Khat use: Lifestyle or addiction?

Journal of Psychoactive Drugs

Volumn 41, Issue 1, 2009, Pages 1-10

  Manghi, Rita Annoni ^a   Broers, Barbara ^a   Khan, Riaz ^a   Benguettat, Djamel ^a   Khazaal, Yasser ^a   Zullino, Daniele Fabio ^a  

^a GENEVA UNIVERSITY HOSPITALS   (Switzerland)

Author keywords

Clinical epidemiology; Khat; Pharmacology; Psychoactive alkaloids

Indexed keywords

AMPHETAMINE; CATHA EDULIS EXTRACT; CATHINONE; IBUPROFEN; NORPSEUDOEPHEDRINE;

AGE DISTRIBUTION; ANALGESIA; ANOREXIA; ARTICLE; CANCER RISK; CARDIOVASCULAR DISEASE; CHEMOSENSITIZATION; COGNITIVE DEFECT; CONSTIPATION; CULTURAL FACTOR; CULTURAL VALUE; DOPAMINE RELEASE; DRUG ABSORPTION; DRUG BIOAVAILABILITY; DRUG DEPENDENCE; DRUG INDUCED HEADACHE; DRUG POTENCY; DRUG USE; DUODENUM ULCER; DYSPHORIA; ECONOMIC ASPECT; EPIDEMIOLOGICAL DATA; EUPHORIA; FASCIOLIASIS; FERTILITY; GASTRITIS; GASTROINTESTINAL SYMPTOM; HUMAN; INFERTILITY; INSOMNIA; INTRINSIC SYMPATHOMIMETIC ACTIVITY; LIFESTYLE; MENTAL DISEASE; MOUTH HYGIENE; NEOPLASM; NONHUMAN; PARESTHESIA; PERIODONTAL DISEASE; PHOBIA; PREGNANCY OUTCOME; PSYCHOPHARMACOLOGY; PSYCHOSIS; SEMEN ANALYSIS; SEX DIFFERENCE; SEXUALITY; SIDE EFFECT; STOMATITIS; SUICIDAL IDEATION; THIRST; TIME TO MAXIMUM PLASMA CONCENTRATION; TRADITIONAL MEDICINE; WITHDRAWAL SYNDROME; XEROSTOMIA;

EID: 65649118932     PISSN: 02791072     EISSN: 21599777     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1080/02791072.2009.10400669     Document Type: Article

References (130)

1. Abdul Ghani, N.; Eriksson, M.; Kristiansson, B. & Qirbi, A. 1987. The influence of khat-chewing on birth-weight in full-term infants. Social Science and Medicine 24 (7): 625-7.
2. Adugna, F.; Jira, C. & Molla, T. 1994. Khat chewing among Agaro secondary school students, Agaro, Southwestern Ethiopia. Ethiopian Medical Journal 32 (3): 161-6.
3. Ahmed, M.B. & El-Qirbi, A.B. 1993. Biochemical effects of catha edulis, cathine and cathinone on adrenocortical functions. Journal of Ethnopharmacology 39 (3): 213-6.
4. Al-Hadrani, A.M. 2000. Khat induced hemorrhoidal disease in Yemen. Saudi Medical Journal 21 (5): 475-7.
5. Al-Mamary, M.; Al-Habori, M.; Al-Aghbari, A.M. & Baker, M.M. 2002. Investigation into the toxicological effects of catha edulis leaves: A short term study in animals. Phytotherapy Research 16 (2): 127-32.
6. Al-Meshal, I.A.; Qureshi, S.; Ageel, A.M. & Tariq, M. 1991. The toxicity of catha edulis (khat) in mice. Journal of Substance Abuse 3 (1): 107-15.
7. Al-Motarreb, A.L. & Broadley, K.J. 2003. Coronary and aortic vasoconstriction by cathinone, the active constituent of khat. Autonomic & Autacoid Pharmacology 23 (5-6):319-26.
