endothelial dysfunction. A marker of atherosclerotic risk. Arterioscler Thromb Vasc Biol 2003; 23: 168-75.
37. Mombouli JV; Vanhoutte PM. Endothelial dysfunction: from physiology to therapy. J Mol Cell Cardiol 1999; 31: 61-74.
38. Gonzalez MA, Selwyn AP. Endothelial function, inflammation and prognosis in cardiovascular disease. Am J Med 2003; 115: 99S-106S.
39. Münzel T, Just H, Harrison DG. The physiology and pathophysiology of the nitric oxide/superoxide system. En Vascular endothelium: Physiology, pathology and therapeutic options. Born GVR, Schwartz CJ. Schattauer, Stuttgart, (Ed). 1997, pp 205-20.
40. Pieczenik SR, Neustadt J. Mitochondrial dysfunction and molecular pathways of disease. Exp Mol Pathol 2007; 83: 84-92.
41. Portaluppi F, Boari B, Manfredini R. Oxidative stress in essential hypertension. Curr Pharm Des 2004; 10: 1695-8.
42. Andrew PJ, Mayer B. Enzymatic function of nitric oxide synthases. Cardiovasc Res 1999; 43: 521-31.
43. Blokhina O, Virolainen E, Fagerstedt KV. Antioxidants, oxidative damage and oxygen deprivation stress: a review. Ann Bot (Lond) 2003; 91: 179-94.
44. Redon J, Oliva MR, Tormos C, et al. Antioxidant activities and oxidative stress byproducts in human hypertension. Hypertension 2003; 41: 1096-101.
45. Fortuño A, Olivan S, Beloqui O, et al. Association of increased phagocytic NAD(P)H oxidase-dependent superoxide production with diminished nitric oxide generation in essential hypertension. J Hypertens 2004; 22: 2169-75.
46. Ungvari Z, Csiszar A, Huang A, Kaminski PM, Wolin MS, Koller A. High pressure induces superoxide production in isolated arteries via protein kinase C-dependent activation of NAD(P)H oxidase. Circulation 2003; 108:1253-8.
47. Lassegue B, Sorescu D, Szocs K, et al. Novel gp91 (phox) homologues in vascular smooth muscle cells: Nox1 mediates angiotensin II-induced superoxide formation and redox-sensitive signalling pathways. Cir Res 2001; 88: 888-94.
48. Li N, Karin M. Is NF-κB the sensor of oxidative stress?. FASEB J 1999; 13: 1137-43.
49. Traenckner EB, Wilk S, Bacuerle PA. A proteasome inhibitor prevents activation of NF-κB and stabilizes a newly phosphorilated form of IκB alpha that is still bound to NF-κB. EMBO J 1994; 13: 5433-41.
50. Kretz-Remy C, Mehlen P, Mirault ME, Arrigo AP. Inhibition of I kappa B-alpha phosphorylation and degradation and subsequent NF-κB activation by glutathione peroxidase overexpression. J Cell Biol 1996; 133: 1083-93.
51. Schreck R, Rieber P, Beauerle PA. Reactive oxygen intermediates as apparently widely used messengers in the activation of NF-kappa B transcription factor and HIV-1. EMBO J 1991; 10: 2247-52.
52. Paffen E, deMaat MPM. C-reactive protein in atherosclerosis: A causal factor? Cardiovasc Res 2006; 71: 30-9.
53. Wang P, Ba ZF, Chaudry IH. Administration of tumor necrosis factor-alpha in vivo depresses endothelium-dependent relaxation. Am J Physiol 1994; 266(6 Pt 2): H2535-41.
54. Bhagat K, Vallance P. Inflammatory cytokines impair endothelium-dependent dilatation in human veins in vivo. Circulation 1997; 96: 3042-7.
55. Hurlimann D, Forster A, Noll G, et al. Anti-tumor necrosis factor-alpha treatment improves endothelial function in patients with rheumatoid arthritis. Circulation 2002; 106: 2184-7.
56. Cleland SJ, Sattar N, Petrie JR, Forouhi NG, Elliott HL, Connell JM. Endothelial dysfunction as a possible link between C-reactive protein levels and cardiovascular disease. Clin Sci 2000; 98: 531-5.
