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Volumn 94, Issue 3, 2009, Pages 587-636

Judicial independence in excess: Reviving the judicial duty of the supreme court

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EID: 65149095409     PISSN: 00108847     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: None     Document Type: Article
Times cited : (30)

References (451)
  • 1
    • 65149096001 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Press Release, S. Methodist Univ. Dedman Sch. of Law, Justices O'Connor, Breyer Host Conference at Dedman School of Law (Apr. 4, 2007), available at http://www.law.smu.edu/news/04-04-07.aspx.
    • Press Release, S. Methodist Univ. Dedman Sch. of Law, Justices O'Connor, Breyer Host Conference at Dedman School of Law (Apr. 4, 2007), available at http://www.law.smu.edu/news/04-04-07.aspx.
  • 2
    • 84868922822 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Press Release, Georgetown Univ. Law Center
    • Sept. 28, 2006, available at
    • Id:, Press Release, Georgetown Univ. Law Center, Fair and Independent Courts: A Conference on the State of the Judiciary (Sept. 28, 2006), available at http://www.law.georgetown.edu/news/events/conference-story. html.
    • Fair and Independent Courts: A Conference on the State of the Judiciary
  • 4
    • 65149090386 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Symposium, Fair and Independent Courts: A Conference on the State of the Judiciary, 95 GEO. L.J. 895 (2007).
    • Symposium, Fair and Independent Courts: A Conference on the State of the Judiciary, 95 GEO. L.J. 895 (2007).
  • 5
    • 65149102132 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Other journals have also held conferences and symposia and published multiple articles on the subject. See, e.g, James J. Alfini &Jarrett Gable, The Role of the Organized Bar in State Judicial Selection Reform: The Year 2000 Standards, 106 DICK. L. REV. 683 (2002);
    • Other journals have also held conferences and symposia and published multiple articles on the subject. See, e.g., James J. Alfini &Jarrett Gable, The Role of the Organized Bar in State Judicial Selection Reform: The Year 2000 Standards, 106 DICK. L. REV. 683 (2002);
  • 6
    • 65149097237 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • William V. Dorsaneo, HI, Judicial Independence and Democratic Accountability in Highest State Courts, 53 SMU L. REV. 255 (2000);
    • William V. Dorsaneo, HI, Judicial Independence and Democratic Accountability in Highest State Courts, 53 SMU L. REV. 255 (2000);
  • 7
    • 65149092307 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Symposium, Judicial Elections: Selecting Judges in the 21st Century, 30 CAP. U. L. REV. 437 (2002);
    • Symposium, Judicial Elections: Selecting Judges in the 21st Century, 30 CAP. U. L. REV. 437 (2002);
  • 8
    • 65149085338 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Symposium, Judicial Independence and Accountability, 72 S. CAL. L. REV. 311 (1999);
    • Symposium, Judicial Independence and Accountability, 72 S. CAL. L. REV. 311 (1999);
  • 9
    • 65149098046 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Symposium, Judicial Independence and Accountability, LAW & CONTEMP. PROBS., Summer 1998.
    • Symposium, Judicial Independence and Accountability, LAW & CONTEMP. PROBS., Summer 1998.
  • 10
    • 65149101626 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • See generally CHARLES GARDNER GEYH, WHEN COURTS & CONGRESS COLLIDE: THE STRUGGLE FOR CONTROL OF AMERICA'S JUDICIAL SYSTEM (2006).
    • See generally CHARLES GARDNER GEYH, WHEN COURTS & CONGRESS COLLIDE: THE STRUGGLE FOR CONTROL OF AMERICA'S JUDICIAL SYSTEM (2006).
  • 11
    • 65149106560 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • For expressions of the hostility, see ROBERT H. DIERKER JR., THE TYRANNY OF TOLERANCE: A SITTING JUDGE BREAKS THE CODE OF SILENCE TO EXPOSE THE LIBERAL JUDICIAl ASSAULT (2006);
    • For expressions of the hostility, see ROBERT H. DIERKER JR., THE TYRANNY OF TOLERANCE: A SITTING JUDGE BREAKS THE CODE OF SILENCE TO EXPOSE THE LIBERAL JUDICIAl ASSAULT (2006);
  • 12
    • 65149100356 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • EDWIN VIEIRA, HOW TO DETHRONE THE IMPERIAL JUDICIARY (2004);
    • EDWIN VIEIRA, HOW TO DETHRONE THE IMPERIAL JUDICIARY (2004);
  • 13
    • 65149102252 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • JUDICIAL TYRANNY: THE NEW KINGS OF AMERICA (Mark I. Sutherland ed., 2005).
    • JUDICIAL TYRANNY: THE NEW KINGS OF AMERICA (Mark I. Sutherland ed., 2005).
  • 14
    • 65149095615 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • For other recent observations, see Robert F. Nagel, Limiting the Court by Limiting Life Tenure, in REFORMING THE COURT: TERM LIMITS FOR SUPREME COURT JUSTICES 127 (Roger C. Cramton & Paul D. Carrington eds., 2006);
    • For other recent observations, see Robert F. Nagel, Limiting the Court by Limiting Life Tenure, in REFORMING THE COURT: TERM LIMITS FOR SUPREME COURT JUSTICES 127 (Roger C. Cramton & Paul D. Carrington eds., 2006);
  • 16
    • 65149088101 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • For earlier observations, see AMERICAN BAR ASSOCIATION, AN INDEPENDENT JUDICIARY: REPORT OF THE COMMISSION ON SEPARATION OF POWERS AND JUDICIAL INDEPENDENCE, at vii (1997);
    • For earlier observations, see AMERICAN BAR ASSOCIATION, AN INDEPENDENT JUDICIARY: REPORT OF THE COMMISSION ON SEPARATION OF POWERS AND JUDICIAL INDEPENDENCE, at vii (1997);
  • 17
    • 65149083403 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • N. Lee Cooper, President, Am. Bar Ass'n, Remarks at Opening Session of the American Law Institute (May 19, 1997), in THE AMERICAN LAW INSTITUTE, REMARKS AND ADDRESSES 21, 24-28 (1997);
    • N. Lee Cooper, President, Am. Bar Ass'n, Remarks at Opening Session of the American Law Institute (May 19, 1997), in THE AMERICAN LAW INSTITUTE, REMARKS AND ADDRESSES 21, 24-28 (1997);
  • 18
    • 38849144359 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Familiarity Breeds Respect: How Wisconsin Citizens View Their Courts, 82
    • Herbert M. Kritzer & John Voelker, Familiarity Breeds Respect: How Wisconsin Citizens View Their Courts, 82 JUDICATURE 59, 60 (1998).
    • (1998) JUDICATURE , vol.59 , pp. 60
    • Kritzer, H.M.1    Voelker, J.2
  • 19
    • 0347018742 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • But see John M. Scheb II & William Lyons, Public Perception of theSupreme Court in the 1990s, 82 JUDICATURE 66, 66 (1998) (stating that surveys from 1994 and 1997 show that the public has a positive perception of the Court).
    • But see John M. Scheb II & William Lyons, Public Perception of theSupreme Court in the 1990s, 82 JUDICATURE 66, 66 (1998) (stating that surveys from 1994 and 1997 show that the public has a positive perception of the Court).
  • 20
    • 34250181394 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Public Understanding of and Support for the Courts: Survey Results, 95
    • For a recent empirical measurement, see
    • For a recent empirical measurement, see Kathleen Hall Jamieson & Michael Hennessy, Public Understanding of and Support for the Courts: Survey Results, 95 GEO. L.J. 899 (2007).
    • (2007) GEO. L.J , vol.899
    • Hall Jamieson, K.1    Hennessy, M.2
  • 21
    • 65149096737 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Charles Babington, Senator Links Violence to Political Decisions: UnaccountableJudiciary Raises Ire, WASH. POST, Apr. 5, 2005, at A7 (quoting Sen. John Cornyn).
    • Charles Babington, Senator Links Violence to "Political" Decisions: "Unaccountable"Judiciary Raises Ire, WASH. POST, Apr. 5, 2005, at A7 (quoting Sen. John Cornyn).
  • 22
    • 65149095734 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • The extreme referendum proposed to the voters in South Dakota in 2006 would have stripped judges of their immunity from liability for decisions deemed to be incorrect. Bob von Sternberg, Campaign 2006: South Dakota State's Abortion Ban Only One Issue on a Crowded Ballot, STAR TRIB. (Minneapolis), Nov. 1, 2006, at 14A, LexisNexis Academic.
    • The extreme referendum proposed to the voters in South Dakota in 2006 would have stripped judges of their immunity from liability for decisions deemed to be incorrect. Bob von Sternberg, Campaign 2006: South Dakota State's Abortion Ban Only One Issue on a Crowded Ballot, STAR TRIB. (Minneapolis), Nov. 1, 2006, at 14A, LexisNexis Academic.
  • 23
    • 62149101734 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Judicial Independence: The Situation of the U.S. Federal Judiciary, 85
    • See, e.g
    • See, e.g., Ruth Bader Ginsburg, Judicial Independence: The Situation of the U.S. Federal Judiciary, 85 NEB. L. REV. 1, 7-8 (2006);
    • (2006) NEB. L. REV , vol.1 , pp. 7-8
    • Bader Ginsburg, R.1
  • 24
    • 65149086205 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Public Comments by Justices Veer Toward the Political
    • Mar. 19, at
    • Adam Liptak, Public Comments by Justices Veer Toward the Political, N.Y. TIMES, Mar. 19, 2006, at 22.
    • (2006) N.Y. TIMES , pp. 22
    • Liptak, A.1
  • 25
    • 65149095597 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Act of March 21, 2005, Pub. L. No. 109-3, 119 Stat. 15. The ultimate decision was reported in Schiavo ex rel. Schindler v. Schiavo, 404 F.3d 1270 (11th Cir. 2005), and the court quite properly held that Congress was not constitutionally empowered to reverse a judicial decision denying federal jurisdiction over the matter of medical care. Id. at 1280-82.
    • Act of March 21, 2005, Pub. L. No. 109-3, 119 Stat. 15. The ultimate decision was reported in Schiavo ex rel. Schindler v. Schiavo, 404 F.3d 1270 (11th Cir. 2005), and the court quite properly held that Congress was not constitutionally empowered to reverse a judicial decision denying federal jurisdiction over the matter of medical care. Id. at 1280-82.
  • 26
    • 65149086319 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Hartnett suggests that Congress may have been sending the federal courts a message in enacting the Schiavo legislation. See Edward A. Hartnett, Congress Clears Its Throat, 22 CONST
    • Edward A. Hartnett suggests that Congress may have been sending the federal courts a message in enacting the Schiavo legislation. See Edward A. Hartnett, Congress Clears Its Throat, 22 CONST. COMMENT. 553, 584 (2005)
    • (2005) COMMENT , vol.553 , pp. 584
    • Edward, A.1
  • 27
    • 32544435434 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • The Terri Schiavo Case: In Defense of the Special Law Enacted by Congress and President Bush, 100
    • See
    • See Steven G. Calabresi, The Terri Schiavo Case: In Defense of the Special Law Enacted by Congress and President Bush, 100 NW. U. L. REV. 151 (2006).
    • (2006) NW. U. L. REV , vol.151
    • Calabresi, S.G.1
  • 28
    • 34548721635 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • But see George J. Annas, I Want to Live: Medicine Betrayed by Ideology in the Political Debate over Terri Schiavo, 35 STETSON L. REV. 49 (2005);
    • But see George J. Annas, "I Want to Live": Medicine Betrayed by Ideology in the Political Debate over Terri Schiavo, 35 STETSON L. REV. 49 (2005);
  • 29
    • 65149088478 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Collateral Damage: The Aftermath of the Political Culture Wars in Schiavo, 29 W
    • Kathy L. Cerminara, Collateral Damage: The Aftermath of the Political Culture Wars in Schiavo, 29 W. NEW ENG. L. REV. 279 (2007).
    • (2007) NEW ENG. L. REV , vol.279
    • Cerminara, K.L.1
  • 30
    • 65149093026 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Fearing Backlash, Judges Go Public: Nasty Campaigns and the Gay Marriage Ruling Lead to First Forum
    • July 14, at
    • Pamela A. MacLean, Fearing Backlash, Judges Go Public: Nasty Campaigns and the Gay Marriage Ruling Lead to First Forum, NAT'L L.J., July 14, 2008, at 5.
    • (2008) NAT'L L.J , pp. 5
    • MacLean, P.A.1
  • 32
    • 33750269389 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • How to Remove a Federal Judge, 116
    • See, e.g
    • See, e.g., Saikrishna Prakash & Steven D. Smith, How to Remove a Federal Judge, 116 YALE L.J. 72 (2006);
    • (2006) YALE L.J , vol.72
    • Prakash, S.1    Smith, S.D.2
  • 33
    • 38049139280 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • see also James E. Pfander, Removing Federal Judges, 74 U. CHI. L. REV. 1227 (2007) (responding to Prakash and Smith);
    • see also James E. Pfander, Removing Federal Judges, 74 U. CHI. L. REV. 1227 (2007) (responding to Prakash and Smith);
  • 34
    • 33750257014 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Martin H. Redish, Good Behavior, Judicial Independence, and the Foundations of American Constitutionalism, 116 YALE L.J. 139 (2006) (same).
    • Martin H. Redish, Good Behavior, Judicial Independence, and the Foundations of American Constitutionalism, 116 YALE L.J. 139 (2006) (same).
  • 35
    • 65149088211 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • See David Rottman, The State Courts in 2005: A Year of Living Dangerously, 38 THE BOOK OF THE STATES 237 (Keon S. Chi ed., 2006).
    • See David Rottman, The State Courts in 2005: A Year of Living Dangerously, 38 THE BOOK OF THE STATES 237 (Keon S. Chi ed., 2006).
  • 36
    • 65149106158 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • A balanced assessment drawing on empirical work is DAVID M. O'BRIEN, STORM CENTER: THE SUPREME COURT IN AMERICAN POLITICS (7th ed. 2005). A less qualified account is ROBERT E. RIGGS, CORRUPTED BY POWER: THE SUPREME COURT AND THE CONSTITUTION (2004).
    • A balanced assessment drawing on empirical work is DAVID M. O'BRIEN, STORM CENTER: THE SUPREME COURT IN AMERICAN POLITICS (7th ed. 2005). A less qualified account is ROBERT E. RIGGS, CORRUPTED BY POWER: THE SUPREME COURT AND THE CONSTITUTION (2004).
  • 37
    • 33846467857 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Part II
    • See infra Part II.
    • See infra
  • 38
    • 65149100850 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • The idea of discretionary review was first introduced by an 1891 Act. See Judiciary Act of 1891, ch. 517, 26 Stat. 826, 827-28.
    • The idea of discretionary review was first introduced by an 1891 Act. See Judiciary Act of 1891, ch. 517, 26 Stat. 826, 827-28.
  • 39
    • 65149094521 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • This early enactment limited discretionary review to appeals from decisions of the courts of appeals that did not present a constitutional issue, the interpretation of a treaty, an admiralty prize, a serious crime, or a question of federal jurisdiction. Id
    • This early enactment limited discretionary review to appeals from decisions of the courts of appeals that did not present a constitutional issue, the interpretation of a treaty, an admiralty prize, a serious crime, or a question of federal jurisdiction. Id.
  • 40
    • 65149099199 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • These limitations left scant room for discretionary appellate jurisdiction. The discretion was extended by the Judiciary Act of 1916, ch. 448, 39 Stat. 726, and again by the Judiciary Act of 1925, ch. 229, 43 Stat. 936. By these stages, Congress extended appellate discretion to all cases. See 39 Stat. at 727-28; 43 Stat. at 937-39.
    • These limitations left scant room for discretionary appellate jurisdiction. The discretion was extended by the Judiciary Act of 1916, ch. 448, 39 Stat. 726, and again by the Judiciary Act of 1925, ch. 229, 43 Stat. 936. By these stages, Congress extended appellate discretion to all cases. See 39 Stat. at 727-28; 43 Stat. at 937-39.
  • 41
    • 84868917703 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • And so with trivial exceptions, the Court now decides only those cases it chooses to decide, and indeed only those issues raised in those cases that it deems worthy of its attention. See 28 U.S.C. §§ 1251, 1253-54, 1258-59 2006
    • And so with trivial exceptions, the Court now decides only those cases it chooses to decide, and indeed only those issues raised in those cases that it deems worthy of its attention. See 28 U.S.C. §§ 1251, 1253-54, 1258-59 (2006).
  • 42
    • 65149085729 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • On the legislative history of the 1925 Act, see FELIX FRANKFURTER & JAMES M. LANDIS, THE BUSINESS OF THE SUPREME COURT: A STUDY IN THE FEDERAL JUDICIAL SYSTEM 86-102 (Transaction Publishers 2007) (1928);
    • On the legislative history of the 1925 Act, see FELIX FRANKFURTER & JAMES M. LANDIS, THE BUSINESS OF THE SUPREME COURT: A STUDY IN THE FEDERAL JUDICIAL SYSTEM 86-102 (Transaction Publishers 2007) (1928);
  • 43
    • 0347945170 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Questioning Certiorari: Some Reflections Seventy-Five Years After the Judges' Bill, 100
    • Edward A. Hartnett, Questioning Certiorari: Some Reflections Seventy-Five Years After the Judges' Bill, 100 COLUM. L. REV. 1643, 1649-1704 (2000);
    • (2000) COLUM. L. REV , vol.1643 , pp. 1649-1704
    • Hartnett, E.A.1
  • 44
    • 65149105006 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Jonathan Sternberg, Deciding Not to Decide: The Judiciary Act of 1925 and the Discretionary Court, 33J. SUP. CT. HIST. 1 (2008).
    • Jonathan Sternberg, Deciding Not to Decide: The Judiciary Act of 1925 and the Discretionary Court, 33J. SUP. CT. HIST. 1 (2008).
  • 45
    • 65149105266 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Hartnett, supra, also records later revisions expanding the power. Opposition to the idea was forcefully expressed by eminent Senator Thomas J. Walsh (D.-Mont.). See Thomas J. Walsh, The Overburdened Supreme Court, in PROCEEDINGS OF THE THIRTY-THIRD ANNUAL MEETING OF THE VIRGINIA STATE BAR ASSOCIATION 216 passim (John B. Minor ed., 1922).
    • Hartnett, supra, also records later revisions expanding the power. Opposition to the idea was forcefully expressed by eminent Senator Thomas J. Walsh (D.-Mont.). See Thomas J. Walsh, The Overburdened Supreme Court, in PROCEEDINGS OF THE THIRTY-THIRD ANNUAL MEETING OF THE VIRGINIA STATE BAR ASSOCIATION 216 passim (John B. Minor ed., 1922).
  • 46
    • 65149087606 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • On the remnant of mandatory jurisdiction, see Margaret Meriwether Cordray & Richard Cordray, The Supreme Court's Plenary Docket, 58 WASH. & LEE L. REV. 737, 752-53 (2001);
    • On the remnant of mandatory jurisdiction, see Margaret Meriwether Cordray & Richard Cordray, The Supreme Court's Plenary Docket, 58 WASH. & LEE L. REV. 737, 752-53 (2001);
  • 47
    • 65149092788 scopus 로고
    • The Supreme Court Bids Farewell to Mandatory Appeals, 121
    • see also
    • see also Bennett Boskey & Eugene Gressman, The Supreme Court Bids Farewell to Mandatory Appeals, 121 F.R.D. 81, 97 (1989).
    • (1989) F.R.D , vol.81 , pp. 97
    • Boskey, B.1    Gressman, E.2
  • 48
    • 37849041884 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • The Supreme Court 2004 Term - Foreword: A Political Court, 119
    • describing the way in which the Supreme Court is in the process of becoming a political court
    • Richard A. Posner, The Supreme Court 2004 Term - Foreword: A Political Court, 119 HARV. L. REV. 32, 35-39, 60 (2005) (describing the way in which the Supreme Court is in the process of becoming a political court).
    • (2005) HARV. L. REV , vol.32 , Issue.35-39 , pp. 60
    • Posner, R.A.1
  • 49
    • 57649097988 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Heller, 128
    • District of Columbia v
    • District of Columbia v. Heller, 128 S. Ct. 1695 (2008).
    • (2008) S. Ct , vol.1695
  • 50
    • 57649091381 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • In Defense of Looseness: The Supreme Court and Gun Control
    • Aug. 27, at
    • Richard A. Posner, In Defense of Looseness: The Supreme Court and Gun Control, NEW REPUBLIC, Aug. 27, 2008, at 32.
    • (2008) NEW REPUBLIC , pp. 32
    • Posner, R.A.1
  • 51
    • 66249145770 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Of Guns, Abortions, and the Unraveling Rule of Law, 95
    • forthcoming Apr
    • J. Harvie Winkinson III, Of Guns, Abortions, and the Unraveling Rule of Law, 95 VA. L. REV. (forthcoming Apr. 2009).
    • (2009) VA. L. REV
    • Harvie Winkinson III, J.1
  • 52
    • 65149087605 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Clerkish Control of Recent Supreme Court Opinions? A Case Study of Justice Kennedy's Opinion in Gonzales vs. Carhart, 10 GEO. J. GENDER & L
    • For an illustrative analysis of the substantive influence of law clerks in one case, see, forthcoming
    • For an illustrative analysis of the substantive influence of law clerks in one case, see Helen J, Knowles, Clerkish Control of Recent Supreme Court Opinions? A Case Study of Justice Kennedy's Opinion in Gonzales vs. Carhart, 10 GEO. J. GENDER & L. (forthcoming 2009).
    • (2009)
    • Helen, J.1    Knowles2
  • 53
    • 65149094677 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • William H. Rehnquist, Remarks of the Chief Justice at Washington College of Law Centennial Celebration at American University: The Future of the Federal Courts (Apr. 9, 1996) (transcript available at http://supct.law.cornell.edu/ supct/justices/rehnau96.htm) [hereinafter Remarks on the Future of Federal Courts];
    • William H. Rehnquist, Remarks of the Chief Justice at Washington College of Law Centennial Celebration at American University: The Future of the Federal Courts (Apr. 9, 1996) (transcript available at http://supct.law.cornell.edu/ supct/justices/rehnau96.htm) [hereinafter Remarks on the Future of Federal Courts];
  • 54
    • 65149085727 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • cf. William H. Rehnquist, The Notion of A Living Constitution, 54 TEX. L. REV. 693, 698 (1976) (stating that if the authority to declare laws unconstitutional is not stricdy tied to the language of the Constitution, judges would be a a small group of fortunately situated people with a roving commission to second-guess Congress).
    • cf. William H. Rehnquist, The Notion of A Living Constitution, 54 TEX. L. REV. 693, 698 (1976) (stating that if the authority to declare laws unconstitutional is not stricdy tied to the language of the Constitution, judges would be a "a small group of fortunately situated people with a roving commission to second-guess Congress").
  • 55
    • 65149101258 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • The present authors have elsewhere advanced, or will advance, two other proposals to reform the Supreme Court to moderate the supremacy of Justices without impairing their independence. One would limit them to long terms in office. See Paul D. Carrington & Roger C. Cramton, The Supreme Court Renewal Act: A Return to Basic Principles, in REFORMING THE COURT: TERM LIMITS FOR SUPREME COURTS JUSTICES, supra note 5, at 467.
    • The present authors have elsewhere advanced, or will advance, two other proposals to reform the Supreme Court to moderate the supremacy of Justices without impairing their independence. One would limit them to long terms in office. See Paul D. Carrington & Roger C. Cramton, The Supreme Court Renewal Act: A Return to Basic Principles, in REFORMING THE COURT: TERM LIMITS FOR SUPREME COURTS JUSTICES, supra note 5, at 467.
