Practice advisory on anesthetic care for magnetic resonance imaging: A report by the american society of anesthesiologists Task Force on Anesthetic Care for Magnetic Resonance Imaging*

Anesthesiology

Volumn 110, Issue 3, 2009, Pages 459-479

  Ehrenwerth, Jan ^a   Singleton, Mark A ^a   Bell, Charlotte ^a   Brown, Jeffrey A ^a   Clark, Randall M ^a   Connis, Richard T ^a   Herfkens, Robert ^a   Litt, Lawrence ^a   Mason, Keira P ^a   McClain, Craig D ^a   Nickinovich, David G ^a   Ryan, Susan M ^a   Sandberg, Warren S ^a  

^a NONE

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

ANESTHESIOLOGICAL TECHNIQUES; CLINICAL EDUCATION; CLINICAL PRACTICE; EVIDENCE BASED MEDICINE; HEALTH CARE PERSONNEL; HUMAN; MEDICAL DECISION MAKING; MEDICAL SOCIETY; NUCLEAR MAGNETIC RESONANCE IMAGING; PATIENT MONITORING; PATIENT SAFETY; PATIENT SELECTION; PRACTICE GUIDELINE; PRIORITY JOURNAL; REVIEW; ADVISORY COMMITTEE; ANESTHESIOLOGY; ARTICLE; METHODOLOGY; STANDARD; UNITED STATES;

ANESTHETIC AGENT;

ADVISORY COMMITTEES; ANESTHESIOLOGY; ANESTHETICS; HUMANS; MAGNETIC RESONANCE IMAGING; SOCIETIES, MEDICAL; UNITED STATES;

EID: 62349100360     PISSN: 00033022     EISSN: 15281175     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1097/ALN.0b013e31818f9206     Document Type: Review

References (130)