57. Venugopal SK, Devaraj S, Yuhanna I, Shaul P, Jialal I. Demonstration that C-reactive protein decreases eNOS expression and bioactivity in human aortic endothelial cells. Circulation 2002; 106: 1439-41.
58. Verma S, Wang CH, Li SH, et al. A self-fulfilling prophecy: C-reactive protein attenuates nitric oxide production and inhibits angiogenesis. Circulation 2002; 106: 913-9.
59. Verma S, Li SH, Badiwala MV, et al. Endothelin antagonism and interleukin-6 inhibition attenuate the proatherogenic effects of C-reactive protein. Circulation 2002; 105: 1890-6.
60. Pasceri V, willerson JT, Yeh ETH. Direct proinflammatory effect of C-reactive protein on human endothelial cells. Circulation 2000; 102: 2165-8.
61. Labarrere CA, Zaloga GP. C-reactive protein: from innocent bystander to pivotal mediator of atherosclerosis. Am J Med 2004; 117: 499-507.
62. Pasceri V, Chang J, Willerson JT, Yeh ETH. Modulation of C-reactive protein -mediated monocyte chemoattractant protein-1 induction in human endothelial cells by anti-atherosclerosis drugs. Circulation 2001; 103: 2531-4.
63. Torzewski M, Rist C, Mortensen RF, et al. C-reactive peotein in the arterial intima: role of C-reactive protein receptor-dependent monocyte recruitment in atherogenesis. Arteriscler Thromb Vasc Biol 2000; 20: 2094-9.
64. Zwaka TP, Hombach V, Torzewski J. C-reactive mediated low density lipoprotein uptake by macrophages: implications for atherosclerosis. Circulation 2002, 103:1194-7.
65. Ballou SP, Lozanski G. Induction of inflammatory cytokine release from cultured human monocytes by C-reactive protein. Cytokine 1992; 4: 361-8.
66. Verma S, Badiwala MV, Weisel RD, et al. C-reactive protein activates the nuclear factor-kappaB signal transduction pathway in saphenous vein endothelial cells: implications for atherosclerosis and restenosis. J Thorac Cardiovasc Surg 2003; 126: 1886-91.
67. Yoshizumi M, Perrella MA, Burnet JC Jr, Lee ME. Tumor necrosis factor dowregulate an endothelial nitric oxide synthase mRNA by shortening its half-life. Cir Res 1993; 73: 205-9.
68. Paz Y, Frolkis I, Pevni D, Saphira I, et al. Effect of tumor necrosis factor-alpha on endothelial and inducible nitric oxide synthase messenger ribonucleic acid expression and nitric oxide synthesis in ischemic and nonischemic isolated rat heart. Am Coll Cardiol 2003; 42: 1299-305.
69. Cermak J, Key NS, Bach RR, Balla J, Jacob HS, Vercellotti GM. C-reactive protein induces human peripheral blood monocytes to synthesize tissue factor. Blood 1993; 82: 513-20.
70. Devaraj S, Xu DY, Jialal I. C-reactive protein increases plasminogen activator-1 expression and activity in human aortic endothelial cells. Circulation 2003; 107: 398-04.
71. Savoia C, Schiffrin EL.Inflammation and hypertension. Curr Opin Nephrol Hypertens 2006; 15: 152-8.
72. Li JJ. Inflammation in hypertension: primary evidence. Chin Med J 2006; 119:1215-21.
73. Dorfell Y, Latsch C, Stuhlmuller B, et al. Preactivation peripheral blood monocytes in patients with essential hypertension. Hypertension 1999; 34: 113-7.
74. McCarron RM, Wang L, Siren AL, Spatz M, Hallenbeck JM. Monocyte adhesion to cerebromicrovascular endothelial cells derived from hypertensive and normotensive rats. Am J Physiol 1994; 267: H2491-7.
75. Clozel M, Kuhn H, Hefti F, Baumgartner HR. Endothelial dysfunction and subendothelial monocyte macrophages in hypertension: effect of angiotensin converting enzyme inhibition. Hypertension 1991; 18:132-41.
76. Bataillard A, RenaudinC, Sassard J. Silica attenuates hypertension in Lyon hypertensive rats. J Hypertens 1995; 13:1581-4.