  • 56
    • 65149103538 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • An eminent group of law professors, bar leaders, and former chief justices of state supreme courts who approved the scheme in principle is listed in Paul D. Carrington & Roger C. Cramton, Reforming the Supreme Court: An Introduction to REFORMING THE COURT: TERM LIMITS FOR SUPREME COURTS JUSTICES, supra note 5, at 3, 5-7
    • An eminent group of law professors, bar leaders, and former chief justices of state supreme courts who approved the scheme "in principle" is listed in Paul D. Carrington & Roger C. Cramton, Reforming the Supreme Court: An Introduction to REFORMING THE COURT: TERM LIMITS FOR SUPREME COURTS JUSTICES, supra note 5, at 3, 5-7.
  • 57
    • 65149105503 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • The second would extend to Supreme Court Justices the system of accountability for breaches of professional responsibility that is imposed on all odier Article III judges. See Paul D. Carrington & Roger C. Cramton, Original Sin and Judicial Independence: Providing Accountability for Justices, 50 WM. & MARY L. REV, forthcoming Mar. 2009, available at http://ssrn.com/abstract=1099397. Our three proposals are not interdependent and are not here presented together for consideration as a new judiciary act. But if Congress adopted all three proposals, it would not have in the least impaired the independence of the Justices in their judicial role of deciding contested cases; Congress would have instead fulfilled its duty to provide checks and balances
    • The second would extend to Supreme Court Justices the system of accountability for breaches of professional responsibility that is imposed on all odier Article III judges. See Paul D. Carrington & Roger C. Cramton, Original Sin and Judicial Independence: Providing Accountability for Justices, 50 WM. & MARY L. REV. (forthcoming Mar. 2009), available at http://ssrn.com/abstract=1099397. Our three proposals are not interdependent and are not here presented together for consideration as a new judiciary act. But if Congress adopted all three proposals, it would not have in the least impaired the independence of the Justices in their judicial role of deciding contested cases; Congress would have instead fulfilled its duty to provide "checks and balances."
  • 58
    • 65149092778 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • On the independent importance of that aim, see Nagel, supra note 5, passim;
    • On the independent importance of that aim, see Nagel, supra note 5, passim;
  • 59
    • 84899373059 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • A Court Too Supreme for Our Good
    • Aug. 7, at
    • Robert F. Bauer, A Court Too Supreme for Our Good, WASH. POST., Aug. 7, 2005, at B3.
    • (2005) WASH. POST
    • Bauer, R.F.1
  • 60
    • 65149083871 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Act of Mar. 3, 1891, ch. 517, 26 Stat. 826;
    • Act of Mar. 3, 1891, ch. 517, 26 Stat. 826;
  • 61
    • 43449108442 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • see, note 17, at, explaining the story behind the enactment
    • see FRANKFURTER & LANDIS, supra note 17, at 220-94 (explaining the story behind the enactment).
    • supra , pp. 220-294
    • FRANKFURTER1    LANDIS2
  • 62
    • 65149103523 scopus 로고
    • 21
    • 21 CONG. REC. 3404 (1890).
    • (1890) , vol.3404
    • REC, C.1
  • 63
    • 65149086320 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • See 26 Stat. at 826-30.
    • See 26 Stat. at 826-30.
  • 64
    • 65149097454 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • FRANKFURTER & LANDIS, supra note 17, at 107 (It is enough if the designers of new judicial machinery meet the chief needs of their generation.).
    • FRANKFURTER & LANDIS, supra note 17, at 107 ("It is enough if the designers of new judicial machinery meet the chief needs of their generation.").
  • 65
    • 65149103119 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • See id. at 220-94
    • See id. at 220-94.
  • 66
    • 65149095850 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Court Is the Ascendant Branch, for Now, NAT'L L.J., Aug. 6, 2001, at C7 (quoting ex-Solicitor General Seth Waxman).
    • Court Is the "Ascendant" Branch, for Now, NAT'L L.J., Aug. 6, 2001, at C7 (quoting ex-Solicitor General Seth Waxman).
  • 67
    • 65149092885 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • AM. BAR FOUND., ACCOMMODATING THE WORKLOAD OF THE UNITED STATES COURTS OF APPEALS (1968) (Carrington served as director of this study);
    • AM. BAR FOUND., ACCOMMODATING THE WORKLOAD OF THE UNITED STATES COURTS OF APPEALS (1968) (Carrington served as director of this study);
  • 68
    • 65149096247 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Comm'n on Revision of the Fed. Court Appellate Sys., Structure and Internal Procedures: Recommendations for Change, 67 F.R.D. 195, 204-08 (1975) (Cramton was a member of this Commission);
    • Comm'n on Revision of the Fed. Court Appellate Sys., Structure and Internal Procedures: Recommendations for Change, 67 F.R.D. 195, 204-08 (1975) (Cramton was a member of this Commission);
  • 69
    • 65149094007 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Study Group on the Caseload of the Supreme Court, Report, 57 F.R.D. 573, 577-84 (1972) (prepared for the Federal Judicial Center);
    • Study Group on the Caseload of the Supreme Court, Report, 57 F.R.D. 573, 577-84 (1972) (prepared for the Federal Judicial Center);
  • 70
    • 65149093510 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • see also FED. JUDICIAL CTR., STRUCTURAL AND OTHER ALTERNATIVES FOR THE FEDERAL COURTS OF APPEALS (1993);
    • see also FED. JUDICIAL CTR., STRUCTURAL AND OTHER ALTERNATIVES FOR THE FEDERAL COURTS OF APPEALS (1993);
  • 71
    • 65149097220 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Comm'n on Structural Alternatives for the Fed. Courts of Appeals, Final Report (1998), available at http://www.library.unt.edu/gpo/ csafca/final/appstruc.pdf (discussing the ways in which courts of appeals can adapt to transform in this new environment). Our three proposals are less dramatic than any of those five earlier proposals, each of which had the unanimous support of eminent groups that included presidents of the American Bar Association, distinguished scholars, federal judges, a chair of the Senate Judiciary Committee, and a former Supreme Court Justice. Despite this support, none of their proposals for reform have gained the serious attention of Congress.
    • Comm'n on Structural Alternatives for the Fed. Courts of Appeals, Final Report (1998), available at http://www.library.unt.edu/gpo/ csafca/final/appstruc.pdf (discussing the ways in which courts of appeals can adapt to transform in this new environment). Our three proposals are less dramatic than any of those five earlier proposals, each of which had the unanimous support of eminent groups that included presidents of the American Bar Association, distinguished scholars, federal judges, a chair of the Senate Judiciary Committee, and a former Supreme Court Justice. Despite this support, none of their proposals for reform have gained the serious attention of Congress.
  • 72
    • 65149096861 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • ALFRED LORD TENNYSON, Aylmer's Field, (1793), in THE POETIC AND DRAMATIC WORKS OF ALFRED LORD TENNYSON 240, 246 (Houghton Mifflin 1898) (see lines 435-37 specifically).
    • ALFRED LORD TENNYSON, Aylmer's Field, (1793), in THE POETIC AND DRAMATIC WORKS OF ALFRED LORD TENNYSON 240, 246 (Houghton Mifflin 1898) (see lines 435-37 specifically).
  • 73
    • 65149106289 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • See MODEL CODE OF JUDICIAL CONDUCT Canon 1 (2007), available at http://www.abanet.org/ judicialethics/ABA-MCJC-approved.pdf (A judge shall uphold and promote the independence, integrity, and impartiality of the judiciary, and shall avoid impropriety and the appearance of impropriety.).
    • See MODEL CODE OF JUDICIAL CONDUCT Canon 1 (2007), available at http://www.abanet.org/ judicialethics/ABA-MCJC-approved.pdf ("A judge shall uphold and promote the independence, integrity, and impartiality of the judiciary, and shall avoid impropriety and the appearance of impropriety.").
  • 74
    • 84902921313 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • See ROBERT A. DAHL, HOW DEMOCRATIC IS THE AMERICAN CONSTITUTION? 152-54 (2d ed. 2003) (arguing that when a court deals with issues of fundamental rights, its actions carries legitimacy with it, but if it moves outside of this realm its actions become more dubious);
    • See ROBERT A. DAHL, HOW DEMOCRATIC IS THE AMERICAN CONSTITUTION? 152-54 (2d ed. 2003) (arguing that when a court deals with issues of fundamental rights, its actions carries legitimacy with it, but if it moves outside of this realm its actions become more dubious);
  • 75
    • 65149087706 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • SANFORD LEVINSON, OUR UNDEMOCRATIC CONSTITUTION 123-39 (2006).
    • SANFORD LEVINSON, OUR UNDEMOCRATIC CONSTITUTION 123-39 (2006).
  • 76
    • 65149095722 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • For a highly partisan expression of substantive grievances against the Court, see THE MOST DANGEROUS BRANCH: THE JUDICIAL ASSAULT ON AMERICAN CULTURE (Edward B. McLean ed., 2008).
    • For a highly partisan expression of substantive grievances against the Court, see THE MOST DANGEROUS BRANCH: THE JUDICIAL ASSAULT ON AMERICAN CULTURE (Edward B. McLean ed., 2008).
  • 77
    • 65149092649 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • One pamphlet protested: There is no power above them, to controul any of their decisions. There is no authority that can remove them, and they cannot be controuled by the laws of the legislature. In short, they are independent of the people, of the legislature, and of every power under heaven. Essays of Brutus No. XV, Mar. 20, 1788, in 2 THE COMPLETE ANTI-FEDERALIST 437, 438 (Herbert J. Storing ed., 1981).
    • One pamphlet protested: "There is no power above them, to controul any of their decisions. There is no authority that can remove them, and they cannot be controuled by the laws of the legislature. In short, they are independent of the people, of the legislature, and of every power under heaven." Essays of Brutus No. XV, Mar. 20, 1788, in 2 THE COMPLETE ANTI-FEDERALIST 437, 438 (Herbert J. Storing ed., 1981).
  • 78
    • 65149088702 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • See generally DANIEL J. BOORSTIN, THE MYSTERIOUS SCIENCE OF THE LAW 52-53 (1941) (arguing that there was little law for judges to make because of the existence of a natural law that a person could follow simply by following his self-interest).
    • See generally DANIEL J. BOORSTIN, THE MYSTERIOUS SCIENCE OF THE LAW 52-53 (1941) (arguing that there was little law for judges to make because of the existence of a natural law that a person could follow simply by following his self-interest).
  • 79
    • 65149091453 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • The common law doctrine of precedent was thus addressed to judges as users rather than as makers of law. As Edmund Burke explained: We ought to understand [the law] according to our measure; and to venerate where we are not able presently to comprehend. EDMUND BURKE, AN APPEAL FROM THE NEW TO THE OLD WHIGS 116 London, Pall-Mall, 2d ed. 1791
    • The common law doctrine of precedent was thus addressed to judges as users rather than as makers of law. As Edmund Burke explained: "We ought to understand [the law] according to our measure; and to venerate where we are not able presently to comprehend." EDMUND BURKE, AN APPEAL FROM THE NEW TO THE OLD WHIGS 116 (London, Pall-Mall, 2d ed. 1791).
  • 80
    • 65149084486 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • THE FEDERALIST No. 78, at 465 (Alexander Hamilton) (Clinton Rossiter ed., 1961) (stating that the judiciary is beyond comparison the weakest of the three departments of power);
    • THE FEDERALIST No. 78, at 465 (Alexander Hamilton) (Clinton Rossiter ed., 1961) (stating that "the judiciary is beyond comparison the weakest of the three departments of power");
  • 81
    • 65149092171 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • see also ALEXANDER M. BICKEL, THE LEAST DANGEROUS BRANCH: THE SUPREME COURT AT THE BAR OF POLITICS 1 (1962) (arguing that the supposed least dangerous branch is in fact the most extraordinarily powerful court of law the world has ever known). Montesquieu put it most strongly: Of the three powers above-mentioned, the judiciary is in some measure next to nodiing. MONTESQUIEU, 1 THE SPIRIT OF LAWS 221 (Thomas Nugent trans., London, J. Nourse & P. Vaillant, 3d ed. 1758).
    • see also ALEXANDER M. BICKEL, THE LEAST DANGEROUS BRANCH: THE SUPREME COURT AT THE BAR OF POLITICS 1 (1962) (arguing that the supposed "least dangerous branch" is in fact "the most extraordinarily powerful court of law the world has ever known"). Montesquieu put it most strongly: "Of the three powers above-mentioned, the judiciary is in some measure next to nodiing." MONTESQUIEU, 1 THE SPIRIT OF LAWS 221 (Thomas Nugent trans., London, J. Nourse & P. Vaillant, 3d ed. 1758).
  • 82
    • 65149096593 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • A Supreme Court opinion first appeared in Talbot v. Seeman, 5 U.S. (1 Cranch) 1 (1801).
    • A Supreme Court opinion first appeared in Talbot v. Seeman, 5 U.S. (1 Cranch) 1 (1801).
  • 83
    • 65149083392 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • See generally GEORGE LEE HASKINS & HERBERT A. JOHNSON, FOUNDATIONS OF POWER: JOHN MARSHALL, 1801-15, in 2 THE OUVER WENDELL HOLMES DEVISE: HISTORY OF THE SUPREME COURT OF THE UNITED STATES 207-45 (Paul E. Freund ed., 1981) (explaining the political situation surrounding the federal judiciary during the time John Marshall was appointed Chief Justice).
    • See generally GEORGE LEE HASKINS & HERBERT A. JOHNSON, FOUNDATIONS OF POWER: JOHN MARSHALL, 1801-15, in 2 THE OUVER WENDELL HOLMES DEVISE: HISTORY OF THE SUPREME COURT OF THE UNITED STATES 207-45 (Paul E. Freund ed., 1981) (explaining the political situation surrounding the federal judiciary during the time John Marshall was appointed Chief Justice).
  • 84
    • 65149092531 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • The device had been in use in the highest court in the Commonwealth of Virginia for about a decade, but no other state or federal court employed it before 1801. The idea was derived from the practice of the Privy Council mat had long advised the King on the propriety of the decisions of the colonial judges that the parties asked him to correct. See generally John P. Dawson, The Privy Council and Private Law in the Tudor and Stewart Periods: I, 48 MICH. L. REV. 393 (1950).
    • The device had been in use in the highest court in the Commonwealth of Virginia for about a decade, but no other state or federal court employed it before 1801. The idea was derived from the practice of the Privy Council mat had long advised the King on the propriety of the decisions of the colonial judges that the parties asked him to correct. See generally John P. Dawson, The Privy Council and Private Law in the Tudor and Stewart Periods: I, 48 MICH. L. REV. 393 (1950).
  • 85
    • 65149087369 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Official reporters of judicial decisions were in place in most American jurisdictions in 1815, decades before such a function was known to England. An official reporter was not appointed in England until 1865. See CARLETON KEMP ALLEN, LAW IN THE MAKING 207-08 (7th ed. 1964);
    • Official reporters of judicial decisions were in place in most American jurisdictions in 1815, decades before such a function was known to England. An official reporter was not appointed in England until 1865. See CARLETON KEMP ALLEN, LAW IN THE MAKING 207-08 (7th ed. 1964);
  • 86
    • 65149106168 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • JOHN P. DAWSON, THE ORACLES OF THE LAW 82-83 (1968);
    • JOHN P. DAWSON, THE ORACLES OF THE LAW 82-83 (1968);
  • 87
    • 65149103011 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • see also J.H. Baker, Records, Reports and the Origins of Case-Law in England, in JUDICIAL RECORDS, LAW REPORTS, AND THE GROWTH OF CASE LAW 15, 15-16 (John H. Baker ed., 1989).
    • see also J.H. Baker, Records, Reports and the Origins of Case-Law in England, in JUDICIAL RECORDS, LAW REPORTS, AND THE GROWTH OF CASE LAW 15, 15-16 (John H. Baker ed., 1989).
  • 88
    • 65149104364 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • French case law was made regularly accessible by private reporters in the 1830s. See DAWSON, supra, at 402. Regular annual reports commenced in Prussia in 1847.
    • French case law was made regularly accessible by private reporters in the 1830s. See DAWSON, supra, at 402. Regular annual reports commenced in Prussia in 1847.
  • 89
    • 65149094539 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • See id. at 438.
    • See id. at 438.
  • 90
    • 65149095072 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • See U.S. CONST. art. V; Thomas E. Baker, Exercising the Amendment Power to Disapprove of Supreme Court Decisions: A Proposal for a Republican Veto ,22 HASTINGS CONST. L.Q. 325 (1995) (Thirty-four Senators, or 146 Representatives, or any combination of thirteen state legislative chambers can defeat a 'republican veto,' [a type of amendment to disapprove a Supreme Court decision] for good, bad, or no reason at all.).
    • See U.S. CONST. art. V; Thomas E. Baker, Exercising the Amendment Power to Disapprove of Supreme Court Decisions: A Proposal for a "Republican Veto ",22 HASTINGS CONST. L.Q. 325 (1995) ("Thirty-four Senators, or 146 Representatives, or any combination of thirteen state legislative chambers can defeat a 'republican veto,' [a type of amendment to disapprove a Supreme Court decision] for good, bad, or no reason at all.").
  • 91
    • 65149095452 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • See JOHN TAYLOR, CONSTRUCTION CONSTRUED, AND CONSTITUTIONS VINDICATED 194-96 (Richmond, Va., Shepherd & Pollard 1820) (advocating strict adherence to the constitution and avoidance of fluctuating precedents);
    • See JOHN TAYLOR, CONSTRUCTION CONSTRUED, AND CONSTITUTIONS VINDICATED 194-96 (Richmond, Va., Shepherd & Pollard 1820) (advocating strict adherence to the constitution and avoidance of "fluctuating precedents");
  • 92
    • 65149093509 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Letter from Thomas Jefferson to William Johnson (Oct. 27, 1822), in 10 THE WRITINGS OF THOMAS JEFFERSON: 1816-1826, at 222, 223-25 (Paul Leicester Ford ed., New York, G.P. Putnam's Sons 1899) (bemoaning that the Court had begun to issue a single unanimous opinion, instead of allowing each member of the Court to write his own opinion and provide his own reasons for that decision).
    • Letter from Thomas Jefferson to William Johnson (Oct. 27, 1822), in 10 THE WRITINGS OF THOMAS JEFFERSON: 1816-1826, at 222, 223-25 (Paul Leicester Ford ed., New York, G.P. Putnam's Sons 1899) (bemoaning that the Court had begun to issue a single unanimous opinion, instead of allowing each member of the Court to write his own opinion and provide his own reasons for that decision).
  • 93
    • 65149090752 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • But see Letter from James Madison to Thomas Jefferson (Jan. 15, 1823), in 3 LETTERS AND OTHER WRITINGS OF JAMES MADISON 1816-1828, at 291 (Philadelphia, J.B. Lippincott & Co. 1867).
    • But see Letter from James Madison to Thomas Jefferson (Jan. 15, 1823), in 3 LETTERS AND OTHER WRITINGS OF JAMES MADISON 1816-1828, at 291 (Philadelphia, J.B. Lippincott & Co. 1867).
  • 94
    • 65149102614 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • 5 U.S. (1 Cranch) 137 (1803).
    • 5 U.S. (1 Cranch) 137 (1803).
  • 95
    • 65149092650 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Id. at 176-78
    • Id. at 176-78.
  • 96
    • 65149099818 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • arguing that [i]f Marshall had wanted to embarrass Jefferson, or if he had shared the partisan Federalist view, he could have used his power on the Court to do so, but he declined to venture into the political fray, On Marshall's exercise of self-restraint, see
    • On Marshall's exercise of self-restraint, see JEAN EDWARD SMITH, JOHN MARSHALL: DEFINER OF A NATION 296-308 (1996) (arguing that "[i]f Marshall had wanted to embarrass Jefferson, or if he had shared the partisan Federalist view," he could have used his power on the Court to do so, but he declined to venture into the political fray).
    • (1996) NATION , vol.296-308
    • EDWARD SMITH, J.1    MARSHALL, J.2    A, D.O.F.3
  • 97
    • 65149099204 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • See Marbury, 5 U.S. at 169-70 (The province of the court is, solely, to decide on the rights of individuals, not to enquire how the executive, or executive officers, perform duties in which they have a discretion.);
    • See Marbury, 5 U.S. at 169-70 ("The province of the court is, solely, to decide on the rights of individuals, not to enquire how the executive, or executive officers, perform duties in which they have a discretion.");
  • 98
    • 65149085832 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • see also id. at 144 (allowing Mr. Levi Lincoln, Attorney General for President Jefferson, time to consider how to answer certain questions in light of his duty to the Executive and to the Court, so as to avoid confrontation between the political branches).
    • see also id. at 144 (allowing Mr. Levi Lincoln, Attorney General for President Jefferson, time to consider how to answer certain questions in light of his duty to the Executive and to the Court, so as to avoid confrontation between the political branches).
  • 99
    • 65149096106 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • See Remarks on the Future of Federal Courts, supra note 23
    • See Remarks on the Future of Federal Courts, supra note 23.
  • 100
    • 84886336150 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • note 17 and accompanying text
    • See supra note 17 and accompanying text.
    • See supra
  • 101
    • 84868917699 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Congress took the last step in extending the 1925 empowerment in 1988. See Act of June 27, 1988, Pub. L. No. 100-352, §§ 1, 2(c, 5(a, 102 Stat. 662, 662-63 codified as amended in scattered sections of 28 U.S.C
    • Congress took the last step in extending the 1925 empowerment in 1988. See Act of June 27, 1988, Pub. L. No. 100-352, §§ 1, 2(c), 5(a), 102 Stat. 662, 662-63 (codified as amended in scattered sections of 28 U.S.C.).
  • 102
    • 65149094258 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • See Comm'n on Structural Alternatives for the Fed. Courts of Appeals, supra note 32, at 12 finding that the courts of appeals have become the only federal error-correcting courts and the federal appellate courts of last resort
    • See Comm'n on Structural Alternatives for the Fed. Courts of Appeals, supra note 32, at 12 (finding that "the courts of appeals have become the only federal error-correcting courts" and the "federal appellate courts of last resort").
  • 103
    • 65149094132 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • For example, a Federalist legislature in New Hampshire in 1813 expelled two of the three judges, for insufficient cause, from the state's superior court of judicature when it reconstructed the court as the supreme judicial court. EDWIN D. SANBORN, HISTORY OF NEW HAMPSHIRE: FROM ITS FIRST DISCOVERY TO THE YEAR 1830, at 261-62 (Manchester, N.H., John B. Clarke 1875).
    • For example, a Federalist legislature in New Hampshire in 1813 expelled two of the three judges, for insufficient cause, from the state's superior court of judicature when it reconstructed the court as the supreme judicial court. EDWIN D. SANBORN, HISTORY OF NEW HAMPSHIRE: FROM ITS FIRST DISCOVERY TO THE YEAR 1830, at 261-62 (Manchester, N.H., John B. Clarke 1875).
  • 104
    • 65149085323 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • The Democratic legislature elected in Kentucky in 1824 fired all members of their highest court, all of whom were Whigs, and replaced them as punishment for decisions that had an unwelcome impact on tenants and debtors. ARNDT M. STICKLES, THE CRITICAL COURT STRUGGLE IN KENTUCKY, 1819-1829, at 43-64 (1929).
    • The Democratic legislature elected in Kentucky in 1824 fired all members of their highest court, all of whom were Whigs, and replaced them as punishment for decisions that had an unwelcome impact on tenants and debtors. ARNDT M. STICKLES, THE CRITICAL COURT STRUGGLE IN KENTUCKY, 1819-1829, at 43-64 (1929).
  • 105
    • 65149101625 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • For a review of issues and literature in later times, see Paul D. Carrington, Judicial Independence and Democratic Accountability in Highest State Courts, LAW & CONTEMP. PROBS., Summer 1998, at 79, 87-99.
    • For a review of issues and literature in later times, see Paul D. Carrington, Judicial Independence and Democratic Accountability in Highest State Courts, LAW & CONTEMP. PROBS., Summer 1998, at 79, 87-99.