8. Al-Motarreb, A.; Baker, K. & Broadley, K.J. 2002. Khat: Pharmacological and medical aspects and its social use in Yemen. Phytotherapy Research 16 (5): 403-13.
9. Al-Motarreb, A.; Briancon, S.; Al-Jaber, N.; Al-Adhi, B.; Al-Jailani, F.; Salek, M.S. & Broadley, K.J. 2005. Khat chewing isa risk factor for acute myocardial infarction: A case-control study. British Journal of Clinical Pharmacology 59 (5): 574-81.
10. Alem, A. & Shibre, T. 1997. Khat induced psychosis and its medicolegal implication: A case report. Ethiopian Medical Journal 35 (2): 137-9.
11. Alem, A.; Kebede, D. & Kullgren, G. 1999. The prevalence and sociodemographic correlates of khat chewing in Butajira, Ethiopia. Acta Psychiatrica Scandinavica Suppl 397: 84-91.
12. Ali, A.A.; Al-Sharabi, A.K.; Aguirre, J.M. & Nahas, R. 2004. A study of 342 oral keratotic white lesions induced by qat chewing among 2500 Yemeni. Journal of Oral Pathology and Medicine 33 (6): 368-72.
13. Banjaw, M.Y. & Schmidt, W.J. 2005. Behavioural sensitisation following repeated intermittent oral administration of catha edulis in rats. Behavioural Brain Research 156 (2): 181-9.
14. Banjaw, M.Y.; Mayerhofer, A. & Schmidt, W.J. 2003.Anticataleptic activity of cathinone and MDMA (Ecstasy) upon acute and subchronic administration in rat. Synapse 49 (4): 232-8.
15. Belew, M.; Kebede, D.; Kassaye, M. & Enquoselassie, F. 2000. The magnitude of khat use and its association with health, nutrition and socio-economic status. Ethiopian Medical Journal 38 (1): 11-26.
16. Bhui, K.; Abdi, A.; Abdi, M.; Pereira, S.; Dualeh, M.; Robertson, D.; Sathyamoorthy, G. & Ismail, H. 2003. Traumatic events, migration characteristics and psychiatric symptoms among Somali refugees— Preliminary communication. Social Psychiatry and Psychiatric Epidemiology 38 (1): 35-43.
17. Brenneisen, R.; Fisch, H.U.; Koelbing, U.; Geisshusler, S. & Kalix, P. 1990. Amphetamine-like effects in humans of the khat alkaloid cathinone. British Journal ofClinical Pharmacology 30 (6): 825-8.
18. Brenneisen, R.; Geisshusler, S. & Schorno, X. 1986. Metabolism of cathinone to (-)-norephedrine and (-)-norpseudoephedrine. Journal of Pharmacy and Pharmacology 38 (4): 298-300.
19. Bronson, M.E.; Jiang, W.; Deruiter, J. & Clark, C.R. 1995. A behavioral comparison of nexus, cathinone, BDB, and MDA. Pharmacology Biochemistry and Behaviour 51 (2-3): 473-5.
20. Brown, E.R.; Jarvie, D.R. & Simpson, D. 1995. Use of drugs at ‘raves’. Scottish Medical Journal 40 (6): 168-71.
21. Browne, D.L. 1991. Qat use in New York City. In: T. Burks (Ed.) Problems of Drug Dependence 1990. NIDA Research Monograph 105. Washington, DC: NIDA.
22. Calcagnetti, D.J. & Schechter, M.D. 1993. Place preference for the psychostimulant cathinone is blocked by pretreatment with a dopamine release inhibitor. Progress in Neuropsychopharmacology and Biological Psychiatry 17 (4): 637-49.
23. Calcagnetti, D.J. & Schechter, M.D. 1992. Increases in the locomotor activity of rats after intracerebral administration of cathinone. Brain Research Bulletin 29 (6): 843-6.
