Biomechanics of quadrupedal walking: How do four-legged animals achieve inverted pendulum-like movements?

Journal of Experimental Biology

Volumn 207, Issue 20, 2004, Pages 3545-3558

  Griffin, Timothy M ^a   Main, Russell P ^b   Farley, Claire T ^c  

^a DUKE UNIVERSITY MEDICAL CENTER   (United States)

^b HARVARD UNIVERSITY   (United States)

^c UNIVERSITY OF COLORADO   (United States)

Author keywords

Canis familiaris; Gait; Ground force; Locomotion; Mechanical energy; Physiology; Work

Indexed keywords

ANIMAL; ARTICLE; BIOLOGICAL MODEL; BIOMECHANICS; COMPARATIVE STUDY; DOG; FORELIMB; GAIT; HINDLIMB; PHYSIOLOGY; TIME; WALKING;

ANIMALS; BIOMECHANICS; DOGS; FORELIMB; GAIT; HINDLIMB; MODELS, BIOLOGICAL; TIME FACTORS; WALKING;

ANIMALIA; CANIS; CANIS FAMILIARIS;

EID: 6344228447     PISSN: 00220949     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1242/jeb.01177     Document Type: Article

References (31)

1. Ahn, A. N., Furrow, E. and Biewener, A. A. (2004). Walking and running in the red-legged running frog, Kassina maculata. J. Exp. Biol. 207, 399-410.
2. Alexander, R. McN. (1980). Optimum walking techniques for quadrupeds and bipeds. J. Zool. Lond. 192, 97-117.
3. Alexander, R. McN. (1991). Energy-saving mechanisms in walking and running. J. Exp. Biol. 160, 55-69.
4. Alexander, R. McN. and Jayes, A. S. (1978a). Vertical movements in walking and running. J. Zool. Lond. 185, 27-40.
5. Alexander, R. McN. and Jayes, A. S. (1978b). Optimum walking techniques for idealized animals. J. Zool. Lond. 186, 61-81.
6. Blickhan, R. and Full, R. J. (1987). Locomotion energetics of ghost crab. II. Mechanics of the center of mass during walking and running. J. Exp. Biol. 130, 155-174.
7. Blickhan, R. and Full, R. J. (1993). Mechanical work in terrestrial locomotion. In Biomechanics: Structures and Systems (ed. A. A. Biewener), pp. 75-96. New York: Oxford University Press.
8. Budsburg, S. C., Verstraete, M. C. and Soutas-Little, R. W. (1987). Force plate analysis of the walking gait in healthy dogs. Am. J. Vet. Res. 48, 915-918.
9. Cavagna, G. A. (1975). Force platforms as ergometers. J. Appl. Physiol. 39, 174-179.
10. Cavagna, G. A., Thys, H. and Zamboni, A. (1976). The sources of external work in level walking and running. J. Physiol. Lond. 262, 639-657.
11. Cavagna, G. A., Heglund, N. C. and Taylor, C. R. (1977). Mechanical work in terrestrial locomotion: two basic mechanisms for minimizing energy expenditure. Am. J. Physiol. 233, R243-R261.
12. Demes, B., Larson, S. G., Stern, J. T. J., Jungers, W. L., Biknevicius, A. R. and Schmitt, D. (1994). The kinetics of primate quadrupedalism: hindlimb drive reconsidered. J. Hum. Evol. 26, 353-374.
13. Donelan, J. M., Kram, R. and Kuo, A. D. (2002a). Simultaneous positive and negative external mechanical work in human walking. J. Biomech. 35, 117-124.
14. Donelan, J. M., Kram, R. and Kuo, A. D. (2002b). Mechanical work for step-to-step transitions is a major determinant of the metabolic cost of human walking. J. Exp. Biol. 205, 3717-3727.
15. Farley, C. T. and Ko, T. C. (1997). Mechanics of locomotion in lizards. J. Exp. Biol. 200, 2177-2188.
16. Farley, C. T., Glasheen, J. and McMahon, T. A. (1993). Running springs: speed and animal size. J. Exp. Biol. 185, 71-86.
17. Goslow, G. E., Jr, Seeherman, H. J., Taylor, C. R., McCutchin, M. N. and Heglund, N. C. (1981). Electrical activity and relative length changes of dog limb muscles as a function of speed and gait. J. Exp. Biol. 94, 15-42.
18. Griffin, T. M. and Kram, R. (2000). Penguin waddling is not wasteful. Nature 408, 929.
19. Heglund, N. C., Cavagna, G. A. and Taylor, C. R. (1982). Energetics and mechanics of terrestrial locomotion. III. Energy changes of the centre of mass as a function of speed and body size in birds and mammals. J. Exp. Biol. 97, 41-56.
20. Hildebrand, M. (1968). Symmetrical gaits of dogs in relation to body build. J. Morph. 124, 353-360.
21. Hildebrand, M. (1976). Analysis of tetrapod gaits: general considerations and symmetrical gaits. In Neural Control of Locomotion (ed. R. M. Herman, S. Grillner, P. S. G. Stein and D. G. Stuart), pp. 203-236. New York: Plenum.
22. Howell, A. B. (1944). Speed in Animals. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
23. Jayes, A. S. and Alexander, R. McN. (1978). Mechanics of locomotion of dogs (Canis familiaris) and sheep (Ovis aries). J. Zool. Lond. 185, 289-308.
24. Lee, C. R. and Farley, C. T. (1998). Determinants of the center of mass trajectory in human walking and running. J. Exp. Biol. 201, 2935-2944.
25. Minetti, A. E., Ardigo, L. P., Reinach, E. and Saibene, F. (1999). The relationship between mechanical work and energy expenditure of locomotion in horses. J. Exp. Biol. 202, 2329-2338.
26. Rose, J. and Gamble, J. G. (1994). Human Walking. Baltimore: Williams and Wilkins.
27. Roush, J. K. and McLaughlin, R. M. J. (1994). Effects of stance time and velocity on GRF in clinically normal greyhounds at the walk. Am. J. Vet. Res. 55, 1672-1676.
28. Ruina, A. and Pratap, R. (in press). Introduction to Statics and Dynamics. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
29. Schmitt, D. and Lemelin, P. (2002). Origins of primate locomotion: gait mechanics of the woolly opossum. Am. J. Phys. Anthropol. 118, 231-238.
30. Willems, P. A., Cavagna, G. A. and Heglund, N. C. (1995). External, internal and total work in human locomotion. J. Exp. Biol. 198, 379-393.
31. Willey, J. S., Biknevicius, A. R., Reilly, S. M. and Earls, K. D. (2004). The tale of the tail: limb function and locomotor mechanics in Alligator mississippiensis. J. Exp. Biol. 207, 553-563.