  • 106
    • 36048952572 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Legal Realism as Theory of Law, 46
    • defending the realist theory of law to show that, although it can be criticized, it is also plausibly correct, For a recent account of legal realism, see
    • For a recent account of legal realism, see Michael Steven Green, Legal Realism as Theory of Law, 46 WM. & MARY L. REV. 1915, 1918 (2005) (defending the realist theory of law to show that, although it can be criticized, it is also plausibly correct).
    • (2005) WM. & MARY L. REV. 1915 , pp. 1918
    • Steven Green, M.1
  • 107
    • 65149094913 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • See FREDERICK GRIMKE, THE NATURE AND TENDENCY OF FREE INSTITUTIONS 438 (John William Ward ed., Harv. Univ. Press 1968) (1848) (The judiciary does not deal so direcdy nor so frequendy with political questions as do the other departments. But it does sometimes deal with them, and that too definitively ....).
    • See FREDERICK GRIMKE, THE NATURE AND TENDENCY OF FREE INSTITUTIONS 438 (John William Ward ed., Harv. Univ. Press 1968) (1848) ("The judiciary does not deal so direcdy nor so frequendy with political questions as do the other departments. But it does sometimes deal with them, and that too definitively ....").
  • 108
    • 65149083614 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Id. at 438-39
    • Id. at 438-39.
  • 109
    • 65149084719 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Id. at 452
    • Id. at 452.
  • 110
    • 65149089109 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • See id. at 448, 448-62 (An election for a term of years may be necessary to enable the mind of the judge to keep pace with the general progress of knowledge and more especially to make him acquainted with the diversified working of the institutions under which he lives ....);
    • See id. at 448, 448-62 ("An election for a term of years may be necessary to enable the mind of the judge to keep pace with the general progress of knowledge and more especially to make him acquainted with the diversified working of the institutions under which he lives ....");
  • 111
    • 65149106424 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • see also Caleb Nelson, A Re-Evaluation of Scholarly Explanations for the Rise of the Elective Judiciary in Antebellum America, 37 AM. J. LEGAL HIST. 190, 217-19 (1993).
    • see also Caleb Nelson, A Re-Evaluation of Scholarly Explanations for the Rise of the Elective Judiciary in Antebellum America, 37 AM. J. LEGAL HIST. 190, 217-19 (1993).
  • 112
    • 65149092432 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • For accounts of elected judges, see Kermit L. Hall, Constitutional Machinery and Judicial Professionalism: The Careers of Midwestern State Appellate Court Judges, 1861-1899, in THE NEW HIGH PRIESTS: LAWYERS IN POST-CIVIL WAR AMERICA 29 passim (Gerard W. Gawalt ed., 1984);
    • For accounts of elected judges, see Kermit L. Hall, Constitutional Machinery and Judicial Professionalism: The Careers of Midwestern State Appellate Court Judges, 1861-1899, in THE NEW HIGH PRIESTS: LAWYERS IN POST-CIVIL WAR AMERICA 29 passim (Gerard W. Gawalt ed., 1984);
  • 113
    • 65149104573 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Kermit L. Hall, The Route to Hell Retraced: The Impact of Popular Election on the Southern Appellate Judiciary, 1832-1920, in AMBIVALENT LEGACY: A LEGAL HISTORY OF THE SOUTH 229 passim (David J. Bodenhamer & James W. Ely, Jr. eds., 1984).
    • Kermit L. Hall, The "Route to Hell" Retraced: The Impact of Popular Election on the Southern Appellate Judiciary, 1832-1920, in AMBIVALENT LEGACY: A LEGAL HISTORY OF THE SOUTH 229 passim (David J. Bodenhamer & James W. Ely, Jr. eds., 1984).
  • 115
    • 65149084142 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • See id. at 230.
    • See id. at 230.
  • 116
    • 65149085726 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Id. at 284
    • Id. at 284.
  • 117
    • 65149095988 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • See Worcester v. Georgia, 31 U.S. (6 Pet.) 515, 560-63 (1832);
    • See Worcester v. Georgia, 31 U.S. (6 Pet.) 515, 560-63 (1832);
  • 118
    • 65149086338 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • JILL NORGREN, THE CHEROKEE CASES: THE CONFRONTATION OF LAW AND POLITICS 117-22 (1996).
    • JILL NORGREN, THE CHEROKEE CASES: THE CONFRONTATION OF LAW AND POLITICS 117-22 (1996).
  • 119
    • 65149090242 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • For an account, see Edwin A. Miles, After John Marshall's Decision: Worcester v. Georgia and the Nullification Crisis, 39 J. S. HIST. 519 (1973).
    • For an account, see Edwin A. Miles, After John Marshall's Decision: Worcester v. Georgia and the Nullification Crisis, 39 J. S. HIST. 519 (1973).
  • 120
    • 65149093360 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • See Swift v. Tyson, 41 U.S. (16 Pet.) 1, 8-9 (1842), overruled by Erie R.R. Co. v. Tompkins, 304 U.S. 64 (1938).
    • See Swift v. Tyson, 41 U.S. (16 Pet.) 1, 8-9 (1842), overruled by Erie R.R. Co. v. Tompkins, 304 U.S. 64 (1938).
  • 121
    • 65149097923 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Erie held in part that by applying the doctrine from Swift this Court and the lower courts have invaded rights which in our opinion are reserved by the Constitution to the several states. 304 U.S. at 80.
    • Erie held in part that by applying the doctrine from Swift "this Court and the lower courts have invaded rights which in our opinion are reserved by the Constitution to the several states." 304 U.S. at 80.
  • 122
    • 65149098824 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Luther v. Borden, 48 U.S. (7 How.) 1, 32 (1849).
    • Luther v. Borden, 48 U.S. (7 How.) 1, 32 (1849).
  • 123
    • 65149099328 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Scott v. Sandford, 60 U.S. (19 How.) 393, 396-97 (1857).
    • Scott v. Sandford, 60 U.S. (19 How.) 393, 396-97 (1857).
  • 124
    • 65149096000 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • President Buchanan and leading Senators encouraged the Scott decision. On its subsequent history, see 3 MARTIN SIEGEL, THE SUPREME COURT IN AMERICAN LIFE: THE TANEY COURT, 1836-1864, at 66-68 (1987);
    • President Buchanan and leading Senators encouraged the Scott decision. On its subsequent history, see 3 MARTIN SIEGEL, THE SUPREME COURT IN AMERICAN LIFE: THE TANEY COURT, 1836-1864, at 66-68 (1987);
  • 125
    • 65149083275 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • see also DON E. FEHRENBACHER, THE DRED SCOTT CASE: ITS SIGNIFICANCE IN AMERICAN LAW AND POIJTICS 307-14 (1978).
    • see also DON E. FEHRENBACHER, THE DRED SCOTT CASE: ITS SIGNIFICANCE IN AMERICAN LAW AND POIJTICS 307-14 (1978).
  • 126
    • 65149087484 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • On Lincoln's appointment of Stephen Field, see PAUL KENS, JUSTICE STEPHEN FIELD: SHAPING LIBERTY FROM THE GOLD RUSH TO THE GILDED AGE 95-97 (1997).
    • On Lincoln's appointment of Stephen Field, see PAUL KENS, JUSTICE STEPHEN FIELD: SHAPING LIBERTY FROM THE GOLD RUSH TO THE GILDED AGE 95-97 (1997).
  • 127
    • 65149094259 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • See Ex parte Milligan, 71 U.S. (4 Wall.) 2, 134 (1866).
    • See Ex parte Milligan, 71 U.S. (4 Wall.) 2, 134 (1866).
  • 128
    • 65149088823 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • The President's action was ratified by Congress. See Act of Mar. 3, 1863, ch. 81,12 Stat. 755.
    • The President's action was ratified by Congress. See Act of Mar. 3, 1863, ch. 81,12 Stat. 755.
  • 129
    • 65149105770 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • His message is recorded in 6 A COMPILATION OF THE MESSAGES AND PAPERS OF THE PRESIDENTS: 1789-1908, at 19 (James D. Richardson ed., Wash., D.C., Bureau of Nat'l Literature & Art 1908).
    • His message is recorded in 6 A COMPILATION OF THE MESSAGES AND PAPERS OF THE PRESIDENTS: 1789-1908, at 19 (James D. Richardson ed., Wash., D.C., Bureau of Nat'l Literature & Art 1908).
  • 130
    • 65149093899 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • See Ex parte McCardle, 74 U.S. (7 Wall.) 506, 515, 518 (1868).
    • See Ex parte McCardle, 74 U.S. (7 Wall.) 506, 515, 518 (1868).
  • 131
    • 65149088954 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • See Pollock v. Farmers' Loan & Trust Co., 157 U.S. 429, 601 (1895), vacated 158 U.S. 601 (1895).
    • See Pollock v. Farmers' Loan & Trust Co., 157 U.S. 429, 601 (1895), vacated 158 U.S. 601 (1895).
  • 132
    • 65149088824 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • See ROBERT STANLEY, DIMENSIONS OF LAW IN THE SERVICE OF ORDER: ORIGINS OF THE FEDERAL INCOME TAX, 1861-1913, at 225-29 (1993).
    • See ROBERT STANLEY, DIMENSIONS OF LAW IN THE SERVICE OF ORDER: ORIGINS OF THE FEDERAL INCOME TAX, 1861-1913, at 225-29 (1993).
  • 133
    • 65149095723 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • THOMAS M. COOLEY, A TREATISE ON THE CONSTITUTIONAL LIMITATIONS WHICH REST UPON THE LEGISLATIVE POWER OF THE STATES OF THE AMERICAN UNION (Walter Carrington ed., Boston, Little, Brown & Co., 8th ed. 1927) (1868).
    • THOMAS M. COOLEY, A TREATISE ON THE CONSTITUTIONAL LIMITATIONS WHICH REST UPON THE LEGISLATIVE POWER OF THE STATES OF THE AMERICAN UNION (Walter Carrington ed., Boston, Little, Brown & Co., 8th ed. 1927) (1868).
  • 134
    • 65149093119 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Tr. of Dartmouth Coll. v. Woodward, 17 U.S. (4 Wheat.) 518, 596-601 (1819). Cooley's criticism of this case appears in his treatise, 1 COOLEY, supra note 70, at 554-601.
    • Tr. of Dartmouth Coll. v. Woodward, 17 U.S. (4 Wheat.) 518, 596-601 (1819). Cooley's criticism of this case appears in his treatise, 1 COOLEY, supra note 70, at 554-601.
  • 135
    • 0000351211 scopus 로고
    • The Origin and Scope of the American Doctrine of Constitutional Law, 7
    • James B. Thayer, The Origin and Scope of the American Doctrine of Constitutional Law, 7 HARV. L. REV. 129, 135 (1893);
    • (1893) HARV. L. REV , vol.129 , pp. 135
    • Thayer, J.B.1
  • 136
    • 65149094525 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • see James B. Thayer, Professor Thayer's Address, in JOHN MARSHALL: THE TRIBUTE OF MASSACHUSETTS 25, 68 (Marquis F. Dickinson ed., 1901).
    • see James B. Thayer, Professor Thayer's Address, in JOHN MARSHALL: THE TRIBUTE OF MASSACHUSETTS 25, 68 (Marquis F. Dickinson ed., 1901).
  • 137
    • 65149103765 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • CHRISTOPHER G. TIEDEMAN, THE UNWRITTEN CONSTITUTION OF THE UNITED STATES 162 (New York, G.P. Putnam's Sons 1890).
    • CHRISTOPHER G. TIEDEMAN, THE UNWRITTEN CONSTITUTION OF THE UNITED STATES 162 (New York, G.P. Putnam's Sons 1890).
  • 138
    • 65149106674 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • See supra note 17
    • See supra note 17.
  • 139
    • 65149102741 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • So termed because judges lobbied for it. See Richard G. Stevens, Introduction to FRANKFURTER & LANDIS, supra note 17, at ix, ix;
    • So termed because judges lobbied for it. See Richard G. Stevens, Introduction to FRANKFURTER & LANDIS, supra note 17, at ix, ix;
  • 140
    • 65149095613 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • CHARLES ALAN WRIGHT & MARY KAY KANE, LAW OF FEDERAL COURTS 7 (6th ed. 2002).
    • CHARLES ALAN WRIGHT & MARY KAY KANE, LAW OF FEDERAL COURTS 7 (6th ed. 2002).
  • 141
    • 33745237703 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • The Supreme Court and Its Shrinking Docket: The Ghost of William Howard Toft, 90
    • Kenneth W. Starr, The Supreme Court and Its Shrinking Docket: The Ghost of William Howard Toft, 90 MINN. L. REV. 1363, 1364 (2006).
    • (2006) MINN. L. REV , vol.1363 , pp. 1364
    • Starr, K.W.1
  • 142
    • 65149091936 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • After losing the presidency in 1912, he moved to Yale and wrote about constitutional law, chiefly about how constitutional law serves to constrain his successors in the White House. WILLIAM HOWARD TAFT, OUR CHIEF MAGISTRATE AND HIS POWERS Passim (H. Jefferson Powell ed., Carolina Academic Press 2002) (1916).
    • After losing the presidency in 1912, he moved to Yale and wrote about constitutional law, chiefly about how constitutional law serves to constrain his successors in the White House. WILLIAM HOWARD TAFT, OUR CHIEF MAGISTRATE AND HIS POWERS Passim (H. Jefferson Powell ed., Carolina Academic Press 2002) (1916).
  • 143
    • 65149099819 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • On Taft's leadership on the Court, see generally Robert Post, Judicial Management and Judicial Disinterest: The Achievements and Perils of Chief Justice William Howard Taft 1 J. SUP. CT. HIST. 50 (1998);
    • On Taft's leadership on the Court, see generally Robert Post, Judicial Management and Judicial Disinterest: The Achievements and Perils of Chief Justice William Howard Taft 1 J. SUP. CT. HIST. 50 (1998);
  • 144
    • 0347018528 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • The Supreme Court Opinion as Institutional Practice: Dissent, Legal Scholarship, and Decisionmaking in the Taft Court, 85
    • Robert Post, The Supreme Court Opinion as Institutional Practice: Dissent, Legal Scholarship, and Decisionmaking in the Taft Court, 85 MINN. L. REV. 1267, (2001);
    • (2001) MINN. L. REV , vol.1267
    • Post, R.1
  • 145
    • 65149104480 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Kenneth W. Starr, William Howard Taft: The Chief Justice as Judicial Architect, 60 U. CIN. L. REV. 963, 965-68 (1992).
    • Kenneth W. Starr, William Howard Taft: The Chief Justice as Judicial Architect, 60 U. CIN. L. REV. 963, 965-68 (1992).
  • 146
    • 65149099577 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • On the formation of the Federal Judicial Conference under Taft, see generally PETER GRAHAM FISH, THE POLITICS OF FEDERAL JUDICIAL ADMINISTRATION 40-90 (1973) (discussing the development of major regional and national institutions of federal judicial administration).
    • On the formation of the Federal Judicial Conference under Taft, see generally PETER GRAHAM FISH, THE POLITICS OF FEDERAL JUDICIAL ADMINISTRATION 40-90 (1973) (discussing the development of major regional and national institutions of federal judicial administration).
  • 147
    • 65149087707 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • One of Taft's first acts as Chief Justice was to abandon the practice of abstaining from any effort to influence legislation in Congress, a practice established by John Marshall and followed by all of Taft's predecessors. Taft lobbied and soon secured enactment of the Judiciary Act of 1922, ch. 305, 42 Stat. 837.
    • One of Taft's first acts as Chief Justice was to abandon the practice of abstaining from any effort to influence legislation in Congress, a practice established by John Marshall and followed by all of Taft's predecessors. Taft lobbied and soon secured enactment of the Judiciary Act of 1922, ch. 305, 42 Stat. 837.
  • 148
    • 65149092424 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Justice Brandeis protested that it made his colleagues into the nine black beedes in the temple of Karnak and would cause them to have an inflated vision of themselves. Pnina Lahav, History in Journalism and Journalism in History: Anthony Lewis and the Watergate Crisis, 29 J. SUP. CT. HIST. 163, 163 (2004)
    • Justice Brandeis protested that it made his colleagues into the "nine black beedes in the temple of Karnak" and would cause them to have an inflated vision of themselves. Pnina Lahav, History in Journalism and Journalism in History: Anthony Lewis and the Watergate Crisis, 29 J. SUP. CT. HIST. 163, 163 (2004)
  • 150
    • 65149088343 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Jeffrey B. Morris, What Heaven Must Be Like: William Howard Taft as Chief Justice, 1921-30, in YEARBOOK 1983: SUPREME COURT HISTORICAL SOCIETY 80, 80 (William F. Swindler ed., 1983).
    • Jeffrey B. Morris, What Heaven Must Be Like: William Howard Taft as Chief Justice, 1921-30, in YEARBOOK 1983: SUPREME COURT HISTORICAL SOCIETY 80, 80 (William F. Swindler ed., 1983).
  • 151
    • 65149090614 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • While President, Taft published an article on judicial administration. See William H. Taft, The Delays of the Law, 18 YALE L.J. 28 (1908).
    • While President, Taft published an article on judicial administration. See William H. Taft, The Delays of the Law, 18 YALE L.J. 28 (1908).
  • 152
    • 65149090753 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Posner, supra note 18, at 77
    • Posner, supra note 18, at 77.
  • 153
    • 65149084845 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • See WILLIAM E. LEUCHTENBURG, THE SUPREME COURT REBORN: THE CONSTITUTIONAL REVOLUTION IN THE AGE OF ROOSEVELT passim (1995);
    • See WILLIAM E. LEUCHTENBURG, THE SUPREME COURT REBORN: THE CONSTITUTIONAL REVOLUTION IN THE AGE OF ROOSEVELT passim (1995);
  • 154
    • 65149095323 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • see also BARRY CUSHMAN, RETHINKING THE NEW DEAL COURT: THE STRUCTURE OF A CONSTITUTIONAL REVOLUTION passim (1998).
    • see also BARRY CUSHMAN, RETHINKING THE NEW DEAL COURT: THE STRUCTURE OF A CONSTITUTIONAL REVOLUTION passim (1998).
  • 155
    • 65149099220 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Youngstown Sheet & Tube Co. v. Sawyer, 343 U.S. 579 (1952).
    • Youngstown Sheet & Tube Co. v. Sawyer, 343 U.S. 579 (1952).
  • 156
    • 65149098185 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Brown v. Bd. of Educ. (Broom I), 347 U.S. 483 (1954);
    • Brown v. Bd. of Educ. (Broom I), 347 U.S. 483 (1954);
  • 157
    • 65149084720 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • see also Brown v. Bd. of Educ. (Brown II), 349 U.S. 294, 301 (1955).
    • see also Brown v. Bd. of Educ. (Brown II), 349 U.S. 294, 301 (1955).
  • 158
    • 65149085094 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • See TONY FREYER, THE LITTLE ROCK CQRISIS: A CONSTITUTIONAL I NTERPRETATION 108 (1984).
    • See TONY FREYER, THE LITTLE ROCK CQRISIS: A CONSTITUTIONAL I NTERPRETATION 108 (1984).
  • 159
    • 65149083995 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • 358 U.S. 1 (1958); see generally FREYER, supra note 84.
    • 358 U.S. 1 (1958); see generally FREYER, supra note 84.
  • 160
    • 65149084846 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • See Cooper, 358 U.S. at 18;
    • See Cooper, 358 U.S. at 18;
  • 161
    • 65149100077 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • see also id. at 24 (Frankfurter, J., concurring).
    • see also id. at 24 (Frankfurter, J., concurring).
  • 162
    • 65149097458 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • See WHITTINGTON, supra note 57, at 285
    • See WHITTINGTON, supra note 57, at 285.
  • 163
    • 81255154417 scopus 로고
    • Toward a Political Supreme Court, 37
    • Philip B. Kurland, Toward a Political Supreme Court, 37 U. CHI. L. REV. 19, 31 (1969).
    • (1969) U. CHI. L. REV , vol.19 , pp. 31
    • Kurland, P.B.1
  • 164
    • 65149102244 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • however debatable those interpretations may be. See Daniel A. Farber, The Importance of Being Final, 20 CONST
    • Other government officials generally accept the Court's interpretations of the Constitution
    • Other government officials generally accept the Court's interpretations of the Constitution, however debatable those interpretations may be. See Daniel A. Farber, The Importance of Being Final, 20 CONST. COMMENT. 359, 364 (2003);
    • (2003) COMMENT , vol.359 , pp. 364
  • 165
    • 0347419773 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • see also Larry Alexander & Frederick Schauer, On Extrajudicial Constitutional Interpretation, 110 HARV. L. REV. 1359, 1377 (1997) (arguing that Cooper reflects the reason for the Constitution as law - it allows one interpretation to become authoritative).
    • see also Larry Alexander & Frederick Schauer, On Extrajudicial Constitutional Interpretation, 110 HARV. L. REV. 1359, 1377 (1997) (arguing that Cooper reflects the reason for the Constitution as law - it allows one interpretation to become authoritative).
  • 166
    • 65149104872 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • 163 U.S. 537 1896
    • 163 U.S. 537 (1896).
  • 167
    • 65149100088 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Laura Kalman refers to a generation of lawyers as the children of the Warren Court. LAURA KALMAN, THE STRANGE CAREER OF LEGAL LIBERALISM 52 (1996).
    • Laura Kalman refers to a generation of lawyers as "the children of the Warren Court." LAURA KALMAN, THE STRANGE CAREER OF LEGAL LIBERALISM 52 (1996).
  • 168
    • 65149092182 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • See generally JACK BASS, UNLIKELY HEROES (1981) (discussing the Fifth Circuit's desegregation jurisprudence).
    • See generally JACK BASS, UNLIKELY HEROES (1981) (discussing the Fifth Circuit's desegregation jurisprudence).
  • 169
    • 65149086217 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • See generally DAVID J. GARROW, BEARING THE CROSS: MARTIN LUTHER KING, JR., AND THE SOUTHERN CHRISTIAN LEADERSHIP CONFERENCE (1986) (detailing Martin Luther King, Jr.'s development as the foremost spokesperson of the civil rights movement).
    • See generally DAVID J. GARROW, BEARING THE CROSS: MARTIN LUTHER KING, JR., AND THE SOUTHERN CHRISTIAN LEADERSHIP CONFERENCE (1986) (detailing Martin Luther King, Jr.'s development as the foremost spokesperson of the civil rights movement).
  • 170
    • 65149099713 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Indeed, the Black Power Movement's threats of violence against racists and racist institutions may also have played a role in changing the public mind. See TIMOTHY B. TYSON, BLOOD DONE SIGN MY NAME 197-219 (2004).
    • Indeed, the Black Power Movement's threats of violence against racists and racist institutions may also have played a role in changing the public mind. See TIMOTHY B. TYSON, BLOOD DONE SIGN MY NAME 197-219 (2004).
  • 171
    • 84868930187 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Act of July 2, 1964, Pub. L. No. 88-352, 78 Stat. 241 (codified as amended at 42 U.S.C. §2000 2006
    • Act of July 2, 1964, Pub. L. No. 88-352, 78 Stat. 241 (codified as amended at 42 U.S.C. §2000 (2006)).
  • 172
    • 65149101257 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • See MICHAEL J. KIARMAN, FROM JIM CROW TO CIVIL RIGHTS: THE SUPREME COURT AND THE STRUGGLE FOR RACIAL EQUALITY 363 (2004) (arguing that the intervention of the Department of Justice and Congress achieved desegregation that the federal judiciary alone was powerless to accomplish).
    • See MICHAEL J. KIARMAN, FROM JIM CROW TO CIVIL RIGHTS: THE SUPREME COURT AND THE STRUGGLE FOR RACIAL EQUALITY 363 (2004) (arguing that the intervention of the Department of Justice and Congress achieved desegregation that the federal judiciary alone was powerless to accomplish).
