Treatment of Graves' Hyperthyroidism: Evidence-Based and Emerging Modalities

Endocrinology and Metabolism Clinics of North America

Volumn 38, Issue 2, 2009, Pages 355-371

  Hegedüs, Laszlo ^a  

^a ODENSE UNIVERSITY HOSPITAL   (Denmark)

Author keywords

Antithyroid drugs; Goiter; Graves' disease; Hyperthyroidism; Radioactive iodine; Thyroidectomy

Indexed keywords

ANTITHYROID AGENT; BETA ADRENERGIC RECEPTOR STIMULATING AGENT; GLUCOCORTICOID; IODINE DERIVATIVE; LITHIUM CARBONATE; POTASSIUM PERCHLORATE; PROPRANOLOL DERIVATIVE; PROPYLTHIOURACIL; RITUXIMAB; THIAMAZOLE;

ARTHRALGIA; ARTHRITIS; DECISION MAKING; DRUG ABSORPTION; DRUG INHIBITION; EVIDENCE BASED MEDICINE; FEVER; GASTROINTESTINAL SYMPTOM; GRANULOCYTOPENIA; GRAVES DISEASE; HUMAN; NONHUMAN; ODOR; PRIORITY JOURNAL; PRURITUS; QUALITY OF LIFE; RASH; REMISSION; REVIEW; SIDE EFFECT; TASTE; THYROIDECTOMY; URTICARIA;

ANTITHYROID AGENTS; EVIDENCE-BASED MEDICINE; GRAVES DISEASE; HUMANS; IODINE RADIOISOTOPES; THYROIDECTOMY;

EID: 62749141491     PISSN: 08898529     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1016/j.ecl.2009.01.009     Document Type: Review

References (80)