1. Kanal E, Borgstede JP, Barkovich AJ, Bell C, Bradley WG, Felmlee JP, Froelich JW, Kaminski EM, Keeler EK, Lester JW, Scoumis EA, Zaremba LA, Zinninger MD: American College of Radiology white paper on MR safety. AJR Am J Roentgenol 2002; 178:1335-47
2. Kanal E, Barkovich AJ, Bell C, Bradler WGJr, Froelich JW, Gilk T, GimbelJR, Gosbee J, Kuhie-Kaminski E, Lester JW Jr, Nuenhuis J, Parag Y, Schaefer DJ, Sebek-Scoumis EA, Weinreb J, Zaremba LA, Wilcox P, Lucey L, Sass N, ACR Blue Ribbon Panel on MR Safety: ACR guidance document for safe MR practices: 2007. AJR Am J Roentgenol 2007; 188:1447-74
3. Kanal E, Gillen J, Evans JA, Savitz DA, Shellock FG: Survey of reproductive health among female MR workers. Radiology 1993; 187:395-9
4. Philbin MK, Taber KH, Hayman LA: Preliminary report: Changes in vital signs of term newborns during MR. AJNR Am J Neuroradiol 1996; 17:1033-6
5. Battin M, Maalouf EF, Counsell S, Herligy A, Hall A, Azzopardi D, Edwards AD: Physiologic stability of preterm infants during magnetic resonance imaging. Early Hum Dev 1998; 52:101-10
6. Taber KH, Hayman LA, Northrup SR, Maturi L: Vital sign changes during infant magnetic resonance examinations. J Magn Reson Imaging 1998; 8:1252-6
7. Gangarosa RE, Minnis JE, Nobbe J, Praschan D, Genberg RW: Operational safety issues in MRI. Magn Reson Imaging 1987; 5:287-92
8. Broome DR, Girguis MS, Baron PW, Cottrell AC, Kjellin I, Kirk GA: Gadodia-mide-associated nephrogenic systemic fibrosis: Why radiologists should be concerned. AJR Am J Roentgenol 2007; 188:586-92
9. Grobner T: Gadolinium: A specific trigger for the development of nephrogenic fibrosing dermopathy and nephrogenic systemic fibrosis? Nephrol Dial Transplant 2006; 21:1104-8
10. Khurana A, Runge VM, Narayanan M, Greene JF Jr, Nickel AE: Nephro-genic systemic fibrosis: A review of 6 cases temporally related to gadodiamide injection. Invest Radiol 2007; 42:139-45
11. Marckmann P, Skov L, Rossen K, Dupont A, Damholt MB, Heaf JG, Thomsen HS: Nephrogenic systemic fibrosis: Suspected etiological role of ga-dodiomide used for contrast-enhanced magnetic resonance imaging. J Am Soc Nephrol 2006; 17:2359-62
12. Dharnidharka VR, Wesson SK, Fennel RS: Gadolinium and nephrogenic fibrosing dermopathy in pediatric patients. Pediatr Nephrol 2006; 22:1395
13. Thakral C, Alhariri J, Abraham JL: Long-term retention of gadolinium in tissues from nephrogenic systemic fibrosis patient after multiple gadolinium-enhanced MRI scans: Case report and implications. Contrast Media Mol Imaging 2007; 2:199-205
14. Kelly WM, Paglen PG, Pearson JA, San Diego AG, Soloman MR: Ferromag-netism of intraocular foreign body causes unilateral blindness after MR study. AJNR Am J Neuroradiol 1986; 7:243-5
15. Jackson JG, Acker JD: Permanent eyeliner and MR imaging. AJR Am J Roentgenol 1987; 49:1080
16. Lund G, Nelson JD, Wirtschafter JD, Williams PA: Tattooing of eyelids: Magnetic resonance imaging artifacts. Ophthalmol Surg 1986; 17:550-3
17. Wagle WA, Smith M: Tattoo-induced skin burn during MR imaging. AJR Am J Roentgenol 2000; 174:1795
18. Applebaum E, Valvassori G: Further studies on the effects of magnetic resonance fields on middle ear implants. Ann Otol Rhinol Laryngol 1990; 99:801-4
19. Barrafato D, Henkelman RM: Magnetic resonance imaging and surgical clips. Can J Surg 1984; 27:509-12
20. Becker RL, Forfray JF, Teitelbaum GP, Bradley WG Jr, Jacobs JB, Wacaser L, Rieman RL: MR imaging in patient with intracranial aneurysm clips. AJNR Am J Neuroradiol 1988; 9:885-9
21. Brown MA, CardenJA, Coleman RE, McKinney R, Spicer LD: Magnetic field effects on surgical ligation clips. Magn Reson Imaging 1987; 5:443-53
22. Chou C-K, McDougall JA, Chan KW: RF heating of implanted spinal fusion stimulator during magnetic resonance imaging. IEEE Trans Biomed Eng 1997; 44:367-72
23. Davis PL, Crooks L, Arakawa M, McRii R, Kaufman L, Margulis AR: Potential hazards of NMR imaging: Heating effects of changing magnetic fields and RF fields on small metallic implants. AJR Am J Roentgenol 1981; 137:857-60
24. Dujovny M, Kossovsky N, Kossowsky R, Valdivia R, Suk JS, Diaz FG, Berman K, Cleary W: Aneurysm clip motion during magnetic resonance imaging: In vivo experimental study with metallurgical factor analysis. Neurosurgery 1985; 17:543-8
25. Edwards MB, Taylor KM, Shellock FG: Prosthetic heart valves: Evaluation of magnetic field interaction, heating and artifacts at 1.5 T. J Magn Reson Imaging 2000; 12:363-9
26. Gegauff AF, Laurell KA, Thavendrarajah A, Rosenstiel SF: A potential MRI hazard: Forces on dental magnet keepers. J Oral Rehabil 1990; 17:403-10
27. Hartnell GG, Spence L, Hughe LA, Cohen MC, Saouf R, Buff B: Safety of MR imaging in patients who have retained metallic materials after cardiac surgery. Am J Roentgenol 1997; 168:1157-9