  • 173
    • 65149106423 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • See GERALD N. ROSENBERG, THE HOLLOW HOPE: CAN COURTS BRING ABOUT SOCIAL CHANGE? 52 (2d ed. 2008) (The numbers show that the Supreme Court contributed virtually nothing to ending segregation of the public schools in the Southern states in the decade following Brown. The entrance of Congress and the executive branch ...changed this. ... In the first year of the [Civil Rights Act of 1964], nearly as much desegregation was achieved as during all the preceding years of Supreme Court action.);
    • See GERALD N. ROSENBERG, THE HOLLOW HOPE: CAN COURTS BRING ABOUT SOCIAL CHANGE? 52 (2d ed. 2008) ("The numbers show that the Supreme Court contributed virtually nothing to ending segregation of the public schools in the Southern states in the decade following Brown. The entrance of Congress and the executive branch ...changed this. ... In the first year of the [Civil Rights Act of 1964], nearly as much desegregation was achieved as during all the preceding years of Supreme Court action.");
  • 174
    • 65149102376 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • see also Melvin I. Urofsky, Among the Most Humane Moments in All Our History : Brown v. Board of Education in Historical Perspective, in BLACK, WHITE AND BROWN: THE LANDMARK SCHOOL DESEGREGATION CASE IN RETROSPECT 1, 34-38 (Clare Cushman & Melvin I. Urofsky eds., 2004) (discussing soudiern states' opposition to the Court's decision in Brown and their attempts to thwart desegregation).
    • see also Melvin I. Urofsky, "Among the Most Humane Moments in All Our History ": Brown v. Board of Education in Historical Perspective, in BLACK, WHITE AND BROWN: THE LANDMARK SCHOOL DESEGREGATION CASE IN RETROSPECT 1, 34-38 (Clare Cushman & Melvin I. Urofsky eds., 2004) (discussing soudiern states' opposition to the Court's decision in Brown and their attempts to thwart desegregation).
  • 175
    • 65149093638 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • See generally KIM ISAAC EISLER, A JUSTICE FOR ALL: WILLIAM J. BRENNAN, JR., AND THE DECISIONS THAT TRANSFORMED AMERICA (1993) (outlining Justice Brennan's career and the extent of his influence on Supreme Court's direction and ideology);
    • See generally KIM ISAAC EISLER, A JUSTICE FOR ALL: WILLIAM J. BRENNAN, JR., AND THE DECISIONS THAT TRANSFORMED AMERICA (1993) (outlining Justice Brennan's career and the extent of his influence on Supreme Court's direction and ideology);
  • 176
    • 65149106288 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • FRANK I. MICHELMAN, BRENNAN AND DEMOCRACY (1999) (discussing Justice Brennan's ideas on constitutional democracy and democratic liberalism).
    • FRANK I. MICHELMAN, BRENNAN AND DEMOCRACY (1999) (discussing Justice Brennan's ideas on constitutional democracy and democratic liberalism).
  • 178
    • 0011659497 scopus 로고
    • Do We Have an Unwritten Constitution?, 27
    • For contemporaneous criticism of this change, see
    • For contemporaneous criticism of this change, see Thomas C. Grey, Do We Have an Unwritten Constitution?, 27 STAN. L. REV. 703 (1975).
    • (1975) STAN. L. REV , vol.703
    • Grey, T.C.1
  • 179
    • 0039693950 scopus 로고
    • The National Court of Appeals: Another Dissent, 40
    • William J. Brennan, Jr., The National Court of Appeals: Another Dissent, 40 U. CHI. L. REV. 473, 483 (1973).
    • (1973) U. CHI. L. REV , vol.473 , pp. 483
    • Brennan Jr., W.J.1
  • 180
    • 65149095851 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • In defense of diis expanded view of his role, Justice Brennan adopted Justice Goldberg's statement that the power to decide cases presupposes the power to determine what cases will be decided. Id. at 484 (footnote omitted).
    • In defense of diis expanded view of his role, Justice Brennan adopted Justice Goldberg's statement that the "power to decide cases presupposes the power to determine what cases will be decided." Id. at 484 (footnote omitted).
  • 181
    • 65149099205 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • In responses to Paul Freund's questioning of this principle's origin, Professor Hartnett confirms that it was an idea first advanced in 1925 as a result of the Judges' Bill, which gave the Court the power to control its own docket. Hartnett, supra note 17, at 1736.
    • In responses to Paul Freund's questioning of this principle's origin, Professor Hartnett confirms that it was an idea first advanced in 1925 as a
  • 182
    • 65149090384 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • See, e.g., Lawrence v. Texas, 539 U.S. 558, 578 (2003) (The[ ] right to liberty under the Due Process Clause gives them the full right to engage in their conduct without intervention of the government.);
    • See, e.g., Lawrence v. Texas, 539 U.S. 558, 578 (2003) ("The[ ] right to liberty under the Due Process Clause gives them the full right to engage in their conduct without intervention of the government.");
  • 183
    • 65149090754 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Roe v. Wade, 410 U.S. 113, 153 (1973) (This right of privacy ... is broad enough to encompass a woman's decision whether or not to terminate her pregnancy.);
    • Roe v. Wade, 410 U.S. 113, 153 (1973) ("This right of privacy ... is broad enough to encompass a woman's decision whether or not to terminate her pregnancy.");
  • 184
    • 65149087257 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Furman v. Georgia, 408 U.S. 238, 269-82 (1972) (Brennan, J., concurring) (discussing whether the application of death penalty would violate Eighfh Amendment's ban on cruel and unusual punishment).
    • Furman v. Georgia, 408 U.S. 238, 269-82 (1972) (Brennan, J., concurring) (discussing whether the application of death penalty would violate Eighfh Amendment's ban on "cruel and unusual punishment").
  • 185
    • 65149095338 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • See SANFORD LEVINSON, CONSTITUTIONAL FAITH 46-50 (1988). This form of judicial supremacy was also expressed by Lord Coke; he explained it to King James as a subject accessible only to initiates and quite beyond the understanding of a mere royal. CATHERINE DRINKER BOWEN, THE LION AND THE THRONE: THE LIFE AND TIMES OF SIR EDWARD COKE (1552-1634), at 304-06 (1957).
    • See SANFORD LEVINSON, CONSTITUTIONAL FAITH 46-50 (1988). This form of judicial supremacy was also expressed by Lord Coke; he explained it to King James as a subject accessible only to initiates and quite beyond the understanding of a mere royal. CATHERINE DRINKER BOWEN, THE LION AND THE THRONE: THE LIFE AND TIMES OF SIR EDWARD COKE (1552-1634), at 304-06 (1957).
  • 186
    • 65149089693 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Chief Justice Taft expressed the thought as follows: [T]he people at the polls no more than kings upon the throne are fit to pass upon questions involving the judicial interpretation of the law. GERALD GUNTHER, LEARNED HAND: THE MAN AND THE JUDGE 213 (1994) (footnote omitted).
    • Chief Justice Taft expressed the thought as follows: "[T]he people at the polls no more than kings upon the throne are fit to pass upon questions involving the judicial interpretation of the law." GERALD GUNTHER, LEARNED HAND: THE MAN AND THE JUDGE 213 (1994) (footnote omitted).
  • 187
    • 65149083732 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • That its intellectual leader, Justice Brennan, celebrated the Catholic faith may have been more significant than was recognized at the time
    • That its intellectual leader, Justice Brennan, celebrated the Catholic faith may have been more significant than was recognized at the time.
  • 188
    • 10044294824 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • This vision was not so new. As noted above, concern over judicial activism had motivated many amendments of state constitutions in the nineteenth century. See supra notes 50-52 and accompanying text. Duncan Kennedy attributes this vision to other developments in western thought. Duncan Kennedy, The Disenchantment of Logically Formal Legal Rationality, or Max Weber's Sociology in the Genealogy of the Contemporary Mode of Western Legal Thought, 55 HASTINGS L.J. 1031, 1065 2004
    • This vision was not so new. As noted above, concern over judicial activism had motivated many amendments of state constitutions in the nineteenth century. See supra notes 50-52 and accompanying text. Duncan Kennedy attributes this vision to other developments in western thought. Duncan Kennedy, The Disenchantment of Logically Formal Legal Rationality, or Max Weber's Sociology in the Genealogy of the Contemporary Mode of Western Legal Thought, 55 HASTINGS L.J. 1031, 1065 (2004).
  • 189
    • 65149105909 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Alexander Bickel was among the first to recognize that this is the role the Court has assigned itself. Alexander M. Bickel, The Supreme Court 1960 Term, Foreword: The Passive Virtues, 75 HARV. L. REV. 40, 41-42 1961
    • Alexander Bickel was among the first to recognize that this is the role the Court has assigned itself. Alexander M. Bickel, The Supreme Court 1960 Term - Foreword: The Passive Virtues, 75 HARV. L. REV. 40, 41-42 (1961).
  • 190
    • 65149085604 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • See generally ROBERT F. NAGEL, UNRESTRAINED: JUDICIAL EXCESS AND THE MIND OF THE AMERICAN LAWYER (2008).
    • See generally ROBERT F. NAGEL, UNRESTRAINED: JUDICIAL EXCESS AND THE MIND OF THE AMERICAN LAWYER (2008).
  • 192
    • 65149101378 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • A more recent depiction of the modest role of the Justices is DANIEL A. fARBER & sUZANNA sHERRY, jUDGMENT cALLS: pRINCIPLE AND pOLITICS IN cONSTITUTIONAL LAW (2009).
    • A more recent depiction of the modest role of the Justices is DANIEL A. fARBER & sUZANNA sHERRY, jUDGMENT cALLS: pRINCIPLE AND pOLITICS IN cONSTITUTIONAL LAW (2009).
  • 193
    • 65149101617 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • See id. at 18 (Since law is connected to life, judges, in applying [the Constitution] in light of its purpose, should look to consequences, including 'contemporary conditions, social, industrial, and political, of the community to be affected.').
    • See id. at 18 ("Since law is connected to life, judges, in applying [the Constitution] in light of its purpose, should look to consequences, including 'contemporary conditions, social, industrial, and political, of the community to be affected.'").
  • 194
    • 33745675388 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Justice Breyer's Mandarin Liberty, 73
    • reviewing BREYER, supra note 105, For an extended critique, see
    • For an extended critique, see Ken I. Kersch, Justice Breyer's Mandarin Liberty, 73 U. CHI. L. REV. 759 (2006) (reviewing BREYER, supra note 105).
    • (2006) U. CHI. L. REV , vol.759
    • Kersch, K.I.1
  • 195
    • 65149098044 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • See BREYER, supra note 105, at 18-19
    • See BREYER, supra note 105, at 18-19.
  • 196
    • 65149088473 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • In this respect, Justice Breyer sides with CASS R. SUNSTEIN, ONE CASE AT A TIME: JUDICIAL MINIMALISM ON THE SUPREME COURT, at xiv (1999) (arguing that judicial minimalism promotes, rather than undermines, democratic processes). Jeffrey Rosen describes Justice Breyer as cautious, incremental, pragmatic, respectful of historical arguments, and suspicious of sweeping claims about fundamental values. Jeffrey Rosen, Two Cheers for the Rehnquist Court, 1 NEXUS 37, 39 (1996).
    • In this respect, Justice Breyer sides with CASS R. SUNSTEIN, ONE CASE AT A TIME: JUDICIAL MINIMALISM ON THE SUPREME COURT, at xiv (1999) (arguing that judicial minimalism promotes, rather than undermines, democratic processes). Jeffrey Rosen describes Justice Breyer as "cautious, incremental, pragmatic, respectful of historical arguments, and suspicious of sweeping claims about fundamental values." Jeffrey Rosen, Two Cheers for the Rehnquist Court, 1 NEXUS 37, 39 (1996).
  • 197
    • 33745278894 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • See Neal Devins, Should the Supreme Court Fear Congress?, 90 MINN. L. REV. 1337, 1352 (2006) ([T]oday's lawmakers do not place a high value on their power to independendy interpret the Constitution.... Over the past thirty years, the percent of hearings raising significant constitutional issues has declined throughout Congress.).
    • See Neal Devins, Should the Supreme Court Fear Congress?, 90 MINN. L. REV. 1337, 1352 (2006) ("[T]oday's lawmakers do not place a high value on their power to independendy interpret the Constitution.... Over the past thirty years, the percent of hearings raising significant constitutional issues has declined throughout Congress.").
  • 198
    • 65149088220 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • See WHITTINGTON, supra note 57, at 282 (Radier than bearing the political cost of casting votes against popular positions for the sake of abstract constitutional principles, elected officials on both sides of the political aisle are willing to accept judicial supremacy. (footnote omitted)).
    • See WHITTINGTON, supra note 57, at 282 ("Radier than bearing the political cost of casting votes against popular positions for the sake of abstract constitutional principles, elected officials on both sides of the political aisle are willing to accept judicial supremacy." (footnote omitted)).
  • 199
    • 65149095997 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • See Hartnett, supra note 17, at 1717 (A court that can simply refuse to hear a case can no longer credibly say that it had to decide it.).
    • See Hartnett, supra note 17, at 1717 ("A court that can simply refuse to hear a case can no longer credibly say that it had to decide it.").
  • 200
    • 65149095453 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Margaret Meriwether Cordray & Richard Cordray, The Philosophy of Certiorari: Jurisprudential Considerations in Supreme Court Case Selection, 82 WASH. U. L.Q. 389, 452 (2004).
    • Margaret Meriwether Cordray & Richard Cordray, The Philosophy of Certiorari: Jurisprudential Considerations in Supreme Court Case Selection, 82 WASH. U. L.Q. 389, 452 (2004).
  • 201
    • 0347606670 scopus 로고
    • A Managerial Theory of the Supreme Court's Responsibilities: An Empirical Study, 59
    • Samuel Estreicher & John E. Sexton, A Managerial Theory of the Supreme Court's Responsibilities: An Empirical Study, 59 N.Y.U. L. REV. 681, 790 (1984);
    • (1984) N.Y.U. L. REV , vol.681 , pp. 790
    • Estreicher, S.1    Sexton, J.E.2
  • 202
    • 65149104994 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • The Supreme Court and Certiorari: What Determines the Agenda?, 84
    • see also
    • see also Editorial, The Supreme Court and Certiorari: What Determines the Agenda?, 84 JUDICATURE 112, 112 (2000).
    • (2000) JUDICATURE , vol.112 , pp. 112
    • Editorial1
  • 203
    • 65149094002 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • See Cordray & Cordray, supra note 112 at 410-15 (reviewing research finding that judges choose to grant certiorari based on ideological or strategic reasons). The data tends to confirm that Justices are often looking for a case that would be a good vehicle for developing the political policy they favor. H.W. PERRY, JR., DECIDING TO DECIDE: AGENDA SETTING IN THE UNITED STATES SUPREME COURT 265 (1991).
    • See Cordray & Cordray, supra note 112 at 410-15 (reviewing research finding that judges choose to grant certiorari based on ideological or strategic reasons). The data tends to confirm that Justices are often looking for a case that would be a "good vehicle" for developing the political policy they favor. H.W. PERRY, JR., DECIDING TO DECIDE: AGENDA SETTING IN THE UNITED STATES SUPREME COURT 265 (1991).
  • 204
    • 65149106420 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • See, e.g., KLARMAN, supra note 94 at 454-68 (arguing that the Court's decision in Brown spurred social reform but created enforceability problems and violent soudiern reactions);
    • See, e.g., KLARMAN, supra note 94 at 454-68 (arguing that the Court's decision in Brown spurred social reform but created enforceability problems and violent soudiern reactions);
  • 205
    • 65149083743 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • RICHARD KLUGER, SIMPLE JUSTICE: THE HISTORY OF BROWN V. BOARD OF EDUCATION AND BLACK AMERICA'S STRUGGLE FOR EQUALITY (2d ed. 2004);
    • RICHARD KLUGER, SIMPLE JUSTICE: THE HISTORY OF BROWN V. BOARD OF EDUCATION AND BLACK AMERICA'S STRUGGLE FOR EQUALITY (2d ed. 2004);
  • 206
    • 65149101624 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • note 95, at, arguing that Supreme Court decisions often provide reformers symbolic victories and the illusion of substantive change
    • ROSENBERG, supra note 95, at 420-29 (arguing that Supreme Court decisions often provide reformers symbolic victories and the illusion of substantive change);
    • supra , pp. 420-429
    • ROSENBERG1
  • 207
    • 65149095336 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Gerald N. Rosenberg, African-American Rights After Brown, in BLACK, WHITE AND BROWN: THE LANDMARK SCHOOL DESEGREGATION CASE IN RETROSPECT, supra note 95, at 203, 231 ([C]ourts may serve an ideological function of luring movements for social reform to an institution that is structurally constrained from serving dieir needs, providing only an illusion of change.);
    • Gerald N. Rosenberg, African-American Rights After Brown, in BLACK, WHITE AND BROWN: THE LANDMARK SCHOOL DESEGREGATION CASE IN RETROSPECT, supra note 95, at 203, 231 ("[C]ourts may serve an ideological function of luring movements for social reform to an institution that is structurally constrained from serving dieir needs, providing only an illusion of change.");
  • 208
    • 65149103249 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • see also David J. Garrow, Bad Behavior Makes Big Law: Southern Malfeasance and the Expansion of Federal Judicial Power, 1954- 1968, 82 ST. JOHN'S L. REV. 1 (2008).
    • see also David J. Garrow, Bad Behavior Makes Big Law: Southern Malfeasance and the Expansion of Federal Judicial Power, 1954- 1968, 82 ST. JOHN'S L. REV. 1 (2008).
  • 209
    • 65149096594 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • For diverse ruminations, see STEPHEN B. PRESSER, RECAPTURING THE CONSTITUTION: RACE, RELIGION, AND ABORTION RECONSIDERED 200-01 (1994) (positing that the Supreme Court has lost its way and infringed on the role of the legislature);
    • For diverse ruminations, see STEPHEN B. PRESSER, RECAPTURING THE CONSTITUTION: RACE, RELIGION, AND ABORTION RECONSIDERED 200-01 (1994) (positing that the Supreme Court has lost its way and infringed on the role of the legislature);
  • 210
    • 57649095259 scopus 로고
    • The Bill of Rights and the Fourteenth Amendment, 101
    • Akhil Reed Amar, The Bill of Rights and the Fourteenth Amendment, 101 YALE L.J. 1193, 1224-29 (1992);
    • (1992) YALE L.J , vol.1193 , pp. 1224-1229
    • Reed Amar, A.1
  • 211
    • 0002161664 scopus 로고
    • Toward Neutral Principles of Constitutional Law, 73
    • arguing that courts should respect value judgments made by legislatures
    • Herbert Wechsler, Toward Neutral Principles of Constitutional Law, 73 HARV. L. REV. 1, 18-19 (1959) (arguing that courts should respect value judgments made by legislatures).
    • (1959) HARV. L. REV , vol.1 , pp. 18-19
    • Wechsler, H.1
  • 212
    • 65149089102 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Compare ROBERT H. BORK, SLOUCHING TOWARDS GOMORRAH: MODERN LIBERALISM AND AMERICAN DECLINE 117-18 (1996) (arguing that the way to achieve constitutional legitimacy is through a constitutional amendment making any federal or state court decisions subject to being overruled by a majority vote of each House of Congress), with LARRY D. KRAMER, THE PEOPLE THEMSELVES: POPULAR CONSTITUTIONALISM AND JUDICIAL REVIEW 227-48 (2004) (advocating for a system of popular constitutionalism rather than the Supreme Court as the ultimate arbiter of the Constitution),
    • Compare ROBERT H. BORK, SLOUCHING TOWARDS GOMORRAH: MODERN LIBERALISM AND AMERICAN DECLINE 117-18 (1996) (arguing that the way to achieve constitutional legitimacy is through a constitutional amendment "making any federal or state court decisions subject to being overruled by a majority vote of each House of Congress"), with LARRY D. KRAMER, THE PEOPLE THEMSELVES: POPULAR CONSTITUTIONALISM AND JUDICIAL REVIEW 227-48 (2004) (advocating for a system of popular constitutionalism rather than the Supreme Court as the ultimate arbiter of the Constitution),
  • 213
    • 65149089807 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • and MARK TUSHNET, TAKING THE CONSTITUTION AWAY FROM THE COURTS 154-76 (1999) (arguing for the abolishment of judicial review in favor of popular constitutionalism).
    • and MARK TUSHNET, TAKING THE CONSTITUTION AWAY FROM THE COURTS 154-76 (1999) (arguing for the abolishment of judicial review in favor of popular constitutionalism).
  • 214
    • 65149098957 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Reynolds v. Sims, 377 U.S. 533, 624-25 (1964) (Harlan, J., dissenting).
    • Reynolds v. Sims, 377 U.S. 533, 624-25 (1964) (Harlan, J., dissenting).
  • 215
    • 65149099464 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • The degeneration of state sovereignty over matters of popular concern also seems to have vitiated the political vitality of local governments. See generally ROBERT F. NAGEL, THE IMPLOSION OF AMERICAN FEDERALISM 2001
    • The degeneration of state sovereignty over matters of popular concern also seems to have vitiated the political vitality of local governments. See generally ROBERT F. NAGEL, THE IMPLOSION OF AMERICAN FEDERALISM (2001).
  • 216
    • 65149086758 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • See William Van Alstyne, Notes on a Bicentennial Constitution: Part I, Processes of Change, 1984 U. ILL. L. REV. 933, 957 n.61.
    • See William Van Alstyne, Notes on a Bicentennial Constitution: Part I, Processes of Change, 1984 U. ILL. L. REV. 933, 957 n.61.
  • 217
    • 65149093636 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • H. JEFFERSON POWELL, CONSTITUTIONAL CONSCIENCE: THE MORAL DIMENSION OF JUDICIAL DECISION 118 (2008).
    • H. JEFFERSON POWELL, CONSTITUTIONAL CONSCIENCE: THE MORAL DIMENSION OF JUDICIAL DECISION 118 (2008).
  • 218
    • 65149091806 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • See NAGEL, supra note 104, at 121-33
    • See NAGEL, supra note 104, at 121-33.
  • 219
    • 65149094003 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • see id. at 130.
    • see id. at 130.
  • 220
    • 65149087604 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • See id. at 129.
    • See id. at 129.
  • 221
    • 65149105782 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • xhe inability of Harriet Miers to win confirmation in 2005 was apparently the result of her inability to persuade Republican Senators that she was sufficiently committed to their political convictions. See Michael A. Fletcher & Charles Babington, Mien, Under Fire from Right, Withdrawn as Court Nominee, WASH. POST, Oct. 28, 2005, at Al (quoting former Senator Dan Coats, who accompanied Miers on meetings where senators rightly wanted to see some objective evidence of what her judicial philosophy was).
    • xhe inability of Harriet Miers to win confirmation in 2005 was apparently the result of her inability to persuade Republican Senators that she was sufficiently committed to their political convictions. See Michael A. Fletcher & Charles Babington, Mien, Under Fire from Right, Withdrawn as Court Nominee, WASH. POST, Oct. 28, 2005, at Al (quoting former Senator Dan Coats, who accompanied Miers on meetings where "senators rightly wanted to see some objective evidence of what her judicial philosophy was").