24. Carvalho, F. 2003. The toxicological potential of khat. Journal of Ethnopharmacology 87 (1): 1-2.
25. Cats, A.; Scholten, P.; Meuwissen, S.G. & Kuipers, E.J. 2000. Acute fasciola hepatica infection attributed to chewing khat. Gut 47 (4): 584-5.
26. Cleary, L.; Buber, R. & Docherty, J.R. 2002. Effects of amphetamine derivatives and cathinone on noradrenaline-evoked contractions of rat right ventricle. European Journal ofPharmacology 451 (3): 303-8.
27. Connor, J.D.; Rostom, A. & Makonnen, E. 2002. Comparison of effects of khat extract and amphetamine on motor behaviors in mice. Journal of Ethnopharmacology 81 (1): 65-71.
28. Critchlow, S. & Seifert, R. 1987. Khat-induced paranoid psychosis. British Journal of Psychiatry 150: 247-9.
29. Date, J.; Tanida, N. & Hobara, T. 2004. Qat chewing and pesticides: A study of adverse health effects -in people of the mountainous areas of Yemen. International Journal of Environmental Health Research 14(6): 405-14.
30. Dhadphale, M.; Mengech, A. & Chege, S.W. 1981. Miraa (catha edulis) as a cause of psychosis. East African Medical Journal 58 (2): 130-5.
31. Dhaifalah, I. & Santavy, J. 2004. Khat habit and its health effect. A natural amphetamine. Biomedical Papers of the Medical Faculty ot the Univsity ofPalack, y Olomouc, Czech Republic 148 (1): 11-5.
32. Doherty, J.F.; Price, N.; Moody, A.H.; Wright, S.G. & Glynn, M.J. 1995. Fascioliasis due to imported khat. Lancet 345 (8947): 462.
33. El-Guneid, A.; El-Sherif, A.M.; Murray-Lyon, I.M.; Zureikat, N. & Shousha, S. 1991. Effect of chewing qat on mucosal histology and prevalence of helicobacter pylori in the oesophagus, stomach and duodenum of Yemeni patients. Histopathology 19 (5): 437-43.
34. El-Shoura, S.M.; Abdel Aziz, M.; Ali, M.E.; El-Said, M.M.; Ali, K.Z.; Kemeir, M.A.; Raoof, A.M.; Allam, M. & Elmalik, E.M. 1995. Deleterious effects of khat addiction on semen parameters and sperm ultrastructure. Human Reproduction 10 (9): 2295-300.
35. Elmi, A.S. 1983. The chewing of khat in Somalia. Journal of Ethnopharmacology 8 (2): 163-76.
36. Eriksson, M.; Ghani, N.A. & Kristiansson, B. 1991. Khat-chewing during pregnancy—effect upon the off-spring and some characteristics of the chewers. East African Medical Journal 68 (2): 106-11.
37. Giannini, A.J. & Castellani, S. 1982. A manic-like psychosis due to khat (catha edulis forsk). Journal of Toxicology and Clinical Toxicology 19 (5): 455-9.
38. Gordon, T.L.; Meehan, S.M. & Schechter, M.D. 1993. Differential effects of nicotine but not cathinone on motor activity of P and NP rats. Pharmacology Biochemistry and Behaviour 44 (3): 657-9.
39. Gosnell, B.A.; Yracheta, J.M.; Bell, S.M. & Lane, K.E. 1996. Intravenous self-administration of cathinone by rats. Behavioural Pharmacology 7 (6): 526-531.
40. Granek, M.; Shalev, A. & Weingarten, A.M. 1988. Khat-induced hypnagogic hallucinations. Acta Psychiatrica Scandinavica 78 (4): 458-61.
41. Griffiths, P.; Gossop, M.; Wickenden, S.; Dunworth, J.; Harris, K. & Lloyd, C. 1997. A transcultural pattern of drug use: Qat (khat) in the UK. British Journal of Psychiatry 170: 281-4.