77. Bautista LE, López-Jaramillo P, Vera LM, Casas JP, Otero AP, Guaracao AI. Is C-reactive protein an independent risk factor for essential hypertension? J Hypertens 2001; 19: 857-61.
78. Sung KC, Suh JY, Kim BS, et al. High sensitivity C-reactive protein as an independent risk factor for essential hypertension. Am J Hypertens 2003; 16: 429-33.
79. Dohi Y, Ohashi M, Sugiyama M, Takase H, Sato K, Ueda R. Candesartan reduces oxidative stress and inflammation in patients with essential hypertension. Hypertens Res 2003; 26: 691-7
80. Boos CJ, Lip GYH. Is hypertension an inflammatory process?. Curr Pharm Des 2006; 12: 1623-35.
81. Chrysohoou C, Pitsavos C, Panagootakos DB, Skomas J, Stefanadis C. Association between prehypertension status and inflammatory markers related to atherosclerotic disease: The ATTICA Study. Am J Hypertens 2004; 17: 568-73.
82. King DE, Egan BM, Mainous AG 3rd, Geesey ME. Elevation of C-reactive protein in people with prehypertension. J Clin Hypertens (Greenwich) 2004; 6: 562-8.
83. Chambers JC, Eda S, Bassett P, et al. C-reactive protein, insulin resistance, central obesity, and coronary heart disease risk in Indian Asians from the United Kingdom compared with European whites. Circulation. 2001; 104: 145-50.
84. Terán E, Escudero C, Moya W, Flores M, Vallance P, Lopez-Jaramillo P. Elevated C-reactive protein and pro-inflammatory cytokines in Andean women with pre-eclampsia. Int J Vynaecol Obstet 2001; 75: 243-9.
85. Mendall MA, Patel P, Asante M, et al. Raltion of serum cytokine concentrations to cardiovascular risk factors and coronary heart disease. 1997; 78: 273-7.
86. Bautista LE, Vera LM, Arenas IA, Gamarra G. Independent association between inflammatory markers (C-reactive protein, interleukin 6 and TNF.alpha) and essential hypertension. J Human Hypertens 2005; 19: 149-54.
87. Fernandez-Real JM, Vayreda M, Richart C, et al. Circulating interleukin 6 levels, blood pressure, and insulin sensitivity in apparently healthy men and women. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 2001; 86: 1154-9.
88. Chae CU, Lee RT, Rifai N, Ridker PM. Blood pressure and inflammation in apparently healthy men. Hypertension 2001; 38: 399-403.
89. Peeters ACTM, Netea MG, Janssen MCH, Kullberg BJ, Van der Meer JWM, Thien T. Proinflammatory cytokines in patients with essential hypertension. Eur J Clin Invest 2001; 31: 31-6.
90. Dalekos GN, Elisaf M, Bairaktari E, Tsolas O, Siamopoulos KC. Increased serum levels of interleukin-1beta in the systemic circulation of patients with essential hypertension: additional risk factor for atherogenesis in hypertensive patients? J Lab Clin Med 1997; 129: 300-8.
91. Ohta M, Tarnawski AS, Itani R, et al. Tumor necrosis factor alpha regulates nitric oxide synthase expression in portal hypertensive gastric mucosa of rats. Hepatology 1998; 27: 906-13.
92. Sanz-Rosa D, Oubina MP, Cediel E, et al. Effect of AT1 receptor antagonism on vascular and circulating inflammatory mediators in SHR: role of NFκB/IκB system. Am J Physiol Heart Circ Physiol 2005; 288: H111-5.
93. Luvara G, Pueyo ME, Philippe M, et al. Chronic blockade of NO synthase activity induces a proinflammatory phenotype in the arterial wall: prevention by angiotensin II antagonism. Arterioscler Thromb Vasc Biol 1998;18: 1408-16.
94. González W, Fontaine V, Pueyo, et al. Molecular plasticity of vascular wall during N(G)-nitro-L-arginine methyl ester-induced hypertension: modulation of proinflammatory signals. Hypertension 2000; 36: 103-9.
95. Haller H, Park JK, Dragun D, Lippoldt A, Luft FC. Leukocyte infiltration and ICAM-1 expression in two-kidney one-clip hypertension. Nephrol Dial Transplant 1997; 12: 899-03.