  • 222
    • 84868917695 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • The Senate Minority Leader, Harry Reid, at the time of her nomination by President Bush released a statement: I like Harriet Miers. As White House Counsel, she has worked with me in a courteous and professional manner. I am also impressed with the fact that she was a trailblazer for women as managing partner of a major Dallas law firm and as the first woman president of the Texas Bar Association. In my view, the Supreme Court would benefit from the addition of a justice who has real experience as a practicing lawyer. The current justices have all been chosen from the lower federal courts. A nominee with relevant nonjudicial experience would bring a different and useful perspective to the Court. Press Release, Senator Harry Reid, U.S. Senate, Statement of Senator Harry Reid on the Nomination of Harriet Miers to the U.S. Supreme Court Oct. 3, 2005, nominated by President Bush aft
    • The Senate Minority Leader, Harry Reid, at the time of her nomination by President Bush released a statement: I like Harriet Miers. As White House Counsel, she has worked with me in a courteous and professional manner. I am also impressed with the fact that she was a trailblazer for women as managing partner of a major Dallas law firm and as the first woman president of the Texas Bar Association. In my view, the Supreme Court would benefit from the addition of a justice who has real experience as a practicing lawyer. The current justices have all been chosen from the lower federal courts. A nominee with relevant nonjudicial experience would bring a different and useful perspective to the Court. Press Release, Senator Harry Reid, U.S. Senate, Statement of Senator Harry Reid on the Nomination of Harriet Miers to the U.S. Supreme Court (Oct. 3, 2005), http://democrats. senate.gov/newsroom/record.cfm?id=246777. After the confirmation of Justice Samuel Alito, nominated by President Bush after Miers' withdrawal, Senator Reid released another statement: I continue to believe that Harriet Miers received a raw deal. She is an accomplished lawyer, a trailblazer for women and a strong advocate of legal services for the poor. Not only was she denied the up-down vote that my Republican colleagues say every nominee deserves, but she was never even afforded the chance to make her case to the Judiciary Committee. Press Release, Senator Harry Reid, U.S. Senate, Reid Statement on the Confirmation of Samuel Alito (Jan. 31, 2006), http://democrats.senate.gov./newsroom/record.cfm?id=250959.
  • 223
    • 65149103381 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • For an account, see GEYH, supra note 5, at 171-222 (discussing prospective accountability of judicial nominees to the U.S. Senate);
    • For an account, see GEYH, supra note 5, at 171-222 (discussing prospective accountability of judicial nominees to the U.S. Senate);
  • 224
    • 65149089106 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • NANCY SCHERER, SCORING POINTS: POLITICIANS, ACTIVISTS, AND THE LOWER FEDERAL COURT APPOINTMENT PROCESS 151-80 (2005) (observing that since the 1968 Presidential election, candidates have made the selection of Justices and judges a campaign issue).
    • NANCY SCHERER, SCORING POINTS: POLITICIANS, ACTIVISTS, AND THE LOWER FEDERAL COURT APPOINTMENT PROCESS 151-80 (2005) (observing that since the 1968 Presidential election, candidates have made the selection of Justices and judges a campaign issue).
  • 225
    • 65149097110 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Posner, supra note 18, at 56;
    • Posner, supra note 18, at 56;
  • 226
    • 65149101383 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • see also Sosa v. Alvarez-Machain, 542 U.S. 692, 750 (2004) (Scalia, J., concurring) (protesting that [t]his Court seems incapable of admitting that some matters - any matters - are none of its business) (citations omitted). But note that Justice Scalia was among those who could not admit that the outcome of a presidential election is none of the Court's business. Bush v. Gore, 531 U.S. 1046, 1046-47 (2000) (Scalia, J., concurring) (responding to Justice Stevens' dissent to the Court's intervention by granting certiorari).
    • see also Sosa v. Alvarez-Machain, 542 U.S. 692, 750 (2004) (Scalia, J., concurring) (protesting that "[t]his Court seems incapable of admitting that some matters - any matters - are none of its business") (citations omitted). But note that Justice Scalia was among those who could not admit that the outcome of a presidential election is none of the Court's business. Bush v. Gore, 531 U.S. 1046, 1046-47 (2000) (Scalia, J., concurring) (responding to Justice Stevens' dissent to the Court's intervention by granting certiorari).
  • 227
    • 34250631364 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Judicial elections are a special problem, but the negative consequence of the Court's derivation of the one man, one vote rule from the Equal Protection Clause should not be ignored. That decision has increased the manipulation of district boundaries by legislators diminishing the vulnerability of elected bodies to popular influence. In Reynolds v. Sims, 377 U.S. 533, 568-71 (1964, the Court held that a state constitution providing that an upper house in the legislature seating representatives from each county did not meet the requirements of the Equal Protection Clause of the Fourteendi Amendment. On the current state of the issue, see Guy-Uriel E. Charles, Democracy and Distortion, 92 CORNELL L. REV. 601 (2007, arguing that the Supreme Court's regulation of political gerrymandering can be justified);
    • Judicial elections are a special problem, but the negative consequence of the Court's derivation of the "one man, one vote" rule from the Equal Protection Clause should not be ignored. That decision has increased the manipulation of district boundaries by legislators diminishing the vulnerability of elected bodies to popular influence. In Reynolds v. Sims, 377 U.S. 533, 568-71 (1964), the Court held that a state constitution providing that an upper house in the legislature seating representatives from each county did not meet the requirements of the Equal Protection Clause of the Fourteendi Amendment. On the current state of the issue, see Guy-Uriel E. Charles, Democracy and Distortion, 92 CORNELL L. REV. 601 (2007) (arguing that the Supreme Court's regulation of political gerrymandering can be justified);
  • 228
    • 12344262693 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • The Texas and Pennsylvania Partisan Gerrymandering Cases: Lost in the Political Thicket: The Court, Election Law, and the Doctrinal Interregnum, 153
    • discussing the Court's current and prior jurisprudence and speculating on what the Court's next steps will be
    • Headier K. Gerken, The Texas and Pennsylvania Partisan Gerrymandering Cases: Lost in the Political Thicket: The Court, Election Law, and the Doctrinal Interregnum, 153 U. PA. L. REV. 503 (2004) (discussing the Court's current and prior jurisprudence and speculating on what the Court's next steps will be);
    • (2004) U. PA. L. REV , vol.503
    • Gerken, H.K.1
  • 229
    • 12344335048 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Where to Draw the Line?: Judicial Review of Political Gerrymanders, 153
    • arguing that it is impossible to render claims of political gerrymandering nonjusticiable and that the Justices' intervention, prompted by claims of excessive partisanship, may actually encourage further reduction in political competition
    • Samuel Issacharoff & Pamela S. Karlan, Where to Draw the Line?: Judicial Review of Political Gerrymanders, 153 U. PA. L. REV. 541 (2004) (arguing that it is impossible to render claims of political gerrymandering nonjusticiable and that the Justices' intervention, prompted by claims of excessive partisanship, may actually encourage further reduction in political competition);
    • (2004) U. PA. L. REV , vol.541
    • Issacharoff, S.1    Karlan, P.S.2
  • 230
    • 12344336370 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Daniel R. Ortiz, Got Theory?, 153 U. PA. L. REV. 459, 475-501 (2004) (discussing application of the got theory argument, which is that the Court must defer to the political branches in these political cases, including partisan gerrymandering cases). So far, one man, one vote has not arisen in cases involving judicial elections.
    • Daniel R. Ortiz, Got Theory?, 153 U. PA. L. REV. 459, 475-501 (2004) (discussing application of the "got theory" argument, which is that the Court must defer to the political branches in these political cases, including partisan gerrymandering cases). So far, "one man, one vote" has not arisen in cases involving judicial elections.
  • 231
    • 84900184954 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • See generally RICHARD L. HASEN, THE SUPREME COURT AND ELECTION LAW: JUDGING EQUALITY FROM BAKER V. CARR TO BUSH V. GORE (2003) (examining the Court's role in regulating political equality);
    • See generally RICHARD L. HASEN, THE SUPREME COURT AND ELECTION LAW: JUDGING EQUALITY FROM BAKER V. CARR TO BUSH V. GORE (2003) (examining the Court's role in regulating political equality);
  • 232
    • 4644287300 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • The False Promise of One Person, One Vote, 102
    • discussing the one person, one vote standard in a general context rather than specifically applied to judicial elections
    • Grant M. Hayden, The False Promise of One Person, One Vote, 102 MICH. L. REV. 213 (2003) (discussing the one person, one vote standard in a general context rather than specifically applied to judicial elections);
    • (2003) MICH. L. REV , vol.213
    • Hayden, G.M.1
  • 233
    • 65149091935 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • cf. Guy-Uriel Charles, Judging the Law of Politics, 103 MICH. L. REV. 1099 (2005) (reviewing HASEN, supra).
    • cf. Guy-Uriel Charles, Judging the Law of Politics, 103 MICH. L. REV. 1099 (2005) (reviewing HASEN, supra).
  • 234
    • 64949202724 scopus 로고
    • See, U.S. 652
    • See Gitlow v. New York, 268 U.S. 652, 666 (1925).
    • (1925) New York , vol.268 , pp. 666
    • Gitlow, V.1
  • 235
    • 65149093508 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • See Judiciary Act of 1925, ch. 229, 43 Stat. 936, 937-38.
    • See Judiciary Act of 1925, ch. 229, 43 Stat. 936, 937-38.
  • 236
    • 65149099712 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Justice Stone's famous footnote in United States v. Carotene Products Co, 304 U.S. 144, 152 n.4 (1938, declared that the purpose of the Court was to advance the interests of citizens less influential with legislatures. See WILLIAM M. WIECER, THE BIRTH OF THE MODERN CONSTITUTION: THE UNITED STATES SUPREME COURT, 1941-1953, in 12 THE OLIVER WENDELL HOLMES DEVISE: HISTORY OF THE SUPREME COURT OF THE UNITED STATES, supra note 39, at 116-42 Stanley N. Katz ed, 2006, stating that footnote four from Carotene Products announced the paradigm of post-1937 constitutional development
    • Justice Stone's famous footnote in United States v. Carotene Products Co., 304 U.S. 144, 152 n.4 (1938), declared that the purpose of the Court was to advance the interests of citizens less influential with legislatures. See WILLIAM M. WIECER, THE BIRTH OF THE MODERN CONSTITUTION: THE UNITED STATES SUPREME COURT, 1941-1953, in 12 THE OLIVER WENDELL HOLMES DEVISE: HISTORY OF THE SUPREME COURT OF THE UNITED STATES, supra note 39, at 116-42 (Stanley N. Katz ed., 2006) (stating that footnote four from Carotene Products announced "the paradigm of post-1937 constitutional development").
  • 237
    • 65149094410 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • U.S. CONST. amend. I. In Gitlow, the Court commenced the process of incorporation of the Bill of Rights into the Fourteenth Amendment. 268 U.S. at 664-67.
    • U.S. CONST. amend. I. In Gitlow, the Court commenced the process of incorporation of the Bill of Rights into the Fourteenth Amendment. 268 U.S. at 664-67.
  • 238
    • 65149104587 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • For an account, see ANTHONY LEWIS, FREEDOM FOR THE THOUGHT THAT WE HATE: A BIOGRAPHY OF THE FIRST AMENDMENT (2007).
    • For an account, see ANTHONY LEWIS, FREEDOM FOR THE THOUGHT THAT WE HATE: A BIOGRAPHY OF THE FIRST AMENDMENT (2007).
  • 239
    • 65149093245 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Buckley v. Valeo, 424 U.S. 1, 262 (1976) (White, J., concurring in part and dissenting in part). Buckley, which struck down provisions of the Federal Election Campaign Act of 1971 that limited campaign expenditures, is the premier decision in this area.
    • Buckley v. Valeo, 424 U.S. 1, 262 (1976) (White, J., concurring in part and dissenting in part). Buckley, which struck down provisions of the Federal Election Campaign Act of 1971 that limited campaign expenditures, is the premier decision in this area.
  • 240
    • 33749863777 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • The Supreme Court 2003 Term - Foreword: The Constitutionalization of Democratic Politics, 118
    • discussing the design of democratic institutions, the nature of equal political representation, the role of political parties, and the structure of election financing, See generally
    • See generally Richard H. Pildes, The Supreme Court 2003 Term - Foreword: The Constitutionalization of Democratic Politics, 118 HARV. L. REV. 28, 55-153 (2004) (discussing the design of democratic institutions, the nature of equal political representation, the role of political parties, and the structure of election financing);
    • (2004) HARV. L. REV , vol.28 , pp. 55-153
    • Pildes, R.H.1
  • 241
    • 60449118713 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Zephyr Teachout, The Anti-Corruption Principle, 94 CORNELL L. REV. 341, 383-97 (2009) (discussing Buckley and subsequent cases dealing with the danger of corruption resulting from political campaign contributions). The Supreme Court revisited the issue in McConnell v. FEC, in which the Court reviewed provisions of the Bipartisan Campaign Reform Act of 2002. 540 U.S. 93 (2003);
    • Zephyr Teachout, The Anti-Corruption Principle, 94 CORNELL L. REV. 341, 383-97 (2009) (discussing Buckley and subsequent cases dealing with the danger of corruption resulting from political campaign contributions). The Supreme Court revisited the issue in McConnell v. FEC, in which the Court reviewed provisions of the Bipartisan Campaign Reform Act of 2002. 540 U.S. 93 (2003);
  • 242
    • 84868918175 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • cf. also Randall v. Sorell, 548 U.S. 230, 236-37 (2006, holding that limitations on expenditures by candidates and contributions by political parties in a Vermont campaign finance statute were inconsistent with the First Amendment, But cf. Nixon v. Shrink Mo. Gov't PAC, 528 U.S. 377, 382 (2000, applying Buckley but sustaining a Missouri law limiting the size of contributions to candidates in state senate races to $1,075, The Court's latest utterance pushes the limit a litde further by invalidating a federal law allowing candidates to accept larger individual contributions if they are competing with a millionaire candidate spending vast sums of his own money. Davis v. FEC, 128 S. Ct. 2759, 2770-75 2008, invalidating parts of the Bipartisan Campaign Reform Act of 2002
    • cf. also Randall v. Sorell, 548 U.S. 230, 236-37 (2006) (holding that limitations on expenditures by candidates and contributions by political parties in a Vermont campaign finance statute were "inconsistent with the First Amendment"). But cf. Nixon v. Shrink Mo. Gov't PAC, 528 U.S. 377, 382 (2000) (applying Buckley but sustaining a Missouri law limiting the size of contributions to candidates in state senate races to $1,075). The Court's latest utterance pushes the limit a litde further by invalidating a federal law allowing candidates to accept larger individual contributions if they are competing with a "millionaire candidate" spending vast sums of his own money. Davis v. FEC, 128 S. Ct. 2759, 2770-75 (2008) (invalidating parts of the Bipartisan Campaign Reform Act of 2002).
  • 243
    • 65149090495 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • See generally Roy A. Schotland, Elective Judges' Campaign Financing: Are State Judges' Robes the Emperor's Clothes of American Democracy?, 2J.L. & POL. 57, 96-133 (1985) (discussing judicial campaign financing and possible reforms).
    • See generally Roy A. Schotland, Elective Judges' Campaign Financing: Are State Judges' Robes the Emperor's Clothes of American Democracy?, 2J.L. & POL. 57, 96-133 (1985) (discussing judicial campaign financing and possible reforms).
  • 244
    • 84868917692 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • After accepting over $350,000 from diverse employees of State Farm Insurance Company for his 2004 campaign, Justice Lloyd Karmeier denied a motion to disqualify himself from casting the deciding vote in favor of State Farm on its appeal from an adverse judgment requiring it to pay punitive damages. Avery v. State Farm Mut. Auto. Ins. Co., 835 N.E.2d 801, 863-64 (2005) (reversing part of the lower court's judgment, including punitive damages), cert. denied, 547 U.S. 1003, 1003 (2006);
    • After accepting over $350,000 from diverse employees of State Farm Insurance Company for his 2004 campaign, Justice Lloyd Karmeier denied a motion to disqualify himself from casting the deciding vote in favor of State Farm on its appeal from an adverse judgment requiring it to pay punitive damages. Avery v. State Farm Mut. Auto. Ins. Co., 835 N.E.2d 801, 863-64 (2005) (reversing part of the lower court's judgment, including punitive damages), cert. denied, 547 U.S. 1003, 1003 (2006);
  • 245
    • 65149102502 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Contributions to Justice Lead to Protest: Ethics Case Highlights Judicial Election Issue
    • see, Feb. 13, at
    • see Leonard Post, Contributions to Justice Lead to Protest: Ethics Case Highlights Judicial Election Issue, NAT'L L.J., Feb. 13, 2006, at 4.
    • (2006) NAT'L L.J , pp. 4
    • Post, L.1
  • 246
    • 65149087271 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Avery, 547 U.S. at 1003.
    • Avery, 547 U.S. at 1003.
  • 247
    • 65149093906 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Justice Recusing Self from Massey Appeals, CHARLESTON DAILY MAIL (Charleston, W. Va.), Feb. 3, 2009, at 2A, LexisNexis Academic.
    • Justice Recusing Self from Massey Appeals, CHARLESTON DAILY MAIL (Charleston, W. Va.), Feb. 3, 2009, at 2A, LexisNexis Academic.
  • 248
    • 65149087716 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Marcia Coyle, Review Sought on Judicial Recusals: W. Va. Case Triggers Key Ethical Query, NAT' L.J., Aug. 4, 2008, at 1.
    • Marcia Coyle, Review Sought on Judicial Recusals: W. Va. Case Triggers Key Ethical Query, NAT' L.J., Aug. 4, 2008, at 1.
  • 249
    • 65149094271 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • The American Bar Association first promulgated its Canons of Judicial Ethics in 1924. See CANONS OF JUDICIAL ETHICS (1924), in AMERICAN BAR ASSOCIATION, OPINIONS OF THE COMMITTEE ON PROFESSIONAL ETHICS AND GRIEVANCES WITH THE CANONS ON PROFESSION ETHICS AND CANON JUDICIAL ETHICS 29, 29-39 (1936).
    • The American Bar Association first promulgated its Canons of Judicial Ethics in 1924. See CANONS OF JUDICIAL ETHICS (1924), in AMERICAN BAR ASSOCIATION, OPINIONS OF THE COMMITTEE ON PROFESSIONAL ETHICS AND GRIEVANCES WITH THE CANONS ON PROFESSION ETHICS AND CANON JUDICIAL ETHICS 29, 29-39 (1936).
  • 250
    • 65149093507 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • In 1972 the ABA published its Model Code of Judicial Conduct that was intended to be enforced by a disciplinary system. An important aim of the Code was to protect the independence of the elected judiciary by forbidding those campaign practices most likely to call the integrity and disinterest of the candidates into public question. Judges have been subjected to discipline for gross violations of such rules. See, e.g, William Glaberson, States Rein in Truth-Bending in Court Races: Judges Face Penalties for Deceiving Voters, N.Y. TIMES, Aug. 23, 2000, at Al Across the country, judges are being fined, censured, and even threatened with removal for practicing that venerable political art: exaggerating or outright lying during a campaign
    • In 1972 the ABA published its Model Code of Judicial Conduct that was intended to be enforced by a disciplinary system. An important aim of the Code was to protect the independence of the elected judiciary by forbidding those campaign practices most likely to call the integrity and disinterest of the candidates into public question. Judges have been subjected to discipline for gross violations of such rules. See, e.g., William Glaberson, States Rein in Truth-Bending in Court Races: Judges Face Penalties for Deceiving Voters, N.Y. TIMES, Aug. 23, 2000, at Al ("Across the country, judges are being fined, censured, and even threatened with removal for practicing that venerable political art: exaggerating or outright lying during a campaign.").
  • 251
    • 84868917693 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • In 2007, the Code was revised. Although states have enacted diverse variations on the code, all have enforcement procedures that are active. See generally JAMES J. ALFINI ET AL, JUDICIAL CONDUCT AND ETHICS § 11.03 4th ed. 2007, discussing judicial discipline agency jurisdiction over campaign ethics violations
    • In 2007, the Code was revised. Although states have enacted diverse variations on the code, all have enforcement procedures that are active. See generally JAMES J. ALFINI ET AL., JUDICIAL CONDUCT AND ETHICS § 11.03 (4th ed. 2007) (discussing judicial discipline agency jurisdiction over campaign ethics violations).
  • 252
    • 65149085844 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • See Republican Party of Minn. v. White, 536 U.S. 765, 788 (2002) (striking down a rule prohibiting candidates for judicial election from announcing their views on disputed legal and political issues on First Amendment grounds).
    • See Republican Party of Minn. v. White, 536 U.S. 765, 788 (2002) (striking down a rule prohibiting candidates for judicial election from announcing their views on disputed legal and political issues on First Amendment grounds).
  • 254
    • 65149105780 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Republican Party of Minn. v. White, 416 F.3d 738, 754-63 (8th Cir. 2005) (en banc), cert, denied, 546 U.S. 1157 (2006).
    • Republican Party of Minn. v. White, 416 F.3d 738, 754-63 (8th Cir. 2005) (en banc), cert, denied, 546 U.S. 1157 (2006).
  • 255
    • 65149106685 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Id. at 763-66
    • Id. at 763-66.
  • 257
    • 65149101487 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • N.Y. Times Co. v. Sullivan, 376 U.S. 254, 279-83 (1964) (holding that in order for public officials to recover damages for a defamatory falsehood relating to their official conduct, they must prove actual malice).
    • N.Y. Times Co. v. Sullivan, 376 U.S. 254, 279-83 (1964) (holding that in order for public officials to recover damages for a defamatory falsehood relating to their official conduct, they must prove "actual malice").
  • 258
    • 65149095732 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • See Stephen B. Bright, Political Attacks on the Judiciary: Can Justice Be Done amid Efforts to Intimidate and Remove Judges from Office for Unpopular Decisions?, 72 N.Y.U. L. REV. 308, 313-15 (1997) (discussing the removal of Tennessee Supreme Court Justice Penny White);\
    • See Stephen B. Bright, Political Attacks on the Judiciary: Can Justice Be Done amid Efforts to Intimidate and Remove Judges from Office for Unpopular Decisions?, 72 N.Y.U. L. REV. 308, 313-15 (1997) (discussing the removal of Tennessee Supreme Court Justice Penny White);\
  • 259
    • 0346963452 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Traciel V. Reid, The Politicization of Retention Elections: Lessons from the Defeat of Justices Lanphier and White, 83 JUDICATURE 68 (1999) (discussing the defeat in retention elections of Nebraska Supreme Court Justice David Lanphier and Tennessee Supreme Court Justice Penny White);
    • Traciel V. Reid, The Politicization of Retention Elections: Lessons from the Defeat of Justices Lanphier and White, 83 JUDICATURE 68 (1999) (discussing the defeat in retention elections of Nebraska Supreme Court Justice David Lanphier and Tennessee Supreme Court Justice Penny White);
  • 260
    • 65149093500 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • A Pa. Rarity: Incumbent Justice Out: Anger over Quiet Pay Raise Hits Judicial Vote
    • Nov. 14, at
    • Emily Heller, A Pa. Rarity: Incumbent Justice Out: Anger over Quiet Pay Raise Hits Judicial Vote, NAT'L L.J., Nov. 14, 2005, at 6;
    • (2005) NAT'L L.J , pp. 6
    • Heller, E.1
  • 261
    • 65149084731 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • W.Va. Supreme Court Justice Defeated in Rancorous Contest
    • Nov. 4, at
    • Carol Morello, W.Va. Supreme Court Justice Defeated in Rancorous Contest, WASH. POST, Nov. 4, 2004, at A15.
    • (2004) WASH. POST
    • Morello, C.1
  • 262
    • 65149083739 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • For an empirical study of voter awareness of the identities of judicial candidates, see J. Christopher Heagarty, Public Opinion and an Elected Judiciary: New Avenues for Reform, 39 WILLAMETTE L. REV. 1287, 1295-99 (2003).
    • For an empirical study of voter awareness of the identities of judicial candidates, see J. Christopher Heagarty, Public Opinion and an Elected Judiciary: New Avenues for Reform, 39 WILLAMETTE L. REV. 1287, 1295-99 (2003).
  • 264
    • 65149104583 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • See Viveca Novak, Judgment Day in Wisconsin, FACTCHECK.ORG, Mar. 10, 2008, http://www.factcheck.org/judicial- campaigns/judgment-day-in-wisconsin.html [hereinafter Novak, Judgment Day];
    • See Viveca Novak, Judgment Day in Wisconsin, FACTCHECK.ORG, Mar. 10, 2008, http://www.factcheck.org/judicial- campaigns/judgment-day-in-wisconsin.html [hereinafter Novak, Judgment Day];
  • 265
    • 65149104990 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • see also Viveca. Novak, Wisconsin Judgment Day: the Sequel, FACTCHECK.ORG, Mar. 21, 2008, http://www.factcheck.org/ elections-2008/wisconsin-judgment-day-the-sequel.html [hereinafter Novak, Sequel].