1. Brix T.H., Kyvik K.O., Christensen K., et al. The importance of genetic versus environmental factors in the etiology of Graves' disease: a population based study of female Danish twins. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 86 2 (2001) 930-934
2. Tomer Y., and Davies T.F. Searching for the autoimmune thyroid disease susceptibility genes: from gene mapping to gene function. Endocr Rev 24 5 (2003) 694-717
3. Brix T.H., Hansen P.S., Kyvik K.O., et al. Cigarette smoking and the risk of clinically overt thyroid disease: a population based twin case-control study. Arch Intern Med 160 5 (2000) 661-666
4. Bartalena L., Marcocci C., Tanda M.L., et al. Cigarette smoking and treatment outcomes in Graves' ophthalmopathy. Ann Intern Med 129 8 (1998) 632-635
5. El Fassi D., Nielsen C.H., Bonnema S.J., et al. B lymphocyte depletion with the monoclonal antibody rituximab in Graves' disease: a controlled pilot study. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 92 5 (2007) 1769-1772
6. Cooper D.S. Antithyroid drugs. N Engl J Med 352 9 (2005) 905-917
7. Laurberg P. Remission of Graves' disease during anti-thyroid drug therapy. Time to reconsider the mechanism?. Eur J Endocrinol 155 6 (2006) 783-786
8. Cooper D.S., Steigerwalt S., and Migdal S. Pharmacology of propylthiouracil in thyrotoxicosis and chronic renal failure. Arch Intern Med 147 4 (1987) 785-786
9. Tallstedt L., Lundell G., Torring O., et al. Occurrence of ophthalmopathy after treatment for Graves' hyperthyroidism. N Engl J Med 326 26 (1992) 1733-1738
10. Bartalena L., Marcocci C., Bogazzi F., et al. Relation between therapy for hyperthyroidism and the course of Graves' ophthalmopathy. N Engl J Med 338 2 (1998) 73-78
11. Nakamura H., Noh J.Y., Itoh K., et al. Comparison of methimazole and propylthiouracil in patients with hyperthyroidism caused by Graves' disease. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 92 6 (2007) 2157-2162
12. Reinwein D., Benker G., Lazarus J.H., et al. A prospective randomized trial of antithyroid drug dose in Graves' disease therapy. European Multicenter Study Group on Antithyroid Drug Treatment. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 76 6 (1993) 1516-1521
13. Bliddal H., Hegedüs L., Hansen J.M., et al. The relationship between serum T3 index, thyroid volume, and thyroid stimulating, TSH receptor binding and thyroid growth stimulating antibodies in Graves' disease. Clin Endocrinol (Oxf) 27 1 (1987) 75-84
14. Benker G., Reinwein D., Kahaly G., et al. Is there a methimazole dose effect on remission rate in graves' disease? Results from a long-term prospective study. The European Multicenter Trial Group of the Treatment of Hyperthyroidism with Antithyroid Drugs. Clin Endocrinol (Oxf) 49 4 (1998) 451-457
15. Abraham P., Avenell A., Watson W.A., et al. Antithyroid drug regimen for treating Graves' hyperthyroidism. Cochrane Database Syst Rev 2 (2004) CD003420
16. Vitti P., Rago T., Chiovato L., et al. Clinical features of patients with Graves' disease undergoing remission after antithyroid drug treatment. Thyroid 7 3 (1997) 369-375
17. Schott M., Eckstein A., Willenberg H.S., et al. Improved prediction of relapse of Graves' thyrotoxicosis by combined determination of TSH receptor and thyroperoxidase antibodies. Horm Metab Res 39 1 (2007) 56-61
18. Feldt-Rasmussen U., Schleusener H., and Carayon P. Meta-analysis evaluation of the impact of thyrotropin receptor antibodies on long-term remission after medical therapy of Graves' disease. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 78 1 (1994) 98-102
19. Hashizume K., Ichikawa K., Sakurai A., et al. Administration of thyroxine in treated Graves' disease. Effects on the level of antibodies to thyroid stimulating hormone receptors and on the risk of recurrence of hyperthyroidism. N Engl J Med 324 14 (1991) 947-953
20. McIver B., Rae P., Beckett G., et al. Lack of effect of thyroxine in patients with Graves' hyperthyroidism who are treated with an antithyroid drug. N Engl J Med 334 4 (1996) 220-224
21. Jacobson E.M., and Tomer Y. The genetic basis of thyroid autoimmunity. Thyroid 17 10 (2007) 949-961
22. Wang P.W., Chen I.Y., Liu R.T., et al. Cytotoxic T-lymphocyte-associated molecule-4 gene polymorphism and hyperthyroid Graves' disease relapse after antithyroid drug withdrawal: a follow-up study. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 92 7 (2007) 2513-2518
23. Maugendre D., Gatel A., Campion L., et al. Antithyroid drugs and Graves' disease-prospective randomized assessment of long-term treatment. Clin Endocrinol (Oxf) 50 1 (1999) 127-132
24. Amino N., Tanizawa O., Mori H., et al. Aggravation of thyrotoxicosis in early pregnancy and after delivery in Graves' disease. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 55 1 (1982) 108-112
25. Wood L.C., and Ingbar S.H. Hypothyroidism as a late sequela in patient with Graves' disease treated with antithyroid agents. J Clin Invest 64 5 (1979) 1429-1436
26. Cooper D.S. The side effects of antithyroid drugs. Endocrinologist 9 (1999) 457-476
27. Pearce S.H. Spontaneous reporting of adverse reactions to carbimazole and propylthiouracil in the UK. Clin Endocrinol (Oxf) 61 5 (2004) 589-594