96. Tummala PE, Chen XL, Sundell CL, et al. Angiotensin II induces vascular cell adhesion molecule-1 expression in rat vasculature: A potential link between the renin-angiotensin system and atherosclerosis. Circulation 1999; 100:1223-9.
97. Sesso HD, Buring JE, Rifai N, Blake GJ, Gaziano JM, Ridker PM. C-reactive protein and the risk of developing hypertension. JAMA 2003; 290: 2945-51.
98. Niskanen L, Laaksonen DE, Nyyssönen K, et al. Inflammation, abdominal obesity, and smoking as predictors of hypertension. Hypertension 2004; 44: 859-65.
99. Cunningham KS, Gotlieb AI. The role of shear stress in the pathogenesis of atherosclerosis. Lab Invest 2005; 85: 9-23.
100. Chatzizisis YS, Coskun AU, Jonas M, et al. Role of endothelial shear stress in the natural history of coronary atherosclerosis and vascular remodeling molecular, cellular, and vascular behavior J Am Coll Cardiol 2007; 49: 2379-93.
101. Hwang J, Saha A, Boo YC, et al. Oscillatory shear stress stimulates endothelial production of O2- from p47(phox)-dependent NAD(P)H oxidases, leading to monocyte adhesion. J Biol Chem 2003; 278: 47291-8.
102. Brasier AR, Recinos A, Eledrisi MS. Vascular inflammation and the rennin-angiotensin-aldosterone system. Arterioscler Thromb Vasc Biol 2002; 22:1257-66.
103. Schiffrin EL, Touyz RM. From bedside to bench to bedside: role of renin-angiotensin-aldosterone system in remodeling of resistance arteries in hypertension. Am J Physiol Heart Circ Physiol 2004; 287: H435-46.
104. Phillips MI, Kagiyama S. Angiotensin II as a pro-inflammatory mediator. Curr Opin Investig Drugs 2002; 3: 569-77.
105. Kranzhofer R, Browatzki M, Schmidt J, Kubler W. Angiotensin II activates the proinflammatory transcripcion factor nuclear factor-kappaB in human monocytes. Biochem Biophys Res Commun 1999; 257: 826-8.
106. Fliser D, Buchholz K, Haller H. European Trial on Olmesartan and Pravastatin in Inflammation and Atherosclerosis (EUTOPIA) Investigators. Antiinflammatory effects of angiotensin II subtype 1 receptor blockade in hypertensive patients with microinflammation. Circulation 2004; 110:1103-7.
107. Koh KK, Ahn JY, Han SH, et al. Pleiotropic effects of angiotensin II receptor blocker in hypertensive patients. J Am Coll Cardiol 2003; 42: 905-10.
108. Rahman ST, Lauten WB, Khan QA, Navalkar S, Parthasarathy S, Khan BV. Effects of eprosartan versus hydrochlorothiazide on markers of vascular oxidation and inflammation and blood pressure (renin-angiotensin system antagonists, oxidation, and inflammation). Am J Cardio 2002; 89: 686-90.
109. Behr TM, Willette RN, Coatney RW, et al. Eprosartan improves cardiac performance, reduces cardiac hypertrophy and mortality and downregulates myocardial monocyte chemoattractant protein-1 and inflammation in hypertensive heart disease. J Hypertens 2004; 22: 583-92.
110. Duprez D, De Buyzere M, Rietzschel ER, Clement DL. Aldosterone and vascular damage. Curr Hypertens Rep 2000; 2: 327-34.
111. Stier CT, Jr, Chander PN, Rocha R. Aldosterone as a mediator in cardiovascular injury. Cardiol Rev 2002; 10: 97-107.
112. Sanz-Rosa D, Cediel E, de las Heras N, et al. Participation of aldosterone on vascular inflammatory response in spontaneously hypertensive rats: Role of NFκ B/Iκ B system. J Hypertens 2005; 23:1167-72.
113. Virdis A, Fritsch NM, Amiri F, Viel E, Touyz RM, Schiffrin EL. Spironolactone improves angiotensin-induced vascular changes and oxidative stress. Hypertension 2002, 40: 504-10.