    • see also Viveca. Novak, Wisconsin Judgment Day: the Sequel, FACTCHECK.ORG, Mar. 21, 2008, http://www.factcheck.org/ elections-2008/wisconsin-judgment-day-the-sequel.html [hereinafter Novak, Sequel].
  • 266
    • 65149089308 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • See Novak, Judgment Day, supra note 150
    • See Novak, Judgment Day, supra note 150.
  • 267
    • 65149084374 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • See id
    • See id.
  • 269
    • 65149085468 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • See id
    • See id.
  • 270
    • 65149105516 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • See id
    • See id.
  • 271
    • 65149092660 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • See id
    • See id.
  • 272
    • 65149088963 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • The strategy may have been suggested by John Grisham's novel The Appeal (2007), a painful account of a bought judicial election.
    • The strategy may have been suggested by John Grisham's novel The Appeal (2007), a painful account of a bought judicial election.
  • 273
    • 65149090010 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Rendering Justice, with One Eye on Re-election
    • See, May 25, § 1, at
    • See Adam Liptak, Rendering Justice, with One Eye on Re-election, N.Y. Times, May 25, 2008, § 1, at 1.
    • (2008) N.Y. Times , pp. 1
    • Liptak, A.1
  • 274
    • 65149105654 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • The Wisconsin Judicial Commission commenced a proceeding on October 7, 2008 in the Supreme Court of Wisconsin. See Patrick Marley & Steven Walters, Judicial Commission Says Gableman Ad Was Deceiving, MILWAUKEE J. SENTINEL, Oct. 8, 2008, at Al, LexisNexis Academic.
    • The Wisconsin Judicial Commission commenced a proceeding on October 7, 2008 in the Supreme Court of Wisconsin. See Patrick Marley & Steven Walters, Judicial Commission Says Gableman Ad Was Deceiving, MILWAUKEE J. SENTINEL, Oct. 8, 2008, at Al, LexisNexis Academic.
  • 275
    • 65149100587 scopus 로고
    • Towards an Independent, Fair, and Competent Judiciary: An Argument for Improving Judicial Elections, 7 GEO
    • See
    • See Maura Anne Schoshinski, Towards an Independent, Fair, and Competent Judiciary: An Argument for Improving Judicial Elections, 7 GEO. J. LEGAL ETHICS 839, 847 (1994).
    • (1994) J. LEGAL ETHICS , vol.839 , pp. 847
    • Anne Schoshinski, M.1
  • 276
    • 65149106023 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • See id. at 847-48.
    • See id. at 847-48.
  • 277
    • 65149100475 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • See id. at 849.
    • See id. at 849.
  • 278
    • 65149085840 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • See MICHAL R. BELKNAP, To IMPROVE THE ADMINISTRATION OF JUSTICE: A HISTORY OF THE AMERICAN JUDICATURE SOCIETY 102-06 (1992);
    • See MICHAL R. BELKNAP, To IMPROVE THE ADMINISTRATION OF JUSTICE: A HISTORY OF THE AMERICAN JUDICATURE SOCIETY 102-06 (1992);
  • 279
    • 65149094794 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Schoshinski, supra note 160, at 850
    • Schoshinski, supra note 160, at 850.
  • 280
    • 65149094537 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • For an account of the variations injudicial selection schemes, see Polly J. Price, Selection of State Court Judges, in STATE JUDICIARIES AND IMPARTIALITY: JUDGING THE JUDGES 9, 16-19 (Roger Clegg & James D. Miller eds., 1996).
    • For an account of the variations injudicial selection schemes, see Polly J. Price, Selection of State Court Judges, in STATE JUDICIARIES AND IMPARTIALITY: JUDGING THE JUDGES 9, 16-19 (Roger Clegg & James D. Miller eds., 1996).
  • 281
    • 65149098298 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • For accounts of the California debacle, see BETTY MEDSGER, FRAMED: THE NEW RIGHT ATTACK ON CHIEF JUSTICE ROSE BIRD AND THE COURTS 80-81 (1983);
    • For accounts of the California debacle, see BETTY MEDSGER, FRAMED: THE NEW RIGHT ATTACK ON CHIEF JUSTICE ROSE BIRD AND THE COURTS 80-81 (1983);
  • 282
    • 65149096859 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • PREBLE STOLZ, JUDGING JUDGES: THE INVESTIGATION OF ROSE BIRD AND THE CALIFORNIA SUPREME COURT (1981);
    • PREBLE STOLZ, JUDGING JUDGES: THE INVESTIGATION OF ROSE BIRD AND THE CALIFORNIA SUPREME COURT (1981);
  • 283
    • 65149092180 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • John H. Culver &John T. Wold, Judicial Reform in California, in JUDICIAL REFORM IN THE STATES 139, 156 (Anthony Champagne &Judith Haydel eds., 1993);
    • John H. Culver &John T. Wold, Judicial Reform in California, in JUDICIAL REFORM IN THE STATES 139, 156 (Anthony Champagne &Judith Haydel eds., 1993);
  • 284
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    • Developing A Consensus of Constraint: A Judge's Perspective on Judicial Retention Elections, 61
    • Joseph R. Grodin, Developing A Consensus of Constraint: A Judge's Perspective on Judicial Retention Elections, 61 S. CAL. L. REV. 1969 (1988);
    • (1988) S. CAL. L. REV. 1969
    • Grodin, J.R.1
  • 285
    • 65149103008 scopus 로고
    • Judicial Independence, Judicial Accountability, Judicial Elections, and the California Supreme Court: Defining the Terms of the Debate, 59
    • Roberts. Thompson, Judicial Independence, Judicial Accountability, Judicial Elections, and the California Supreme Court: Defining the Terms of the Debate, 59 S. CAL. L. REV. 809 (1986).
    • (1986) S. CAL. L. REV , vol.809
  • 286
    • 84868926407 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • See TASK FORCE ON LAWYERS' POLITICAL CONTRIBUTIONS, REPORT AND RECOMMENDATIONS: PART Two 89-107 (1998). The U.S. Chamber of Commerce reportedly spent $120 million in 2002-06, most of it through the Institute for Legal Reform, a tax-free affiliate. See Zach Patton, Robe Warriors
    • Data on lawyer contributions was provided by the American Bar Association, Mar, at
    • Data on lawyer contributions was provided by the American Bar Association. See TASK FORCE ON LAWYERS' POLITICAL CONTRIBUTIONS, REPORT AND RECOMMENDATIONS: PART Two 89-107 (1998). The U.S. Chamber of Commerce reportedly spent $120 million in 2002-06, most of it through the Institute for Legal Reform, a tax-free affiliate. See Zach Patton, Robe Warriors, GOVERNING, Mar. 2006, at 34, 36.
    • (2006) GOVERNING
  • 287
    • 65149089569 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • See In re Marriage Cases, 183 P.Sd 384, 397 (Cal. 2008).
    • See In re Marriage Cases, 183 P.Sd 384, 397 (Cal. 2008).
  • 288
    • 65149102504 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Jessica Garrison et al., Voters Approve Proposition 8 Banning Same-Sex Marriages, L.A. TIMES, Nov. 5, 2008, http://www.latimes.com/news/ local/la-me-gaymarriage5-2008nov05,0,1545381.story.
    • Jessica Garrison et al., Voters Approve Proposition 8 Banning Same-Sex Marriages, L.A. TIMES, Nov. 5, 2008, http://www.latimes.com/news/ local/la-me-gaymarriage5-2008nov05,0,1545381.story.
  • 289
    • 65149099711 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • See MacLean, supra note 11
    • See MacLean, supra note 11.
  • 290
    • 65149087975 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • See id
    • See id.
  • 291
    • 65149094268 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • See id
    • See id.
  • 292
    • 65149105515 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • The most recent effort to amend a state constitution to make judges less accountable to the people was made in Ohio in 1987. Despite the support of both parties and an array of other organizations, it was soundly rejected by the voters. See John D. Felice et al., Judicial Reform in Ohio, in JUDICIAL REFORM IN THE STATES, supra note 164, at 51, 51-69.
    • The most recent effort to amend a state constitution to make judges less accountable to the people was made in Ohio in 1987. Despite the support of both parties and an array of other organizations, it was soundly rejected by the voters. See John D. Felice et al., Judicial Reform in Ohio, in JUDICIAL REFORM IN THE STATES, supra note 164, at 51, 51-69.
  • 293
    • 65149098720 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • A similar result can now be expected in other states. The American Bar Association in 2002 reluctantly recognized this reality by acknowledging public finance of judicial campaigns as an alternative acceptable to it. See AMERICAN BAR ASSOCIATION STANDING COMMITTEE ON JUDICIAL INDEPENDENCE, REPORT OF THE COMMISSION ON PUBLIC FINANCING OF JUDICIAL CAMPAIGNS passim (2002).
    • A similar result can now be expected in other states. The American Bar Association in 2002 reluctantly recognized this reality by acknowledging public finance of judicial campaigns as an alternative acceptable to it. See AMERICAN BAR ASSOCIATION STANDING COMMITTEE ON JUDICIAL INDEPENDENCE, REPORT OF THE COMMISSION ON PUBLIC FINANCING OF JUDICIAL CAMPAIGNS passim (2002).
  • 294
    • 65149084001 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • J.J. GASS, AFTER WHITE: DEFENDING AND AMENDING CANONS OF JUDICIAL ETHICS 10 (2004). On the relation between canons of judicial ethics and due process, see Randall T. Shepard, Campaign Speech: Restraint and Liberty in Judicial Ethics, 9 GEO. J. LEGAL ETHICS 1059 (1996).
    • J.J. GASS, AFTER WHITE: DEFENDING AND AMENDING CANONS OF JUDICIAL ETHICS 10 (2004). On the relation between canons of judicial ethics and due process, see Randall T. Shepard, Campaign Speech: Restraint and Liberty in Judicial Ethics, 9 GEO. J. LEGAL ETHICS 1059 (1996).
  • 295
    • 84963456897 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • notes 136-37 and accompanying text
    • See supra notes 136-37 and accompanying text.
    • See supra
  • 296
    • 0347108730 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Michael W. McConnell, The Redistricting Cases: Original Mistakes and Current Consequences, 24 HARV. J.L. & PUB. POL'Y 103, 116-17 (2000).
    • Michael W. McConnell, The Redistricting Cases: Original Mistakes and Current Consequences, 24 HARV. J.L. & PUB. POL'Y 103, 116-17 (2000).
  • 297
    • 42149179454 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Bush v. Gore, 531 U.S
    • See generally Bush v. Gore, 531 U.S. 98 (2000).
    • (2000) See generally , pp. 98
  • 298
    • 65149085723 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • For contemporaneous comment, see Paul D. Carrington & H. Jefferson Powell, The Right to Self-Govemment After Bush v. Gore, (Duke Univ. Sch. of Law Pub. Law and Legal Theory Working Paper Series, Working Paper No. 26, 2001);
    • For contemporaneous comment, see Paul D. Carrington & H. Jefferson Powell, The Right to Self-Govemment After Bush v. Gore, (Duke Univ. Sch. of Law Pub. Law and Legal Theory Working Paper Series, Working Paper No. 26, 2001);
  • 299
    • 0345818664 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Understanding the Constitutional Revolution, 87
    • see also
    • see also Jack M. Balkin & Sanford Levinson, Understanding the Constitutional Revolution, 87 VA. L. REV. 1045 (2001);
    • (2001) VA. L. REV , vol.1045
    • Balkin, J.M.1    Levinson, S.2
  • 300
    • 0346449751 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Suspicion, or the New Prince, 68
    • Frank I. Michelman, Suspicion, or the New Prince, 68 U. CHI. L. REV. 679 (2001).
    • (2001) U. CHI. L. REV , vol.679
    • Michelman, F.I.1
  • 301
    • 65149083022 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • But see John C. Yoo, In Defense of the Court's Legitimacy, 68 U. CHI. L. REV. 775 (2001).
    • But see John C. Yoo, In Defense of the Court's Legitimacy, 68 U. CHI. L. REV. 775 (2001).
  • 302
    • 34250202265 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Justice Breyer assures us that the people accepted that result as demonstrated by the fact that there was no need to summon paratroops to enforce the judgment See Stephen Breyer, Judicial Independence: Remarks by Justice Breyer, 95 GEO. L J. 903, 907 (2007).
    • Justice Breyer assures us that the people accepted that result as demonstrated by the fact that there was no need to summon paratroops to enforce the judgment See Stephen Breyer, Judicial Independence: Remarks by Justice Breyer, 95 GEO. L J. 903, 907 (2007).
  • 303
    • 65149103376 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • His view is supported by polling data assembled before the decision was announced. See Howard Gillman, Judicial Independence Through the Lens of Bush v. Gore: Four Lessons from Political Science, 64 OHIO ST. LJ. 249, 260 (2003).
    • His view is supported by polling data assembled before the decision was announced. See Howard Gillman, Judicial Independence Through the Lens of Bush v. Gore: Four Lessons from Political Science, 64 OHIO ST. LJ. 249, 260 (2003).
  • 304
    • 79960600314 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • For a comprehensive review of commentary on the decision, see CLARKE ROUNTREE, JUDGING THE SUPREME COURT: CONSTRUCTIONS OF MOTIVES IN BUSH V. GORE (2007).
    • For a comprehensive review of commentary on the decision, see CLARKE ROUNTREE, JUDGING THE SUPREME COURT: CONSTRUCTIONS OF MOTIVES IN BUSH V. GORE (2007).
  • 305
    • 65149084496 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Bush v. Gore, 531 U.S. at 111.
    • Bush v. Gore, 531 U.S. at 111.
  • 306
    • 65149102125 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Unnoticed was another utterance of Chief Justice Marshall: the Court has no more right to decline the exercise of jurisdiction which is given, than to usurp that which is not given. Cohens v. Virginia, 19 U.S. (6 Wheat.) 264, 404 (1821).
    • Unnoticed was another utterance of Chief Justice Marshall: the Court has "no more right to decline the exercise of jurisdiction which is given, than to usurp that which is not given." Cohens v. Virginia, 19 U.S. (6 Wheat.) 264, 404 (1821).
  • 307
    • 84868918172 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Judiciary Act of 1922, ch. 306, sec. 2, 42 Stat. 837, 838 (current version at 28 U.S.C. § 331 2006, The Conference is a seldom-noticed council composed of the chief judges of the federal circuits, who acquire their status as chiefs by seniority in service on their courts, and other federal judges selected by their colleagues in the circuits or regions that they represent
    • Judiciary Act of 1922, ch. 306, sec. 2, 42 Stat. 837, 838 (current version at 28 U.S.C. § 331 (2006)). The Conference is a seldom-noticed council composed of the chief judges of the federal circuits, who acquire their status as chiefs by seniority in service on their courts, and other federal judges selected by their colleagues in the circuits or regions that they represent.
  • 308
    • 65149098442 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Judith Resnik, Democratic Responses to the Breadth of Power of the Chief Justice, in REFORMING THE COURT: TERM LIMITS FOR SUPREME COURT JUSTICES, supra note 5, at 181, 189.
    • Judith Resnik, Democratic Responses to the Breadth of Power of the Chief Justice, in REFORMING THE COURT: TERM LIMITS FOR SUPREME COURT JUSTICES, supra note 5, at 181, 189.
  • 309
    • 84972476226 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • See Peter Graham Fish, Crises, Politics, and Federal Judicial Reform: The Administrative Office Act of 1939, 32 J. POL. 599, 601-02 (1970).
    • See Peter Graham Fish, Crises, Politics, and Federal Judicial Reform: The Administrative Office Act of 1939, 32 J. POL. 599, 601-02 (1970).
  • 310
    • 84868936163 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Rules Enabling Act of 1934, ch. 651, 48 Stat. 1064 codified as amended at 28 U.S.C. §§ 2072-74
    • Rules Enabling Act of 1934, ch. 651, 48 Stat. 1064 (codified as amended at 28 U.S.C. §§ 2072-74).
  • 311
    • 0141528972 scopus 로고
    • The Rules Enabling Act of 1934, 130
    • For a discussion on its origins, see
    • For a discussion on its origins, see Stephen B. Burbank, The Rules Enabling Act of 1934, 130 U. PA. L. REV. 1015, 1043-98 (1982).
    • (1982) U. PA. L. REV , vol.1015 , pp. 1043-1098
    • Burbank, S.B.1
  • 312
    • 65149090619 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • The committee drafting the Federal Rules of Civil Procedure included no judges, but only eminent academics and leaders of the organized bar. Burbank, supra note 180, at 1132-37
    • The committee drafting the Federal Rules of Civil Procedure included no judges, but only eminent academics and leaders of the organized bar. Burbank, supra note 180, at 1132-37.
  • 313
    • 65149087014 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Act of Aug. 7, 1939, ch. 501, 53 Stat. 1223. 180 See Fish, supra note 179, at 601-02.
    • Act of Aug. 7, 1939, ch. 501, 53 Stat. 1223. 180 See Fish, supra note 179, at 601-02.
  • 314
    • 65149084002 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • See id. at 604.
    • See id. at 604.
  • 315
    • 57649106443 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Judicial Selection and Democratic Theory: Demand, Supply, and Life Tenure, 26
    • See
    • See Judith Resnik, Judicial Selection and Democratic Theory: Demand, Supply, and Life Tenure, 26 CARDOZO L. REV. 579, 605-13 (2005).
    • (2005) CARDOZO L. REV , vol.579 , pp. 605-613
    • Resnik, J.1
  • 316
    • 65149086337 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • For an account of the theory, see generally DANIEL A. FARBER & PHILIP P. FRICKEY, LAW AND PUBLIC CHOICE: A CRITICAL INTRODUCTION (1991) (exploring the applications of public choice to legal issues).
    • For an account of the theory, see generally DANIEL A. FARBER & PHILIP P. FRICKEY, LAW AND PUBLIC CHOICE: A CRITICAL INTRODUCTION (1991) (exploring the applications of public choice to legal issues).
  • 317
    • 1542530852 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Paradise Lost, Paradigm Found: Redefining the Judiciary's Imperiled Role in Congress, 71
    • evaluating the strengths and weaknesses of the public choice theory with respect to federal judges, On its application to the judiciary, see
    • On its application to the judiciary, see Charles Gardner Geyh, Paradise Lost, Paradigm Found: Redefining the Judiciary's Imperiled Role in Congress, 71 N.Y.U. L. REV. 1165 (1996) (evaluating the strengths and weaknesses of the public choice theory with respect to federal judges);
    • (1996) N.Y.U. L. REV , vol.1165
    • Gardner Geyh, C.1
  • 318
    • 0010955087 scopus 로고
    • Judicial Preferences, Public Choice, and the Rules of Procedure, 23
    • arguing that federal judges can create procedural rules that reflect their own self-interest because they have control over the development of the Federal Rules of Civil Procedure
    • Jonathan R. Macey, Judicial Preferences, Public Choice, and the Rules of Procedure, 23 J. LEGAL STUD. 627 (1994) (arguing that federal judges can create procedural rules that reflect their own self-interest because they have control over the development of the Federal Rules of Civil Procedure).
    • (1994) J. LEGAL STUD , vol.627
    • Macey, J.R.1
  • 319
    • 65149106024 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Over a period of forty years, the authors have worked closely with scores of federal judges and attest that every one of them was highly professional and dedicated to die public interest But judges, like professors or lawyers or doctors, do tend, when sharing a public responsibility, to agree that the future status of their group is an important and often dominant consideration
    • Over a period of forty years, the authors have worked closely with scores of federal judges and attest that every one of them was highly professional and dedicated to die public interest But judges, like professors or lawyers or doctors, do tend, when sharing a public responsibility, to agree that the future status of their group is an important and often dominant consideration.
  • 320
    • 65149084373 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • There have been times when clerks' roles were elevated by disabilities of aging Justices requiring greater delegation. The post-1970 era, has featured two especially stark examples of judicial failure: the publicly visible mental disability of Justice William O. Douglas in 1975 following a serious stroke, and the far less dramatic scandal of Justice Harry A. Blackmun increasingly allowing his law clerks to hold greater and greater sway over his opinions during the 1980s and early 1990s. In addition, at least three other justices since 1970, Hugo Black, Lewis Powell, Thurgood Marshall, have suffered mental decrepitude that seriously impaired their ability to do their jobs, David J. Garrow, Protecting and Enhancing the U.S. Supreme Court, in REFORMING THE COURT: TERM LIMITS FOR SUPREME COURTS JUSTICES, supra note 5, at 271, 273 citations omitted
    • There have been times when clerks' roles were elevated by disabilities of aging Justices requiring greater delegation. The post-1970 era . . . has featured two especially stark examples of judicial failure: the publicly visible mental disability of Justice William O. Douglas in 1975 following a serious stroke, and the far less dramatic scandal of Justice Harry A. Blackmun increasingly allowing his law clerks to hold greater and greater sway over his opinions during the 1980s and early 1990s. In addition, at least three other justices since 1970 - Hugo Black, Lewis Powell, Thurgood Marshall - have suffered mental decrepitude that seriously impaired their ability to do their jobs .... David J. Garrow, Protecting and Enhancing the U.S. Supreme Court, in REFORMING THE COURT: TERM LIMITS FOR SUPREME COURTS JUSTICES, supra note 5, at 271, 273 (citations omitted).
  • 321
    • 65149095610 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • See, e. g., SIDNEY FINE, FRANK MURPHY: THE WASHINGTON YEARS 161-63 (1984);
    • See, e. g., SIDNEY FINE, FRANK MURPHY: THE WASHINGTON YEARS 161-63 (1984);
  • 322
    • 65149097112 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • LINDA GREENHOUSE, BECOMING JUSTICE BLACKMUN 148-49, 176-79 (2005);
    • LINDA GREENHOUSE, BECOMING JUSTICE BLACKMUN 148-49, 176-79 (2005);
  • 324
    • 65149093777 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • CHI. L. REV. 995 (2000) (providing multiple examples of ailing Justices relying heavily on their clerks);
    • CHI. L. REV. 995 (2000) (providing multiple examples of ailing Justices relying heavily on their clerks);
  • 326
    • 65149091807 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • For a summary listing of all the positions for which a young lawyer might apply, see Online System for Clerkship Application & Review (OSCAR), http:// lawclerks.ao.uscourts.gov.
    • For a summary listing of all the positions for which a young lawyer might apply, see Online System for Clerkship Application & Review (OSCAR), http:// lawclerks.ao.uscourts.gov.
  • 327
    • 65149098586 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Judiciary Act of 1891, ch. 517, 26 Stat. 826.
    • Judiciary Act of 1891, ch. 517, 26 Stat. 826.
  • 328
    • 65149098958 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Decline of the institution of oral argument was first marked by Charles R. Haworth, Screening and Summary Procedures in the United States Courts of Appeals, 1973 WASH. U. L.Q. 257, 265-69.
    • Decline of the institution of oral argument was first marked by Charles R. Haworth, Screening and Summary Procedures in the United States Courts of Appeals, 1973 WASH. U. L.Q. 257, 265-69.
  • 329
    • 65149097235 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • See WRIGHT & KANE, supra note 75, at 771
    • See WRIGHT & KANE, supra note 75, at 771.
  • 330
    • 65149091700 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Id. at 352-69;
    • Id. at 352-69;
  • 331
    • 65149083402 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • see also JOHN W. PALMER, CONSTITUTIONAL RIGHTS OF PRISONERS 351-79 (8th ed. 2006) (discussing the various types of additional litigation that prisoners may pursue after incarceration).
    • see also JOHN W. PALMER, CONSTITUTIONAL RIGHTS OF PRISONERS 351-79 (8th ed. 2006) (discussing the various types of additional litigation that prisoners may pursue after incarceration).
  • 332
    • 65149088099 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • See generally RICHARD L. LIPPKE, RETHINKING IMPRISONMENT (2007). The precipitate growth in prisoner petitions is, in large measure, a result of the vast increase in the number of persons incarcerated in the United States, which is a secondary consequence of the war on drugs.