28. Fukata S., Kuma K., and Sugawara M. Granulocyte colony-stimulating factor (G-CSF) does not improve recovery from antithyroid drug-induced agranulocytosis: a prospective study. Thyroid 9 1 (1999) 29-31
29. Harper L., Chin L., Daykin J., et al. Propylthiouracil and carbimazole-associated antineutrophil cytoplasmatic antibodies (ANCA) in patients with Graves' disease. Clin Endocrinol (Oxf) 60 6 (2004) 671-675
30. Mandel S., and Cooper D.S. The use of antithyroid drugs in pregnancy and lactation. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 86 6 (2001) 2354-2359
31. Mortimer R.H., Cannell G.R., Addison R.S., et al. Methimazole and propylthiouracil equally cross the perfused human term placental lobule. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 82 9 (1997) 3099-3102
32. Geffner D.L., and Hershman J.M. Beta-adrenergic blockade for the treatment of hyperthyroidism. Am J Med 93 1 (1992) 61-68
33. Coyle P.J., and Mitchell J.E. Thyroidectomy: is Lugol's iodine necessary?. Ann R Coll Surg Engl 64 5 (1982) 344-345
34. Roti E., Robuschi G., Gardini E., et al. Comparison of methimazole, methimazole and sodium ipodate, and methimazole and saturated solution of potassium iodide in the early treatment of hyperthyroid Graves' disease. Clin Endocrinol (Oxf) 28 3 (1988) 305-314
35. Martino E., Bartalena L., Bogazzi F., et al. The effects of amiodarone on the thyroid. Endocr Rev 22 2 (2001) 240-254
36. Bogazzi F., Bartalena L., Campomori A., et al. Treatment with lithium prevents serum thyroid hormone increase after thionamide withdrawal and radioiodine therapy in patients with Graves' disease. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 87 10 (2002) 4490-4495
37. Nielsen C.H., El Fassi D., Hasselbalch H.C., et al. B-cell depletion with rituximab in the treatment of autoimmune diseases. Graves' ophthalmopathy the latest addition to an expanding family. Expert Opin Biol Ther 7 7 (2007) 1061-1078
38. El Fassi D., Clemmensen O., Nielsen C.H., et al. Evidence of intrathyroidal B-lymphocyte depletion after rituximab therapy in a patient with Graves' disease. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 92 10 (2007) 3762-3763
39. El Fassi D., Nielsen C.H., Hasselbalch H.C., et al. Treatment resistant severe active Graves' ophthalmopathy successfully treated with B lymphocyte depletion. Thyroid 16 7 (2006) 709-710
40. Salvi M., Vannucchi G., Campi I., et al. Treatment of Graves' disease and associated ophthalmopathy with the anti-CD20 monoclonal antibody rituximab: an open study. Eur J Endocrinol 156 1 (2007) 33-40
41. Gilbert J.A., Kalled S.L., Moorhead J., et al. Treatment of autoimmune hyperthyroidism in a murine model of Graves' disease with tumor necrosis factor-family ligand inhibitors suggest a key role for B cell activating factor in disease pathology. Endocrinology 147 10 (2006) 4561-4568
42. Banga J.P., Nielsen C.H., Gilbert J.A., et al. Application of new therapies in Graves' disease and thyroid associated ophthalmopathy: animal models and translation to human clinical trials. Thyroid 18 9 (2008) 973-981
43. Wartofsky L., Glinoer D., Solomon B., et al. Differences and similarities in the diagnosis and treatment of Graves' disease in Europe, Japan, and the United States. Thyroid 1 2 (1991) 129-135
44. Nygaard B., Hegedüs L., Gervil M., et al. Influence of compensated radioiodine therapy on thyroid volume and incidence of hypothyroidism in Graves' disease. J Intern Med 238 6 (1995) 491-497
45. Wiersinga W.M. Management of Graves' ophthalmopathy. Nat Clin Pract Endocrinol Metab 3 5 (2007) 396-404
46. Sridama V., McCormick M., Kaplan E.L., et al. Long-term follow-up study of compensated low-dose 131I therapy for Graves' disease. N Engl J Med 311 7 (1984) 426-432
47. Allahabadia A., Daykin J., Sheppard M.C., et al. Radioiodine treatment of hyperthyroidism-prognostic factors for outcome. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 86 8 (2001) 3611-3617
48. Alexander E.K., and Larsen P.R. High dose of (131) I therapy for the treatment of hyperthyroidism caused by Graves' disease. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 87 3 (2002) 1073-1077
49. Jarløv A.E., Hegedüs L., Kristensen L.O., et al. Is calculation of the dose in radioiodine therapy of hyperthyroidism worth while?. Clin Endocrinol (Oxf) 43 3 (1995) 325-329
50. Peters H., Fischer C., Bogner U., et al. Radioiodine therapy of Graves' hyperthyroidism: standard vs. calculated 131I activity. Results from a prospective, randomized, multicentre study. Eur J Clin Invest 25 3 (1995) 186-193
51. Leslie W.D., Ward L., Salamon E.A., et al. A randomized comparison of radioiodine doses in Graves' hyperthyroidism. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 88 3 (2003) 978-983
52. Ahmad A.M., Ahmad M., and Young E.T. Objective estimates of the probability of developing hypothyroidism following radioactive iodine treatment of thyrotoxicosis. Eur J Endocrinol 146 6 (2002) 767-775
53. Markovic V., and Eterovic D. Thyroid echogenicity predicts outcome of radioiodine therapy in patients with Graves' disease. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 92 9 (2007) 3547-3552