42. Guantai, A.N.; Mwangi, J.W.; Muriuki, G. & Kuria, K.A. 1987. Effects of the active constituents of catha edulis on the neuromuscular junction. Neuropharmacology 26 (5): 401-5.
43. Gugelmann, R.; Von Allmen, M.; Brenneisen, R. & Porzig, H. 1985. Quantitative differences in the pharmacological effects of (+)- and (-)-cathinone. Experientia 41 (12): 1568-71.
44. Gunaid, A.A.; Sumairi, A.A.; Shidrawi, R.G.; Al-Hanaki, A.; Al-Haimi, M.; Al-Absi, S.; Al-Hureibi, M.A.; Qirbi, A.A.; Al-Awlagi, S.; El-Guneid, A.M. et al. 1995. Oesophageal and gastric carcinoma in the Republic of Yemen. British Journal of Cancer 71 (2): 409-10.
45. Hakim, L.Y. 2002. Influence of khat on seminal fluid among presumed infertile couples. East African Medical Journal 79 (1): 22-8.
46. Halbach, H. 1972. Medical aspects of the chewing of khat leaves. Bulletin of the World Health Organization 47 (1): 21-9.
47. Halket, J.M.; Karasu, Z. & Murray-Lyon, I.M. 1995. Plasma cathinone levels following chewing khat leaves (catha edulis forsk.). Journal of Ethnopharmacology 49 (2): 111-3.
48. Hassan, N.A.; Gunaid, A.A.; El-Khally, F.M.; Al-Noami, M.Y. & Murray-Lyon, I.M. 2005. Khat chewing and arterial blood pressure. A randomized controlled clinical trial of alpha-1 and selective beta-1 adrenoceptor blockade. Saudi Medical Journal 26 (4): 537-41.
49. Hassan, N.A.; Gunaid, A.A.; El-Khally, F.M. & Murray-Lyon, I.M. 2002. The effect of chewing khat leaves on human mood. Saudi Medical Journal 23 (7): 850-3.
50. Hassan, N.A.; Gunaid, A.A.; Abdo-Rabbo, A.A.; Abdel-Kader, Z.Y.; Al-Mansoob, M.A.; Awad, A.Y. & Murray-Lyon, I.M. 2000. The effect of qat chewing on blood pressure and heart rate in healthy volunteers. Tropical Doctor 30 (2): 107-8.
51. Heymann, T.D.; Bhupulan, A.; Zureikat, N.E.; Bomanji, J.; Drinkwater, C.; Giles, P. & Murray-Lyon, I.M. 1995. Khat chewing delays gastric emptying of a semi-solid meal. Alimentary Pharmacology and Therapeutics 9 (1): 81-3.
52. Hill, C.M. & Gibson, A. 1987. The oral and dental effects ofq’at chewing. Oral Surgery Oral Medicine Oral Pathology 63 (4): 433-6.
53. Ihunwo, A.O.; Kayanja, F.I. & Amadi-Ihunwo, U.B. 2004. Use and perception of the psychostimulant, khat (catha edulis) among three occupational groups in south western Uganda. East African Medical Journal 81 (9): 468-73.
54. Islam, M.W.; Al-Shabanah, O.A.; Al-Harbi, M.M. & Al-Gharably, N.M. 1994. Evaluation of teratogenic potential of khat (catha edulis forsk.) in rats. Drug and Chemical Toxicology 17 (1): 51-68.
55. Islam, M.W.; Tariq, M.; Ageel, A.M.; El-Feraly, F.S.; Al-Meshal, LA. & Ashraf, I. 1990. An evaluation of the male reproductive toxicity of cathinone. Toxicology 60 (3): 223-34.
56. Jager, A.D. & Sireling, L. 1994. Natural history of khat psychosis. Australian and New Zealand Journal of Psychiatry 28 (2): 331-2.
57. Jansson, T.; Kristiansson, B. & Qirbi, A. 1988a. Effect of khat on uteroplacental blood flow in awake, chronically catheterized, late-pregnant guinea pigs. Journal of Ethnopharmacology 23 (1): 19-26.