    • See generally RICHARD L. LIPPKE, RETHINKING IMPRISONMENT (2007). The precipitate growth in prisoner petitions is, in large measure, a result of the vast increase in the number of persons incarcerated in the United States, which is a secondary consequence of the "war" on drugs.
  • 333
    • 65149087850 scopus 로고
    • En Banc Hearings in the Federal Courts of Appeals: Accommodating Institutional Responsibilities (Part I), 40
    • See
    • See Lamar Alexander, En Banc Hearings in the Federal Courts of Appeals: Accommodating Institutional Responsibilities (Part I), 40 N.Y.U. L. REV. 563, 578 (1965).
    • (1965) N.Y.U. L. REV , vol.563 , pp. 578
    • Alexander, L.1
  • 334
    • 65149097929 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Textile Mills Sec. Corp. v. Comm'r, 314 U.S. 326, 334 n.14 (1941). In Lang's Estate v. Commissioner, 97 F.2d 867, 869 & n.2 (9th Cir. 1938), the court had held that it could not sit in panels larger than three.
    • Textile Mills Sec. Corp. v. Comm'r, 314 U.S. 326, 334 n.14 (1941). In Lang's Estate v. Commissioner, 97 F.2d 867, 869 & n.2 (9th Cir. 1938), the court had held that it could not sit in panels larger than three.
  • 335
    • 84868936164 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Congress approved the practice in 1948. See Act of June 25, 1948, ch. 646, § 46, 62 Stat. 869, 871 (codified as amended at 28 U.S.C. § 46(c) (2006)).
    • Congress approved the practice in 1948. See Act of June 25, 1948, ch. 646, § 46, 62 Stat. 869, 871 (codified as amended at 28 U.S.C. § 46(c) (2006)).
  • 336
    • 65149097232 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • See W. Pac. R.R. Corp. v. W. Pac. R.R. Co., 345 U.S. 247, 250-51 (1953).
    • See W. Pac. R.R. Corp. v. W. Pac. R.R. Co., 345 U.S. 247, 250-51 (1953).
  • 337
    • 65149084140 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • AMERICAN BAR FOUNDATION, supra note 32;
    • AMERICAN BAR FOUNDATION, supra note 32;
  • 338
    • 65149102128 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • FEDERAL JUDICIAL CENTER, supra note 32;
    • FEDERAL JUDICIAL CENTER, supra note 32;
  • 339
    • 65149084854 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Commission on the Revision of the Federal Court Appellate System, supra note 32, at 206-07;
    • Commission on the Revision of the Federal Court Appellate System, supra note 32, at 206-07;
  • 340
    • 65149102126 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Commission on Structural Alternatives for the Federal Courts of Appeals, supra note 32, at 34-36;
    • Commission on Structural Alternatives for the Federal Courts of Appeals, supra note 32, at 34-36;
  • 341
    • 65149102129 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Study Group on the Caseload of the Supreme Court, supra note 32, at 574-75. Among the eminent advocates of restructuring the federal judiciary have been American Bar Association presidents (e.g., Bernard Siegel and Leon Jaworski), eminent federal judges (e.g., Carl McGowan, Thurgood Marshall, and Edward Becker), eminent scholars (e.g., Paul Freund, Alexander Bickel, and Maurice Rosenberg) and congressional leaders (e.g., Senator Roman Hruska).
    • Study Group on the Caseload of the Supreme Court, supra note 32, at 574-75. Among the eminent advocates of restructuring the federal judiciary have been American Bar Association presidents (e.g., Bernard Siegel and Leon Jaworski), eminent federal judges (e.g., Carl McGowan, Thurgood Marshall, and Edward Becker), eminent scholars (e.g., Paul Freund, Alexander Bickel, and Maurice Rosenberg) and congressional leaders (e.g., Senator Roman Hruska).
  • 342
    • 65149088592 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Judge Posner has suggested that conflict resolution might be a task to be undertaken by the American Law Institute: The simplification of law was one of the Institute's original goals, and it is one that would be well served by the Institute's undertaking to monitor the thousands of appellate decisions, state and federal, handed down every year for conflicts on technical points of law and to propose solutions that I
    • Judge Posner has suggested that conflict resolution might be a task to be undertaken by the American Law Institute: The simplification of law was one of the Institute's original goals, and it is one that would be well served by the Institute's undertaking to monitor the thousands of appellate decisions, state and federal, handed down every year for conflicts on technical points of law and to propose solutions that I predict would be welcomed by courts and legislatures. RICHARD A. POSNER, THE PROBLEMATICS OF MORAL AND LEGAL THEORY 308-09 (1999).
  • 343
    • 46749146774 scopus 로고
    • The Need for a Court of Tax Appeals, 57
    • arguing that the only sensible system of court review of tax cases is to have a unified appellate procedure, See
    • See Erwin N. Griswold, The Need for a Court of Tax Appeals, 57 HARV. L. REV. 1153, 1173 (1944) (arguing that the only "sensible system of court review of tax cases is to have a unified appellate procedure").
    • (1944) HARV. L. REV , vol.1153 , pp. 1173
    • Griswold, E.N.1
  • 344
    • 65149087153 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • United States Law Week compiles a list annually. See, e.g., Circuit Splits Recently Noted in Law Week - 4th Quarter 2007, 76 U.S. L. WK. 1381, 1381-84 (2008).
    • United States Law Week compiles a list annually. See, e.g., Circuit Splits Recently Noted in Law Week - 4th Quarter 2007, 76 U.S. L. WK. 1381, 1381-84 (2008).
  • 345
    • 65149106800 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • See, e.g., Beaulieu v. United States, 497 U.S. 1038, 1038-40 (1990) (White, J., dissenting);
    • See, e.g., Beaulieu v. United States, 497 U.S. 1038, 1038-40 (1990) (White, J., dissenting);
  • 346
    • 65149099584 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Metheny v. Hamby, 488 U.S. 913, 915 (1988) (White, J., dissenting).
    • Metheny v. Hamby, 488 U.S. 913, 915 (1988) (White, J., dissenting).
  • 347
    • 34249006319 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • In 2005, the Judicial Conference presumed to declare which circuit had the right answer to questions of law on which there was disagreement. See Jacob Scott, Comment, Article III En Banc: The Judicial Conference as an Advisory Intercircuit Court of Appeals, 116 YALE L.J. 1625, 1628-31 2007, This was not an acceptable role for the Conference to play, not least because it had no jurisdiction to decide cases and no case or controversy had been presented to it That the Conference nevertheless attempted to provide a solution does signify the reality of the problem of circuit conflict
    • In 2005, the Judicial Conference presumed to declare which circuit had the right answer to questions of law on which there was disagreement. See Jacob Scott, Comment, Article III En Banc: The Judicial Conference as an Advisory Intercircuit Court of Appeals, 116 YALE L.J. 1625, 1628-31 (2007). This was not an acceptable role for the Conference to play, not least because it had no jurisdiction to decide cases and no "case or controversy" had been presented to it That the Conference nevertheless attempted to provide a solution does signify the reality of the problem of circuit conflict.
  • 348
    • 65149085333 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • The contention is sometimes advanced that it is a good thing to let issues of national law percolate in the various circuits before the Supreme Court burdens itself with resolving the conflict. See, e.g., California v. Carney, 471 U.S. 386, 400 n.11 (1985) (Stevens, J., dissenting).
    • The contention is sometimes advanced that it is a good thing to let issues of national law "percolate" in the various circuits before the Supreme Court burdens itself with resolving the conflict. See, e.g., California v. Carney, 471 U.S. 386, 400 n.11 (1985) (Stevens, J., dissenting).
  • 349
    • 65149100969 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • See generally Cordray & Cordray, supra note 112, at 437-39 (discussing different Justices' views both for and against percolation).
    • See generally Cordray & Cordray, supra note 112, at 437-39 (discussing different Justices' views both for and against "percolation").
  • 350
    • 65149084375 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • This notion, however, was ridiculed by Justice Rehnquist. William H. Rehnquist, The Changing Role of the Supreme Court, 14 FLA. ST. U. L. REV. 1, 11-12 1986
    • This notion, however, was ridiculed by Justice Rehnquist. William H. Rehnquist, The Changing Role of the Supreme Court, 14 FLA. ST. U. L. REV. 1, 11-12 (1986).
  • 351
    • 65149094409 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Justice White was even more dismissive. See Byron R. White, The Work of the Supreme Court: A Nuts and Bolts Description, 54 N.Y. ST. B.J. 346, 349 (1982);
    • Justice White was even more dismissive. See Byron R. White, The Work of the Supreme Court: A Nuts and Bolts Description, 54 N.Y. ST. B.J. 346, 349 (1982);
  • 352
    • 65149092895 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Remembering Justice White, 74
    • Byron White was an 'activist' Justice only in his unswerving view that the Court ought not let circuit splits linger, that it should say what the federal law is sooner rather than later, see also
    • see also Ruth Bader Ginsburg, Remembering Justice White, 74 U. COLO. L. REV. 1283, 1285 (2003) ("Byron White was an 'activist' Justice only in his unswerving view that the Court ought not let circuit splits linger, that it should say what the federal law is sooner rather than later.");
    • (2003) U. COLO. L. REV , vol.1283 , pp. 1285
    • Bader Ginsburg, R.1
  • 353
    • 65149104586 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Two Cheers for Judicial Restraint: Justice White and the Role of the Supreme Court, 74
    • Dennis J. Hutchinson, Two Cheers for Judicial Restraint: Justice White and the Role of the Supreme Court, 74 U. COLO. L. REV. 1409, 1415 (2003).
    • (2003) U. COLO. L. REV , vol.1409 , pp. 1415
    • Hutchinson, D.J.1
  • 354
    • 65149105264 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Justice O'Connor has also been critical of this type of percolation in certain cases. See Johnson v. Texas, 509 U.S. 350, 378-79 (1993) (O'Connor, J., dissenting). No state has opted for the idea of percolation, and it seems unlikely that anyone would propose such a scheme to Congress or any other legislature. Although much empirical work has been done on the Court's selection of cases, no example has yet been found of a legal issue that the Court resolved more wisely because it was left to percolate at the expense of citizens burdened by the continuing uncertainty and the cost of litigation.
    • Justice O'Connor has also been critical of this type of "percolation" in certain cases. See Johnson v. Texas, 509 U.S. 350, 378-79 (1993) (O'Connor, J., dissenting). No state has opted for the idea of percolation, and it seems unlikely that anyone would propose such a scheme to Congress or any other legislature. Although much empirical work has been done on the Court's selection of cases, no example has yet been found of a legal issue that the Court resolved more wisely because it was left to percolate at the expense of citizens burdened by the continuing uncertainty and the cost of litigation.
  • 355
    • 65149097605 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Sixty-eight percent of the district judges participating in a survey disagreed with the statement, There is consistency between panels considering die same issue. Paul D. Car-rington, The Obsolescence of the United States Court of Appeals: Roscoe Pound's Structural Solution, 15 J.L. & POL. 515, 519 n.13 (1999)
    • Sixty-eight percent of the district judges participating in a survey disagreed with the statement, "There is consistency between panels considering die same issue." Paul D. Car-rington, The Obsolescence of the United States Court of Appeals: Roscoe Pound's Structural Solution, 15 J.L. & POL. 515, 519 n.13 (1999)
  • 356
    • 65149088700 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • (citing NINTH CIRCUIT JUDICIAL COUNCIL, SURVEY OF DISTRICT COURT JUDGES REGARDING U.S. COURT OF APPEALS FOR THE NINTH CIRCUIT 4 (1987) (conducted by the Office of the Circuit Executive)).
    • (citing NINTH CIRCUIT JUDICIAL COUNCIL, SURVEY OF DISTRICT COURT JUDGES REGARDING U.S. COURT OF APPEALS FOR THE NINTH CIRCUIT 4 (1987) (conducted by the Office of the Circuit Executive)).
  • 357
    • 65149084248 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • See, e.g., Mitu Gulati & C.M.A. McCauliff, On Not Making Law, LAW & CONTEMP. PROBS., Summer 1998, at 157, 181-84 (discussing In re Tseng Labs, Inc., 954 F. Supp. 1024 (E.D. Pa. 1996), aff'd mem., 107 F.3d 8 (3d Cir. 1997), in which the Third Circuit affirmed the lower court's grant of summary judgment without discussing a potential conflict with previous Third Circuit decisions).
    • See, e.g., Mitu Gulati & C.M.A. McCauliff, On Not Making Law, LAW & CONTEMP. PROBS., Summer 1998, at 157, 181-84 (discussing In re Tseng Labs, Inc., 954 F. Supp. 1024 (E.D. Pa. 1996), aff'd mem., 107 F.3d 8 (3d Cir. 1997), in which the Third Circuit affirmed the lower court's grant of summary judgment without discussing a potential conflict with previous Third Circuit decisions).
  • 358
    • 65149102002 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Anastasoff v. United States, 223 F.3d 898, 905 (8th Cir. 2000) (en banc), vacated as moot, 235 F.3d 1054, 1056 (8th Cir. 2000) (en banc) ([W]hether unpublished opinions have precedential effect no longer has any relevance for the decision of this tax-refund case.).
    • Anastasoff v. United States, 223 F.3d 898, 905 (8th Cir. 2000) (en banc), vacated as moot, 235 F.3d 1054, 1056 (8th Cir. 2000) (en banc) ("[W]hether unpublished opinions have precedential effect no longer has any relevance for the decision of this tax-refund case.").
  • 360
    • 65149105646 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • The Court so ordered on April 12
    • See id. The Court so ordered on April 12, 2006.
    • (2006) See id
  • 361
    • 65149105908 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • This observer was Chief Judge John Walker of the Second Circuit. Tony Mauro, Green Light to Cite Unpublished Opinions, LEGAL TIMES, April 19, 2004, at 8
    • This observer was Chief Judge John Walker of the Second Circuit. Tony Mauro, Green Light to Cite Unpublished Opinions, LEGAL TIMES, April 19, 2004, at 8.
  • 362
    • 65149106558 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Alex Konzinski, Chief Judge of the Ninth Circuit, testified to the House Judiciary Committee that unpublished opinions are simply a letter to the parties telling them who won and who lost, and why. Issuing such opinions instead of full-blown rulings requiring many drafts, Kozinski said, frees us up to spend the time that needs to be spent on published opinions, the ones that actually shape the law. Tony Mauro, Courts Move Forward on Citation Change, LEGAL TIMES, May 26, 2003, at 8 [hereinafter Mauro, Courts Move Forward]. But his simple letter is the judicial task - to which shaping the law is a coincidental consequence and not the primary mission of this semi-superlegislature.
    • Alex Konzinski, Chief Judge of the Ninth Circuit, testified to the House Judiciary Committee that unpublished opinions are "simply a letter to the parties telling them who won and who lost, and why." Issuing such opinions instead of full-blown rulings requiring many drafts, Kozinski said, "frees us up to spend the time that needs to be spent on published opinions, the ones that actually shape the law." Tony Mauro, Courts Move Forward on Citation Change, LEGAL TIMES, May 26, 2003, at 8 [hereinafter Mauro, Courts Move Forward]. But his "simple letter" is the judicial task - to which shaping the law is a coincidental consequence and not the primary mission of this semi-superlegislature.
  • 363
    • 65149104991 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Mauro, Courts Move Forward, supra note 210
    • Mauro, Courts Move Forward, supra note 210.
  • 364
    • 65149103131 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Posner, supra note 18, at 61
    • Posner, supra note 18, at 61.
  • 365
    • 65149104869 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • See L.A. Powe, Jr., Marble Palace, We've Got A Problem - With You, in REFORMING THE COURT: TERM LIMITS FOR SUPREME COURT JUSTICES, supra note 5, at 99, 102.
    • See L.A. Powe, Jr., "Marble Palace, We've Got A Problem - With You", in REFORMING THE COURT: TERM LIMITS FOR SUPREME COURT JUSTICES, supra note 5, at 99, 102.
  • 366
    • 65149090498 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • See generally FRANK B. CROSS, DECISION MAKING IN THE U.S. COURTS OF APPEALS (2007);
    • See generally FRANK B. CROSS, DECISION MAKING IN THE U.S. COURTS OF APPEALS (2007);
  • 367
    • 65149103378 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • HARRY T. EDWARDS & LINDA A. ELLIOTT, FEDERAL STANDARDS OF REVIEW: REVIEW OF DISTRICT COURT DECISIONS AND AGENCY ACTIONS (2007) (an extended description of the courts' concerns with the law of appellate jurisdiction).
    • HARRY T. EDWARDS & LINDA A. ELLIOTT, FEDERAL STANDARDS OF REVIEW: REVIEW OF DISTRICT COURT DECISIONS AND AGENCY ACTIONS (2007) (an extended description of the courts' concerns with the law of appellate jurisdiction).
  • 368
    • 65149103999 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • See generally Marc Galanter, The Vanishing Trial: An Examination of Trials and Related Matters in Federal and State Courts, 1 J. EMPIRICAL LEGAL STUD. 459 (2004) (describing a steady decline in both the number of trials and percentage of cases terminated by trial in the American judicial system between 1962 and 2002).
    • See generally Marc Galanter, The Vanishing Trial: An Examination of Trials and Related Matters in Federal and State Courts, 1 J. EMPIRICAL LEGAL STUD. 459 (2004) (describing a steady decline in both the number of trials and percentage of cases terminated by trial in the American judicial system between 1962 and 2002).
  • 369
    • 65149105655 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • United States v. Booker, 543 U.S. 220, 244 (2005) (holding that Federal Sentencing Guidelines are inconsistent with the Sixth Amendment because they require judges to impose sentences based on facts not presented to the jury).
    • United States v. Booker, 543 U.S. 220, 244 (2005) (holding that Federal Sentencing Guidelines are inconsistent with the Sixth Amendment because they require judges to impose sentences based on facts not presented to the jury).
  • 370
    • 65149105517 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Buckeye Check Cashing, Inc. v. Cardegna, 546 U.S. 440, 443 (2006). The policy-was first declared in Moses H. Cone Memorial Hospital v. Mercury Construction Corp., 460 U.S. 1, 24 (1983).
    • Buckeye Check Cashing, Inc. v. Cardegna, 546 U.S. 440, 443 (2006). The "policy-was first declared in Moses H. Cone Memorial Hospital v. Mercury Construction Corp., 460 U.S. 1, 24 (1983).
  • 371
    • 65149100968 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • In 1985, the Court proclaimed, contrary to its legislative history, that the Act reflected a congressional desire to enforce agreements into which parties had entered. Dean Witter Reynolds Inc. v. Byrd, 470 U.S. 213, 220 1985
    • In 1985, the Court proclaimed, contrary to its legislative history, that the Act reflected a "congressional desire to enforce agreements into which parties had entered." Dean Witter Reynolds Inc. v. Byrd, 470 U.S. 213, 220 (1985).
  • 372
    • 65149095999 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • California law conferring rights on franchisees was made subject to preemption by the Federal Arbitration Act in Southland Corp. v. Keating, 465 U.S. 1, 8 1984
    • California law conferring rights on franchisees was made subject to preemption by the Federal Arbitration Act in Southland Corp. v. Keating, 465 U.S. 1, 8 (1984).
  • 373
    • 84868936162 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Federal Arbitration Act of 1925, ch. 213, 43 Stat. 883, codified as amended at 9 U.S.C. § 1 2006
    • Federal Arbitration Act of 1925, ch. 213, 43 Stat. 883, (codified as amended at 9 U.S.C. § 1 (2006)).
  • 374
    • 65149100476 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • See IAN R. MACNEIL, AMERICAN ARBITRATION LAW: REFORMATION, N ATIONALIZATION, INTERNATIONALIZATION 102-21 (1992).
    • See IAN R. MACNEIL, AMERICAN ARBITRATION LAW: REFORMATION, N ATIONALIZATION, INTERNATIONALIZATION 102-21 (1992).
  • 376
    • 84868917689 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Alternative Dispute Resolution Act of 1998, Pub. L. No. 105-315, § 6, 112 Stat. 2293, 2995-96, codified at 28 U.S.C. § 654 (2006, amending the Judicial Improvements and Access to Justice Act, Pub. L. No. 100-702, 102 Stat. 4642 1988
    • Alternative Dispute Resolution Act of 1998, Pub. L. No. 105-315, § 6, 112 Stat. 2293, 2995-96, (codified at 28 U.S.C. § 654 (2006)) (amending the Judicial Improvements and Access to Justice Act, Pub. L. No. 100-702, 102 Stat. 4642 (1988)).
  • 377
    • 84868917690 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • 21ST CENTURY DEPARTMENT OF JUSTICE APPROPRIATIONS AUTHORIZATION ACT, Pub. L. No. 107-273, § 11,028, 116 Stat. 1758, 1835-36 (2002) (codified at 15 U.S.C. § 1226 (2006)).
    • 21ST CENTURY DEPARTMENT OF JUSTICE APPROPRIATIONS AUTHORIZATION ACT, Pub. L. No. 107-273, § 11,028, 116 Stat. 1758, 1835-36 (2002) (codified at 15 U.S.C. § 1226 (2006)).
  • 378
    • 65149093778 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • This statute overruled Mitsubishi Motors Corp. v. Soler Chrysler-Plymouth, Inc, 473 U.S. 614 1985
    • This statute overruled Mitsubishi Motors Corp. v. Soler Chrysler-Plymouth, Inc., 473 U.S. 614 (1985).
  • 379
    • 84868917691 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Senators Grassley and Feingold introduced a bill in the Senate that would have provided the same terms for growers of livestock and poultry. See infra note 224. It was reported from committee but never brought to a vote by the full Senate. Library of Congress, THOMAS, last visited Jan. 22, 2009
    • Senators Grassley and Feingold introduced a bill in the Senate that would have provided the same terms for growers of livestock and poultry. See infra note 224. It was reported from committee but never brought to a vote by the full Senate. Library of Congress, THOMAS, http://thomas.loc.gov/cgi- bin/bdquery/z?d110:s221: (last visited Jan. 22, 2009).
  • 380
    • 65149106025 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Fair Contracts for Growers Act of 2007, S. 221, 110th Cong. (2007).
    • Fair Contracts for Growers Act of 2007, S. 221, 110th Cong. (2007).
  • 381
    • 65149086336 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • See Southland Corp. v. Keating, 465 U.S. 1, 10 (1984) (stating that Congress . . . withdrew the power of the states to require a judicial forum for the resolution of claims which the contracting parties agreed to resolve by arbitration).
    • See Southland Corp. v. Keating, 465 U.S. 1, 10 (1984) (stating that "Congress . . . withdrew the power of the states to require a judicial forum for the resolution of claims which the contracting parties agreed to resolve by arbitration").
  • 382
    • 65149091002 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • See Press Release, U.S. Senator Russ Feingold, Sen. Feingold, Rep. Johnson Introduce Measure to Preserve Consumer Justice (July 12, 2007), http://feingold.senate.gov/ record.cfm?id=307045.
    • See Press Release, U.S. Senator Russ Feingold, Sen. Feingold, Rep. Johnson Introduce Measure to Preserve Consumer Justice (July 12, 2007), http://feingold.senate.gov/ record.cfm?id=307045.
  • 383
    • 65149097233 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • See Stephen C. Yeazell, The Misunderstood Consequences of Modern Civil Process, 1994 WIS. L. REV. 631, 631.
    • See Stephen C. Yeazell, The Misunderstood Consequences of Modern Civil Process, 1994 WIS. L. REV. 631, 631.
  • 384
    • 84868936160 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • First approved by Congress in the Federal Magistrates Act, Pub. L. No. 90-578, 82 Stat. 1107 (1968, current version at 28 U.S.C. §§ 631-39, then upheld in Northern Pipeline Construction Co. v. Marathon Pipe Line Co, 458 U.S. 50 1982
    • First approved by Congress in the Federal Magistrates Act, Pub. L. No. 90-578, 82 Stat. 1107 (1968), (current version at 28 U.S.C. §§ 631-39), then upheld in Northern Pipeline Construction Co. v. Marathon Pipe Line Co., 458 U.S. 50 (1982).