54. Bonnema S.J., Bennedbaek F.N., Gram J., et al. Resumption of methimazole after 131I therapy of hyperthyroid diseases: effect on thyroid function and volume evaluated by a randomized clinical trial. Eur J Endocrinol 149 6 (2003) 485-492
55. Bonnema S.J., Bennedbaek F.N., Veje A., et al. Continuous methimazole therapy and its effect on the cure rate of hyperthyroidism using radioactive iodine: an evaluation by a randomized trial. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 91 8 (2006) 2946-2951
56. Bonnema S.J., Bennedbaek F.N., Veje A., et al. Propylthiouracil before 131I therapy of hyperthyroid diseases: effect on cure rate evaluated by a randomized clinical trial. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 89 9 (2004) 4439-4444
57. Walter M.A., Briel M., Christ-Crain M., et al. Effects of antithyroid drugs on radioiodine treatment: systematic review and meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials. BMJ 334 7592 (2007) 514-520
58. Holm L.E., Dahlqvist I., Israelsson A., et al. Malignant thyroid tumors after iodine-131 therapy: a retrospective cohort study. N Engl J Med 303 4 (1980) 188-191
59. Ron E., Doody M.M., Becker D.V., et al. Cancer mortality following treatment for adult hyperthyroidism. Cooperative thyrotoxicosis therapy follow-up study group. JAMA 280 4 (1998) 347-355
60. Angusti T., Codegone A., Pellerito R., et al. Thyroid cancer prevalence after radioiodine treatment of hyperthyroidism. J Nucl Med 41 6 (2000) 1006-1009
61. Franklyn J.A., Maisonneuve P., Sheppard M., et al. Cancer incidence and mortality after radioiodine treatment for hyperthyroidism: a population-based cohort study. Lancet 353 9170 (1999) 2111-2115
62. Metso S., Auvinen A., Huhtala H., et al. Increased cancer incidence after radioiodine treatment for hyperthyroidism. Cancer 109 10 (2007) 1972-1979
63. Hayek A., Chapman E.M., and Crawford J.D. Long-term results of treatment of thyrotoxicosis in children and adolescents with radioactive iodine. N Engl J Med 283 18 (1970) 947-953
64. Rivkees S.A., and Dinauer C. An optimal treatment for pediatric Graves' disease is radioiodine. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 92 3 (2007) 797-800
65. Baverstock K., Egloff B., Pinchera a, et al. Thyroid cancer after Chernobyl. Nature 359 6390 (1992) 21-22
66. Pacini F., Vorontsova T., Demidchik E.P., et al. Post-Chernobyl thyroid carcinoma in Belarus children and adolescents: comparison with naturally occurring thyroid carcinoma in Italy and France. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 82 11 (1997) 3563-3569
67. Stoffer S.S., and Hamburger J.I. Inadvertent 131I therapy for hyperthyroidism in the first trimester of pregnancy. J Nucl Med 17 2 (1976) 146-149
68. Perros P., Baldeschi L., Boboridis K., et al. A questionnaire survey on the management of Graves' orbitopathy in Europe. Eur J Endocrinol 155 2 (2006) 207-211
69. Palit T.K., Miller III C.C., and Miltenburg D.M. The efficacy of thyroidectomy for Graves' disease: a meta-analysis. J Surg Res 90 2 (2000) 161-165
70. Sosa J.A., Bowman H.M., Tielsch J.M., et al. The importance of surgeon experience for clinical and economic outcomes from thyroidectomy. Ann Surg 228 3 (1998) 320-330
71. Pattou F., Combemale F., Fabre S., et al. Hypocalcemia following thyroid surgery: incidence and prediction of outcome. World J Surg 22 7 (1998) 718-724
72. Stålberg P., Svensson A., Hessman O., et al. Surgical treatment of Graves' disease: evidence-based approach. World J Surg 32 7 (2008) 1269-1277
73. Lennquist S., Jortso E., Anderberg B.O., et al. Beta blockers compared with antithyroid drugs as preoperative treatment in hyperthyroidism: drug tolerance, complications, and postoperative thyroid function. Surgery 98 6 (1985) 1141-1147
74. Baeza A., Aguayo J., Barria M., et al. Rapid preoperative preparation in hyperthyroidism. Clin Endocrinol (Oxf) 35 5 (1991) 439-442
75. Xiao H., Zhuang W., Wang S., et al. Arterial embolization: a novel approach to thyroid ablative therapy for Graves' disease. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 87 8 (2002) 3583-3589
76. Watt T., Groenvold M., Rasmussen A.K., et al. Quality of life in patients with benign thyroid disorders. A review. Eur J Endocrinol 154 4 (2006) 501-510
77. Watt T., Hegedüs L., Rasmussen A.K., et al. Which domains of thyroid-related quality of life are most relevant? Patients and clinicians provide complementary perspectives. Thyroid 17 7 (2007) 647-654
78. Terwee C.B., and Wiersinga W.M. Graves' quality of life. Ophthalmology 114 7 (2007) 1416-1417
79. Ljunggren J.G., Törring O., Wallin G., et al. Quality of life aspects and costs in treatment of Graves' hyperthyroidism with antithyroid drugs, surgery, or radioiodine: results from a prospective, randomized study. Thyroid 8 8 (1998) 653-659
80. Abraham-Nordling M., Törring O., Hamberger B., et al. Graves' disease: a long-term quality-of-life follow up of patients randomized to treatment with antithyroid drugs, radioiodine, or surgery. Thyroid 15 11 (2005) 1279-1286