58. Jansson, T.; Kristiansson, B. & Qirbi, A. 1988b. Effect ofkhat on maternal food intake, maternal weight gain and fetal growth in the late-pregnant guinea pig. Journal of Ethnopharmacology 23 (1): 11-7.
59. Jansson, T.; Kristiansson, B. & Qirbi, A. 1987. Effect ofthe khat alkaloid (+)norpseudoephedrine on uteroplacental blood flow in the guinea pig. Pharmacology 34 (2-3): 89-95.
60. Johanson, C.E. & Schuster, C.R. 1981. A comparison of the behavioral effects of 1- and dl-cathinone and d-amphetamine. Journal of Pharmacology and Experimental Therapeutics 219 (2): 355-62.
61. Jorgensen, E. & Kaimenyi, J.T. 1990. The status of periodontal health and oral hygiene of miraa (catha edulis) chewers. East African Medical Journal 67 (8): 585-90.
62. Kalix, P. 1992. Cathinone, a natural amphetamine. Pharmacology and Toxicology 70 (2): 77-86.
63. Kalix, P. 1991.The pharmacology of psychoactive alkaloids from ephedra and catha. Journal of Ethnopharmacology 32 (1-3): 201-8.
64. Kalix, P. 1988. Khat: A plant with amphetamine effects. Journal of Substance Abuse Treatment 5: 163-69.
65. Kalix, P. 1984. Amphetamine psychosis due to khat leaves. Lancet 1 (8367): 46.
66. Kalix, P. 1983. A comparison of the catecholamine releasing effect of the khat alkaloids (-)-cathinone and (+)-norpseudoephedrine. Drug and Alcohol Dependence 11 (3-4): 395-401.
67. Kalix, P. 1982. The amphetamine-like releasing effect of the alkaloid (-)cathinone on rat nucleus accumbens and rabbit caudate nucleus. Progress in Neuropsychopharmacology and Biological Psychiatry 6 (1): 43-9.
68. Kalix, P. 1980a. Hypermotility of the amphetamine type induced by a constituent of khat leaves. British Journal of Pharmacology 68 (1): 11-3.
69. Kalix, P. 1980b. A constituent of khat leaves with amphetamine-like releasing properties. European Journal of Pharmacology 68 (2): 213-5.
70. Kalix, P. & Braenden, O. 1985. Pharmacological aspects ofthe chewing of khat leaves. Pharmacological Reviews 37 (2): 149-64.
71. Kassie, F.; Darroudi, F.; Kundi, M.; Schulte-Hermann, R. & Knasmuller, S. 2001. Khat (catha edulis) consumption causes genotoxic effects in humans. International Journal of Cancer 92 (3): 329-32.
72. Kebede, Y. 2002. Cigarette smoking and khat chewing among university instructors in Ethiopia. EastAfrican Medical Journal 79 (5): 274-8.
73. Kennedy, J.G.; Teague, J.; Rokaw, W. & Cooney, E. 1983. A medical evaluation of the use of qat in North Yemen. Social Science and Medicine 17 (12): 783-93.
74. Khattab, N.Y. & Amer, G. 1995. Undetected neuropsychophysiological sequelae of khat chewing in standard aviation medical examination. Aviation Space and Environmental Medicine 66 (8): 739-44.
75. Kohli, J.D. & Goldberg, L.I. 1982. Cardiovascular effects of(--)-cathinone in the anaesthetized dog: Comparison with (+)-amphetamine. Journal of Pharmacy and Pharmacology 34 (5): 338-40.
76. Kristiansson, B.; Abdul Ghani, N.; Eriksson, M.; Garle, M. & Qirbi, A. 1987. Use of khat in lactating women: A pilot study on breast-milk secretion. Journal of Ethnopharmacology 21 (1): 85-90.