  • 385
    • 65149084600 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • However, Justices White and Powell and Chief Justice Burger found the majority decision upholding the law to have read Article III out of the Constitution. Id. at 113 (White, J., dissenting).
    • However, Justices White and Powell and Chief Justice Burger found the majority decision upholding the law to have read Article III out of the Constitution. Id. at 113 (White, J., dissenting).
  • 387
    • 65149093129 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • See James S. DeGraw, Note, Rule 53, Inherent Powers, and Institutional Reform: The Lack of Limits on Special Masters, 66 N.Y.U. L. REV. 800, 801, 808 (1991).
    • See James S. DeGraw, Note, Rule 53, Inherent Powers, and Institutional Reform: The Lack of Limits on Special Masters, 66 N.Y.U. L. REV. 800, 801, 808 (1991).
  • 388
    • 0041654697 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Arthur R. Miller, The Pretrial Rush to Judgment: Are the Litigation Explosion, Liability Crisis, and Efficiency Cliches Eroding Our Day in Court and Jury Trial Commitments, 78 N.Y.U. L. REV. 982, 1003-07, 1016 (2003);
    • Arthur R. Miller, The Pretrial Rush to Judgment: Are the "Litigation Explosion," "Liability Crisis," and Efficiency Cliches Eroding Our Day in Court and Jury Trial Commitments, 78 N.Y.U. L. REV. 982, 1003-07, 1016 (2003);
  • 389
    • 65149088965 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Judith Resnik, Migrating Morphing, and Vanishing: The Empirical and Normative Puzzles of Declining Trial Rates in Courts, 1 J. EMPIRICAL LEGAL STUD. 783, 827, 830 (2004);
    • Judith Resnik, Migrating Morphing, and Vanishing: The Empirical and Normative Puzzles of Declining Trial Rates in Courts, 1 J. EMPIRICAL LEGAL STUD. 783, 827, 830 (2004);
  • 390
    • 65149087015 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Stephen C. Yeazell, Getting What We Asked for, Getting What We Paid for, and Not Liking What We Got: The Vanishing Civil Trial, 1 J. EMPIRICAL LEGAL STUD. 943, 963-67 (2004) (discussing the increase of settlements driven by expensive pretrial fact investigation, and the resulting low level of public investment in judicial officers).
    • Stephen C. Yeazell, Getting What We Asked for, Getting What We Paid for, and Not Liking What We Got: The Vanishing Civil Trial, 1 J. EMPIRICAL LEGAL STUD. 943, 963-67 (2004) (discussing the increase of settlements driven by expensive pretrial fact investigation, and the resulting low level of public investment in judicial officers).
  • 391
    • 65149104992 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • For an account of the diverse methods of encouraging settlement without trial, see Wayne D. Brazil, A Close Look at Three Court-Sponsored ADR Programs: Why They Exist, How They Operate, What They Deliver, and Whether They Threaten Important Values, 1990 U. CHI. LEGAL F. 303.
    • For an account of the diverse methods of encouraging settlement without trial, see Wayne D. Brazil, A Close Look at Three Court-Sponsored ADR Programs: Why They Exist, How They Operate, What They Deliver, and Whether They Threaten Important Values, 1990 U. CHI. LEGAL F. 303.
  • 392
    • 65149101749 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • The extraordinary rise of plea bargaining between the prosecutor and the accused is a major part of this development. See GEORGE FISHER, PLEA BARGAINING'S TRIUMPH: A HISTORY OF PLEA BARGAINING IN AMERICA 2 2003, A]lthough we can find many worthy accounts of why the jury fell, we must ask instead why plea bargaining triumphed
    • The extraordinary rise of plea bargaining between the prosecutor and the accused is a major part of this development. See GEORGE FISHER, PLEA BARGAINING'S TRIUMPH: A HISTORY OF PLEA BARGAINING IN AMERICA 2 (2003) ("[A]lthough we can find many worthy accounts of why the jury fell, we must ask instead why plea bargaining triumphed.").
  • 393
    • 65149098043 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • FED. r. CIV. P. 56;
    • FED. r. CIV. P. 56;
  • 394
    • 65149085722 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • see Miller, supra note 230, at 1055-56 (Clearly, Rule 56 has evolved . . . into a powerful tool for judges to control dockets and respond to the supposed 'litigation explosion.' (footnotes omitted)).
    • see Miller, supra note 230, at 1055-56 ("Clearly, Rule 56 has evolved . . . into a powerful tool for judges to control dockets and respond to the supposed 'litigation explosion.'" (footnotes omitted)).
  • 395
    • 65149085216 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Patrick E. Higginbotham, So Why Do We Call Them Trial Courts?, 55 S.M.U. L. REV. 1405 (2002).
    • Patrick E. Higginbotham, So Why Do We Call Them Trial Courts?, 55 S.M.U. L. REV. 1405 (2002).
  • 396
    • 84963456897 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • note 27 and accompanying text
    • See supra note 27 and accompanying text.
    • See supra
  • 397
    • 65149096860 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • See Matsushita Elec. Indus. Co. v. Zenith Radio Corp., 475 U.S. 574, 586-88 (1986);
    • See Matsushita Elec. Indus. Co. v. Zenith Radio Corp., 475 U.S. 574, 586-88 (1986);
  • 399
    • 65149104871 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Celotex Corp. v. Catrett, 477 U.S. 317, 323-24 (1986);
    • Celotex Corp. v. Catrett, 477 U.S. 317, 323-24 (1986);
  • 400
    • 65149087712 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • see also Stephen B. Burbank, Vanishing Trials and Summary Judgment in Federal Civil Cases: Drifting Toward Bethlehem or Gomorrah?, 1 J. EMPIRICAL LEGAL STUD. 591, 623 (2004).
    • see also Stephen B. Burbank, Vanishing Trials and Summary Judgment in Federal Civil Cases: Drifting Toward Bethlehem or Gomorrah?, 1 J. EMPIRICAL LEGAL STUD. 591, 623 (2004).
  • 401
    • 0041705116 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Summary Judgment at Sixty, 76
    • Patricia M. Wald, Summary Judgment at Sixty, 76 TEX. L. REV. 1897, 1917 (1998).
    • (1998) TEX. L. REV. 1897 , pp. 1917
    • Wald, P.M.1
  • 402
    • 65149083400 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Empirical data tends to confirm Wald's account. See Joe S. Cecil et al., A Quarter-Century of Summary Judgment Practice in Six Federal District Courts, 4 J. EMPIRICAL LEGAL STUD. 861 (2007).
    • Empirical data tends to confirm Wald's account. See Joe S. Cecil et al., A Quarter-Century of Summary Judgment Practice in Six Federal District Courts, 4 J. EMPIRICAL LEGAL STUD. 861 (2007).
  • 403
    • 65149091109 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • 127 S. Ct 1955, 1965-69 (2007).
    • 127 S. Ct 1955, 1965-69 (2007).
  • 404
    • 65149095862 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Id. at 1983 (Stevens, J., dissenting) (quoting Hosp. Bldg. Co. v. Tr. of Rex Hosp., 425 U.S. 738, 746 (1976)).
    • Id. at 1983 (Stevens, J., dissenting) (quoting Hosp. Bldg. Co. v. Tr. of Rex Hosp., 425 U.S. 738, 746 (1976)).
  • 405
    • 65149087152 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • See, e.g., Goldstein v. Pataki, 516 F.3d 50 (2d Cir. 2008), cert, denied, 128 S. Ct. 2964 (2008);
    • See, e.g., Goldstein v. Pataki, 516 F.3d 50 (2d Cir. 2008), cert, denied, 128 S. Ct. 2964 (2008);
  • 406
    • 65149085724 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Wilkerson v. New Media Tech. Charter Sch. Inc., 522 F.3d 315 (3d Cir. 2008). But see Akrieselskabet AF 21. November 2001 v. Fame Jeans Inc., 525 F.3d 8, 17 (D.C. Cir. 2008).
    • Wilkerson v. New Media Tech. Charter Sch. Inc., 522 F.3d 315 (3d Cir. 2008). But see Akrieselskabet AF 21. November 2001 v. Fame Jeans Inc., 525 F.3d 8, 17 (D.C. Cir. 2008).
  • 407
    • 65149103010 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • For a graph of the caseload, see Sternberg, supra note 17, at 5
    • For a graph of the caseload, see Sternberg, supra note 17, at 5.
  • 408
    • 65149084499 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Then-Solicitor General, James M. Beck, testifying on behalf of the legislation at Taft's request, estimated that the number of cases of public gravity that the Court could decide on the merits was between four hundred and five hundred per year. Hartnett, supra note 17, at 1646
    • Then-Solicitor General, James M. Beck, testifying on behalf of the legislation at Taft's request, "estimated that the number of cases of public gravity that the Court could decide on the merits was between four hundred and five hundred" per year. Hartnett, supra note 17, at 1646.
  • 409
    • 65149090887 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • For recent accounts of the present role of law clerks, see TODD C. PEPPERS, COURTIERS OF THE MARBLE PALACE: THE RISE AND INFLUENCE OF THE SUPREME COURT LAW CLERK 191-205 (2006);
    • For recent accounts of the present role of law clerks, see TODD C. PEPPERS, COURTIERS OF THE MARBLE PALACE: THE RISE AND INFLUENCE OF THE SUPREME COURT LAW CLERK 191-205 (2006);
  • 410
    • 84900076709 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • ARTEMUS WARD & DAVID L. WEIDEN, SORCERERS' APPRENTICES: 100 YEARS OF LAW CLERKS AT THE UNITED STATES SUPREME COURT 109-49 (2006);
    • ARTEMUS WARD & DAVID L. WEIDEN, SORCERERS' APPRENTICES: 100 YEARS OF LAW CLERKS AT THE UNITED STATES SUPREME COURT 109-49 (2006);
  • 411
    • 65149089108 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Cordray & Cordray, supra note 17, at 791
    • Cordray & Cordray, supra note 17, at 791.
  • 412
    • 65149106422 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • JOHN G. ROBERTS, JR., 2008 YEAR-END REPORT ON THE FEDERAL JUDICIARY 10 (2008), http://www.supremecourtus.gov/publicinfo/year-end/ 2008year-endreport.pdf. The Chief Justices' year-end reports from 2000 on are available at http://www.supremecourtus. gov/publicinfo/year-end/year-endreports. html (last visited Jan. 25, 2009).
    • JOHN G. ROBERTS, JR., 2008 YEAR-END REPORT ON THE FEDERAL JUDICIARY 10 (2008), http://www.supremecourtus.gov/publicinfo/year-end/ 2008year-endreport.pdf. The Chief Justices' year-end reports from 2000 on are available at http://www.supremecourtus. gov/publicinfo/year-end/year-endreports. html (last visited Jan. 25, 2009).
  • 413
    • 65149090762 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • ROBERT STEVENS, LAW SCHOOL: LEGAL EDUCATION IN AMERICA FROM THE 1850s TO THE 1980s, at 60-64 (1983).
    • ROBERT STEVENS, LAW SCHOOL: LEGAL EDUCATION IN AMERICA FROM THE 1850s TO THE 1980s, at 60-64 (1983).
  • 414
    • 65149091699 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • PEPPERS, supra note 244, at 194 (As soon as I am confident that my new law clerks are reliable, I take their word and that of the pool memo writer as to the underlying facts and contentions of the parties in the various petitions. (quoting Chief Justice Rehnquist) (footnote omitted));
    • PEPPERS, supra note 244, at 194 ("As soon as I am confident that my new law clerks are reliable, I take their word and that of the pool memo writer as to the underlying facts and contentions of the parties in the various petitions." (quoting Chief Justice Rehnquist) (footnote omitted));
  • 415
    • 65149104870 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • WARD & WEIDEN, supra note 244, at 143-44 (arguing that an increase in cert petitions, a growing reliance by the Justices on the clerks' recommendations, and the cautiousness of clerks when recommending a grant of certiorari have contributed to a decline in grants).
    • WARD & WEIDEN, supra note 244, at 143-44 (arguing that an increase in cert petitions, a growing reliance by the Justices on the clerks' recommendations, and the cautiousness of clerks when recommending a grant of certiorari have contributed to a decline in grants).
  • 416
    • 65149098834 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • PEPPERS, supra note 244, at 31
    • PEPPERS, supra note 244, at 31.
  • 417
    • 65149093505 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • WARD & WEIDEN, note 244, at 143.
    • WARD & WEIDEN, note 244, at 143.
  • 418
    • 65149086389 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • A Second Justice Opts Out of a Longtime Custom: The "Cert Pool
    • Sept. 26, at
    • Adam Liptak, A Second Justice Opts Out of a Longtime Custom: The "Cert Pool", N.Y. TIMES, Sept. 26, 2008, at A21.
    • (2008) N.Y. TIMES
    • Liptak, A.1
  • 419
    • 65149095070 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • For accounts, see RICHARD L. PACELLE, JR., THE TRANSFORMATION OF THE SUPREME COURT'S AGENDA: FROM THE NEW DEAL TO THE REAGAN ADMINISTRATION (1991);
    • For accounts, see RICHARD L. PACELLE, JR., THE TRANSFORMATION OF THE SUPREME COURT'S AGENDA: FROM THE NEW DEAL TO THE REAGAN ADMINISTRATION (1991);
  • 420
    • 65149089810 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • PERRY. supra note 114;
    • PERRY. supra note 114;
  • 421
    • 65149098584 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • DORIS MARIE PROVINE, CASE SELECTION IN THE UNITED STATES SUPREME COURT (1980).
    • DORIS MARIE PROVINE, CASE SELECTION IN THE UNITED STATES SUPREME COURT (1980).
  • 422
    • 65149096259 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • See RICHARD A. POSNER, HOW JUDGES THINK 269-323 (2008);
    • See RICHARD A. POSNER, HOW JUDGES THINK 269-323 (2008);
  • 423
    • 65149090134 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • see also FRANK M. COFFIN, ON APPEAL: COURTS, LAWYERING, AND JUDGING 281-85 (1994).
    • see also FRANK M. COFFIN, ON APPEAL: COURTS, LAWYERING, AND JUDGING 281-85 (1994).
  • 424
    • 65149104477 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • An empirical demonstration is JEFFREY A. SEGAL & HAROLD J. SPAETH, THE SUPREME COURT AND THE ATTITUDINAL MODEL 1993
    • An empirical demonstration is JEFFREY A. SEGAL & HAROLD J. SPAETH, THE SUPREME COURT AND THE ATTITUDINAL MODEL (1993).
  • 425
    • 65149103892 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • And increasingly in recent years, the Justices have invoked their own notions of the public good in disregard of the stated aims of legislators expressed by committees or draftsmen who proposed and advocated enactments. See genrally FRANK B. CROSS, THE THEORY AND PRACTICE OF STATUTORY INTERPRETATION (2009).
    • And increasingly in recent years, the Justices have invoked their own notions of the public good in disregard of the stated aims of legislators expressed by committees or draftsmen who proposed and advocated enactments. See genrally FRANK B. CROSS, THE THEORY AND PRACTICE OF STATUTORY INTERPRETATION (2009).
  • 426
    • 65149101871 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • WARD & WEIDEN, supra note 244, at 132
    • WARD & WEIDEN, supra note 244, at 132.
  • 427
    • 65149089309 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Philip Allen Lacovara, The Incredible Shrinking Court, AM. LAW., Dec. 2003, at 53.
    • Philip Allen Lacovara, The Incredible Shrinking Court, AM. LAW., Dec. 2003, at 53.
  • 428
    • 65149104124 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Byron R. White, Challenges for the U.S. Supreme Court and the Bar: Contemporary Reflections, 51 ANTITRUST L.J. 275, 277 (1982).
    • Byron R. White, Challenges for the U.S. Supreme Court and the Bar: Contemporary Reflections, 51 ANTITRUST L.J. 275, 277 (1982).
  • 429
    • 65149091934 scopus 로고
    • Some Thoughts on the Supreme Court's Workload, 66
    • William J. Brennan, Jr., Some Thoughts on the Supreme Court's Workload, 66 JUDICATURE 230, 231 (1983).
    • (1983) JUDICATURE , vol.230 , pp. 231
    • Brennan Jr., W.J.1
  • 430
    • 65149104478 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • This would be especially appropriate if the Justices were limited to eighteen-year terms, as we have previously urged. See supra note 24;
    • This would be especially appropriate if the Justices were limited to eighteen-year terms, as we have previously urged. See supra note 24;
  • 431
    • 65149084004 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • see also Steven G. Calabresi & James Lindgren, Term Limits for the Supreme Court: Life Tenure Reconsidered, in REFORMING THE COURT: TERM LIMITS FOR SUPREME COURT JUSTICES, supra note 5, at 15, 50-51.
    • see also Steven G. Calabresi & James Lindgren, Term Limits for the Supreme Court: Life Tenure Reconsidered, in REFORMING THE COURT: TERM LIMITS FOR SUPREME COURT JUSTICES, supra note 5, at 15, 50-51.
  • 432
    • 65149095998 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Estreicher & Sexton, supra note 113
    • Estreicher & Sexton, supra note 113.
  • 433
    • 65149084498 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • The stated rule is Supreme Court Rule 10. For a discussion of the rule and a critique of its indeterminate articulation of grounds for granting certiorari, see id. at 711-12.
    • The stated rule is Supreme Court Rule 10. For a discussion of the rule and a critique of its indeterminate articulation of grounds for granting certiorari, see id. at 711-12.
  • 434
    • 65149091571 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • See cases cited supra note 202
    • See cases cited supra note 202.
  • 435
    • 65149104993 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • See supra notes 242-43 and accompanying text
    • See supra notes 242-43 and accompanying text
  • 436
    • 62649153829 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • The Supreme Court's Controversial GVRs - And an Alternative, 107
    • The practice is not without difficulty. For a critique, see, forthcoming Mar
    • The practice is not without difficulty. For a critique, see Aaron-Andrew P. Bruhl, The Supreme Court's Controversial GVRs - And an Alternative, 107 MICH. L. REV. (forthcoming Mar. 2009).
    • (2009) MICH. L. REV
    • Bruhl, A.-A.P.1
  • 437
    • 65149086215 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • See supra note 32
    • See supra note 32.
  • 438
    • 65149094772 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • See Commission on Revision of the Federal Court Appellate System, note 32, at, proposing the creation of the National Court of Appeals
    • See Commission on Revision of the Federal Court Appellate System, supra note 32, at 236-38 (proposing the creation of the National Court of Appeals);
    • supra , pp. 236-238
  • 439
    • 65149087977 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Commission on Structural Alternatives for the Federal Courts of Appeals, supra note 32, at 40-44, 64-66 (proposing organizing the Ninth Circuit Court of Appeals into regional adjudication divisions and authorizing any circuit to establish district court appellate panels);
    • Commission on Structural Alternatives for the Federal Courts of Appeals, supra note 32, at 40-44, 64-66 (proposing organizing the Ninth Circuit Court of Appeals into regional adjudication divisions and authorizing any circuit to establish district court appellate panels);
  • 440
    • 65149105630 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Study Group on the Caseload of the Supreme Court, note 32, at, proposing the creation of a National Court of Appeals
    • Study Group on the Caseload of the Supreme Court, supra note 32, at 590-95 (proposing the creation of a National Court of Appeals).
    • supra , pp. 590-595
  • 441
    • 65149091698 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Judge Richard Arnold, U.S. Court of Appeals for the Eighth Circuit, Address at the Arkansas Bar Foundation Symposium on the Judiciary, in SYMPOSIUM ON THE JUDICIARY 12, 12 (Patricia A. Eables & John P. Gill eds., 1989) (available at the University of Arkansas at Little Rock William H. Bowen School of Law Library).
    • Judge Richard Arnold, U.S. Court of Appeals for the Eighth Circuit, Address at the Arkansas Bar Foundation Symposium on the Judiciary, in SYMPOSIUM ON THE JUDICIARY 12, 12 (Patricia A. Eables & John P. Gill eds., 1989) (available at the University of Arkansas at Little Rock William H. Bowen School of Law Library).
  • 442
    • 84963456897 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • notes 43-45 and accompanying text
    • See supra notes 43-45 and accompanying text.
    • See supra
  • 443
    • 84963456897 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • note 121 and accompanying text
    • See supra note 121 and accompanying text.
    • See supra
  • 444
    • 65149102755 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • See NAGEL, supra note 104, at 121-23 (discussing how legal training and practice contribute to lawyers' perception of judicial decisions as occupying a superior domain of rational thought).
    • See NAGEL, supra note 104, at 121-23 (discussing how legal training and practice contribute to lawyers' perception of judicial decisions as occupying a "superior domain of rational thought").
  • 445
    • 65149099831 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • In 1975, a national commission concluded that unnecessary and undesirable uncertainty concerning federal law was a major problem. Commission on Revision of the Federal Court Appellate System, supra note 32, at 217.
    • In 1975, a national commission concluded that "unnecessary and undesirable uncertainty" concerning federal law was a major problem. Commission on Revision of the Federal Court Appellate System, supra note 32, at 217.
  • 446
    • 65149085841 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Too many unresolved inter-circuit conflicts resulted in differing law being applied in different states. Delay in the resolution of many issues for federal law imposed costs and resulted in years of uncertainty, confusion and, forum shopping by litigants. Id. at 218. Since 1975, the number of certiorari petitions filed each year has more than doubled and the total number decisions of all federal courts of appeals has more than tripled
    • Too many unresolved inter-circuit conflicts resulted in differing law being applied in different states. Delay in the resolution of many issues for federal law imposed costs and resulted in "years of uncertainty, confusion and ... forum shopping by litigants." Id. at 218. Since 1975, the number of certiorari petitions filed each year has more than doubled and the total number decisions of all federal courts of appeals has more than tripled.
  • 447
    • 65149102003 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • The Supreme Court, which decided about 175 cases a year on the merits in 1975, was then reviewing fewer than one percent of the cases decided by the federal courts of appeals - a percentage that many informed persons thought was inadequate to provide needed supervision and guidance. Today, the Court decides less than one-tenth of one percent of the approximately 10,000 filings per year from all federal and state courts, nearly all of which are certiorari petitions. See SUPREME COURT OF THE U.S., THE JUSTICES' CASELOAD, http://www.supremecourtus.gov/about/jus- ticecaseload.pdf (last visited Jan. 30, 2009);
    • The Supreme Court, which decided about 175 cases a year on the merits in 1975, was then reviewing fewer than one percent of the cases decided by the federal courts of appeals - a percentage that many informed persons thought was inadequate to provide needed supervision and guidance. Today, the Court decides less than one-tenth of one percent of the approximately 10,000 filings per year from all federal and state courts, nearly all of which are certiorari petitions. See SUPREME COURT OF THE U.S., THE JUSTICES' CASELOAD, http://www.supremecourtus.gov/about/jus- ticecaseload.pdf (last visited Jan. 30, 2009);
  • 448
    • 65149093506 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • see also Posner, supra note 18, at 36-37
    • see also Posner, supra note 18, at 36-37.
  • 449
    • 0346459590 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • For reflections on the possible uses of electronic technology to establish visible contact between judges and parties, see Paul D. Carrington, Virtual Civil Litigation: A Visit to John Bunyan's Celestial City, 98 COLUM. L. REV. 1516, 1529-31 1998
    • For reflections on the possible uses of electronic technology to establish visible contact between judges and parties, see Paul D. Carrington, Virtual Civil Litigation: A Visit to John Bunyan's Celestial City, 98 COLUM. L. REV. 1516, 1529-31 (1998).
  • 450
    • 65149087151 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Sternberg, supra note 17, at 14
    • Sternberg, supra note 17, at 14.


* 이 정보는 Elsevier사의 SCOPUS DB에서 KISTI가 분석하여 추출한 것입니다.