77. Kuczkowski, K.M. 2005. Herbal Ecstasy: Cardiovascular complications of khat chewing in pregnancy. Acta Anaesthesiologica Belgica 56 (1): 19-21.
78. Litman, A.; Levav, I.; Saltz-Rennert, H. & Maoz, B. 1986. The use of khat. An epidemiological study in two Yemenite villages in Israel. Culture Medicine and Psychiatry 10 (4): 389-96.
79. Macigo, F.G.; Mwaniki, D.L. & Guthua, S.W. 1995. The association between oral leukoplakia and use of tobacco, alcohol and khat based on relative risks assessment in Kenya. European Journal of Oral Science 103 (5): 268-73.
80. Mahmoud, A.L. 2000. Mycotoxin-producing potential of fungi associated with qat (catha edulis) leaves in Yemen. Folia Microbiology (Praha) 45 (5): 452-6.
81. Maitai, C.K. & Dhadphale, M. 1988. Khat-induced paranoid psychosis. British Journal of Psychiatry 152: 294.
82. Makonnen, E. 2000. Constipating and spasmolytic effects of khat (catha edulis forsk) in experimental animals. Phytomedicine 7 (4): 309-12.
83. Marker, P. & Krogdahl, A. 2002. Plasma cell gingivitis apparently related to the use of khat: Report of a case. British Dental Journal 192 (6): 311-3.
84. Maru, H.M.; Kathuku, D.M. & Ndetei, D.M. 2003. Substance use among children and young persons appearing in the Nairobi Juvenile Court, Kenya. East African Medical Journal 80 (11): 598-602.
85. Mathys, K. & Brenneisen, R. 1992. Determination of (s)-(-)-cathinone and its metabolites (r, s)-(-)-norephedrine and (r, r)-(-)-norpseudoephedrine in urine by high-performance liquid chromatography with photodiode-array detection. Journal of Chromatography 593 (1-2): 79-85.
86. McLaren, P. 1987. Khat psychosis. British Journal of Psychiatry 15: 712-3.
87. Mengel, R.; Eigenbrodt, M.; Schunemann, T. & Flores-De-Jacoby, L. 1996. Periodontal status of a subject sample of Yemen. Journal of Clinical Periodontology 23 (5): 437-43.
88. Mereu, G.P.; Pacitti, C. & Argiolas, A. 1983. Effect of (-)-cathinone, a khat leaf constituent, on dopaminergic firing and dopamine metabolism in the rat brain. Life Science 32 (12): 1383-9.
89. Mion, G.; Ruttimann, M.; Oberti, M. & Aversenq, C. 1997. [Acute khat-induced psychotic crisis]. Annales Frangaises d’ Anesthesie Reanimation 16 (2): 201-2.
90. Murugan, N.; Burkhill, G.; Williams, S.G.; Padley, S.P. & Murray-Lyon, I.M. 2003. The effect of khat chewing on gallbladder motility in a group of volunteers. Journal of Ethnopharmacology 86 (2-3): 225-7.
91. Mwenda, J.M.; Arimi, M.M.; Kyama, M.C. & Langat, D.K. 2003. Effects of khat (catha edulis) consumption on reproductive functions: A review. East African Medical Journal 80 (6): 318-23.
92. Nabil, Z.; Saleh, M.; Mekkawy, H. & Allah, G.A. 1986. Effects of an extract of khat (catha edulis) on the toad heart. Journal of Ethnopharmacology 18 (3): 245-56.
93. Nasher, A.A.; Qirbi, A.A.; Ghafoor, M.A.; Catterall, A.; Thompson, A.; Ramsay, J.W. & Murray-Lyon, I.M. 1995. Khat chewing andbladder neck dysfunction. A randomized controlled trial of alpha 1-adrenergic blockade. British Journal ofUrology 75 (5): 597-8.
94. Nencini, P. & Ahmed, A.M. 1989. Khat consumption: A pharmacological review. Drug and Alcohol Dependence 23 (1): 19-29.
95. Nencini, P.; Ahmed, A.M. & Elmi, A.S. 1986. Subjective effects of khat chewing in humans. Drug and Alcohol Dependence 18 (1): 97-105.
96. Nencini, P.; Grassi, M.C.; Botan, A.A.; Asseyr, A.F. & Paroli, E. 1989. Khat chewing spread to the Somali community in Rome. Drug and Alcohol Dependence 23 (3): 255-8.
97. Nencini, P.; Anania, M.C.; Moscucci, M.; Pasquarelli, V. & Ahmed, A.M. 1988. Brief footshock analgesia: Long-lasting enhancement induced by cathinone, an amphetamine-like agent. Pharmacology 37 (2): 114-24.
98. Nencini, P.; Ahmed, A.M.; Amiconi, G. & Elmi, A.S. 1984. Tolerance develops to sympathetic effects of khat in humans. Pharmacology 28 (3): 150-4.
99. Nielen, R.J.; Van Der Heijden, F.M.; Tuinier, S. & Verhoeven, W.M. 2004. Khat and mushrooms associated with psychosis. World Journal of Biological Psychiatry 5 (l): 49-53.
100. Numan, N. 2004. Exploration of adverse psychological symptoms in Yemeni khat users by the Symptoms Checklist-90 (SCL-90). Addiction 99 (1): 61-5.
101. Odenwald, M.; Neuner, F.; Schauer, M.; Elbert, T.; Catani, C.; Lingenfelder, B.; Hinkel, H.; Hafner, H. & Rockstroh, B. 2005. Khat use as risk factor for psychotic disorders: A cross-sectional and case-control study in Somalia. BioMedCentral Medicine 3 (1): 5.
102. Omolo, O.E. & Dhadphale, M. 1987. Prevalence of khat chewers among primary health clinic attenders in Kenya. Acta Psychiatrica Scandinavica 75 (3): 318-20.
103. Othieno, C.J.; Kathuku, D.M. & Ndetei, D.M. 2000. Substance abuse in outpatients attending rural and urban health centres in Kenya. East African Medical Journal 77 (2): 592-5.
104. Pehek, E.A.; Schechter, M.D. & Yamamoto, B.K. 1990. Effects of cathinone and amphetamine on the neurochemistry of dopamine in vivo. Neuropharmacology 29 (12): 1171-6.
105. Qureshi, S.; Tariq, M.; Parmar, N.S. & Al-Meshal, LA. 1988. Cytological effects of khat (catha edulis) in somatic and male germ cells of mice. Drug and Chemical Toxicology 11 (2): 151-65.
106. Rottanburg, D.; Robins, A.H.; Ben-Arie, O.; Teggin, A. & Elk, R. 1982. Cannabis-associated psychosis with hypomanic features. Lancet 2 (8312): 1364-6.
107. Salib, E. & Ahmed, A.G. 1998. The khat-chewing elderly. International Journal of Geriatric Psychiatry 13 (7): 493-4.
108. Schechter, M.D. 1991. Effect of lewed behavior upon conditioned place preference to cathinone. Pharmacology Biochemistry and Behaviour 38 (1): 7-11.
109. Schechter, M.D. 1990a. Dopaminergic nature of acute cathine tolerance. Pharmacology Biochemistry and Behaviour 36 (4): 817-20.
110. Schechter, M.D. 1990b. Rats become acutely tolerant to cathine after amphetamine or cathinone administration. Psychopharmacology (Berl) 101 (1): 126-31.
111. Schechter, M.D. 1989. Temporal parameters of cathinone, amphetamine and cocaine. Pharmacology Biochemistry and Behaviour 34 (2): 289-92.
112. Schechter, M.D. & Meehan, S.M. 1993. Conditioned place preference produced by the psychostimulant cathinone. European Journal of Pharmacology 232 (1): 135-8.
113. Schechter, M.D. & McBurney, D. 1991. Effect of repeated administrations upon cathinone discrimination and conditioned place preference. General Pharmacology 22 (5): 779-82.
114. Soufi, H.E.; Kameswaran, M. & Malatani, T. 1991. Khat and oral cancer. Journal of Laryngology and Otology 105 (8): 643-5.
115. Stefan, J. & Mathew, B. 2005. Khat chewing: An emerging drug concern in Australia? Australian and New Zealand Journal of Psychiatry 39 (9): 842-3.
116. Szendrei, K. 1980. The chemistry of khat. Bulletin on Narcotics 32 (3): 5-35.
117. Tariq, M.; Qureshi, S.; Ageel, A.M. & Al-Meshal, LA. 1990. The induction of dominant lethal mutations upon chronic administration of khat (catha edulis) in albino mice. Toxicology Letters 50 (2-3): 349-53.
118. Tariq, M.; Al-Meshal, I.A.; Parmar, N.S.; Ageel, A.M. & Qureshi, S. 1986. Evaluation of genotoxic potential of khat (catha edulis) in Swiss albino mice. Mutagenesis 1 (5): 381-2.
119. Toennes, S.W.; Harder, S.; Schramm, M.; Niess, C. & Kauert, G.F. 2003. Pharmacokinetics of cathinone, cathine and norephedrine after the chewing of khat leaves. British Journal of Clinical Pharmacology 56 (1): 125-30.
120. Valterio, C. & Kalix, P. 1982. The effect of the alkaloid (-)cathinone on the motor activity in mice. Archives Internationales de Pharmacodynamiques et Therapeutiques 255 (2): 196-203.
121. Wagner, G.C.; Preston, K.; Ricaurte, G.A.; Schuster, C.R. & Seiden, L.S. 1982. Neurochemical similarities between d, l-cathinone and d-amphetarnine. Drug and Alcohol Dependence 9 (4): 279-84.
122. Widler, P.; Mathys, K.; Brenneisen, R.; Kalix, P. & Fisch, H.U. 1994. Pharmacodynamics and pharmacokinetics of khat: A controlled study. Clinical Pharmacology and Therapeutics 55 (5): 556-62.
123. Woolverton, W. & Johanson, C. 1984. Preference in rhesus monkeys given a choice between cocaine and cathinone. Journal of Experimental Analysis and Behavior 41: 35-43.
124. Yanagita, T. 1986. Intravenous self-administration of (-)-cathinone and 2-amino-1-(2,5-dimethoxy-4-methyl)phenylpropane in rhesus monkeys. Drug andAlcohol Dependence 17 (2-3): 135-41.
125. Young, R. & Glennon, R.A. 1993. Cocaine-stimulus generalization to two new designer drugs: Methcathinone and 4-methylaminorex. Pharmacology Biochemistry and Behaviour 45 (1): 229-31.
126. Yousef, G.; Huq, Z. & Lambert, T. 1995. Khat chewing as a cause of psychosis. British Journal of Hospital Medicine 54 (7): 322-6.
127. Zein, Z.A. 1988. Polydrug abuse among Ethiopian university students with particular reference to khat (catha edulis). Journal of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene 91 (2): 71-5.
128. Zelger, J.L. & Carlini, E.A. 1981. Influence of cathinone (alpha-minopropiophenone) andcathine (phenylpropanolamine) on circling behavior and on the uptake and release of [3h]dopamine in striatal slices of rats. Neuropharmacology 20 (9): 839-43.
129. Zelger, J.L. & Carlini, E.A. 1980. Anorexigenic effects of two amines obtained from catha edulis forsk. (khat) in rats. Pharmacology Biochemistry and Behaviour 12 (5): 701-5.
130. Zeiger, J.L.; Schomo, H.X. & Carlini, E.A. 1980. Behavioural effects of cathinone, an amine obtained from catha edulis forsk.: Comparisons with amphetamine, norpseudoephedrine, apomorphine and nomifensine. Bulletin on Narcotics 32 (3): 67-81.