28. Hug J, Nagel E, Bornstedt A, Schnackenburg B, Oswald H, Fleck E: Coronary arterial stents: Safetyand artifacts during MR imaging. Radiology 2000; 216:781-7
29. Kaste S, Laningham F, Stazzone M, Brown SD, Emery K, Newman B, Racadio J, Estroff J, Brill P, Mendelson KL, Slovis TL, Frush D: Safety in pediatric MR and cardiac CT: Results of a membership survey of the Society for Pediatric Radiology-2006. Pediatr Radiol 2007; 37:409-12
30. Kean DM, Worthington BS, Firth JL, Hawkes RC: The effect of magnetic resonance imaging on different types of microsurgical clips. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry 1985; 48:286-7
31. Klucznik R, Carrier D, Pyka R, Haid R: Placement of a ferromagnetic intracerebral aneurysm clip in a magnetic field with a fatal outcome. Radiology 1993; 187:855-6
32. Konings MK, Battels LW, Smits HFM, Bakker CJG: Heating around intra-vascular guidewires by resonating RF waves. J Magn Reson Imaging 2000; 12:79-85
33. Laakman RW, Kaufman B, Han JS, Nelson AD, Clampitt M, O'page AM, Haaga JR, Alfidi RJ: MR imaging in patients with metallic implants. Radiology 1985; 157:711-4
34. Moscatel MA, Shellock FG, Morisoli SM: Biopsy needles and devices: Assessment of ferromagnetism and artifacts during exposure to a 1.5 T MR system. J Magn Reson Imaging 1995; 5:369-72
35. Pruefer D, Kalden P, Schreiber W, Dahm M, Buerke M, Thelen M, Oelert H: In vitro investigation of prosthetic heart valves in magnetic resonance imaging: Evaluation of potential hazards. J Heart Valve Dis 2001; 10:410-4
36. Romner B, Olsson M, Ljunggren B, Holtas S, Saveland H, Brandt L, Persson B: Magnetic resonance imagingandaneurysm clips. JNeurosurg1989; 70:426-31
37. Shellock FG: Prosthetic heart valves and annuloplasty rings: Assessment of magnetic field interactions, heating, and artifacts at 1.5 tesla. J Cardiovasc Magn Reson 2001; 3:317-24
38. Shellock FG: Biomedical implants and devices: Assessment of magnetic field interactions with a 3.0-tesla MR system. J Magn Reson Imaging 2002; 16:721-32
39. Shellock F, Crues J: High field strength MR imaging and metallic biomedical implants: An ex vivo evaluation of deflection forces. AJR Am J Roentgenol 1988; 151:389-92
40. Soulon R, Budinger T, Higgins C: Magnetic resonance imaging of prosthetic heart valves. Radiology 1985; 154:705-7
41. Teitelbaum GP, Lin MC, Watanabe AT, Norfray JF, Young TI, Bradley WG Jr: Ferromagnetism and MR imaging: Safety of carotid vascular clamps. AJNR Am J Neuroradiol 1990; 11:267-72
42. Von Roemeling R, Lanning RM, Eames FA: MR imaging of patients with implanted drug infusion pumps. J Magn Reson Imaging 1991; 1:77-81
43. Wichmann W, Von Ammon K, Fink U, Weik T, Yasargil GM: Aneurysm clips made of titanium: Magnetic characteristics and artifacts in MR. AJNR Am J Neuroradiol 1997; 18:939-44
44. Dempsey MF, Condon B: Thermal injuries associated with MRI. Clin Radiol 2001; 56:457-65
45. Kugel H, Bremer C, Puschel M, Fischbach R, Lenzen H, Tombach B, Van Aken H, Heindel W: Hazardous situation in the MR bore: Induction in ECG leads causes fire. Eur Radiol 2003; 13:690-4
46. Anonymous: ECRI: The safe use of equipment in the magnetic resonance environment. Health Devices 2001; 30:421-44
47. Bashein G, Syrory B: Burns associated with pulse oximetry during magnetic resonance imaging. Anesthesiology 1991; 75:382-3
48. Brown TR, Goldstein B, Little J: Severe burns resulting from magnetic resonance imaging with cardiopulmonary monitoring: Risks and relevant safety precautions. Am J Phys Med Rehabil 1993; 72:166-7
49. Hall SC, Stevenson GW, Suresh S: Burn associated with temperature monitoring during magnetic resonance imaging. ANESTHESIOLOGY 1992; 76:152
50. Shellock FG, Slimp GL: Severe burn of the finger caused by using a pulse oximeter during MR imaging. AJR Am J Roentgenol 1989; 153:1105
51. Williams EJ, Jones NS, Carpenter TA, Bunch CS, Menon DK: Testing of adult and paediatric ventilators for use in a magnetic resonance imaging unit. Anaesthesia 1999; 54:969-74
52. Anonymous: ECRI hazard report: Patient death illustrates the importance of adhering to safety precautions in magnetic resonance environments. Health Devices 2001; 30:311-4
53. Chaljub G, Kramer LA, Johnson RF III, Singh H, Crow WN: Projectile cylinder accidents resulting from the presence of ferromagnetic nitrous oxide or oxygen tanks in the MR suite. AJR Am J Roentgenol 2001; 111:21-30
54. Colletti PM: Size "H" oxygen cylinder: Accidental MR projectile at 1.5 tesla. J Magn Reson Imaging 2004; 19:141-3
55. Achenbach S, Moshage W, Diem B, Bieberle T, Schibgilla V, Bachmann K: Effects of magnetic resonance imaging on cardiac pacemakers and electrodes. Am Heart J 1991; 134:461-13
56. Anfinsen OG, Berntsen RF, Aass H, Kongsgaard E, Amlie JP: Implantable cardioverter defibrillator dysfunction during and after magnetic resonance imaging. Pacing Clin Electrophysiol 2002; 25:1400-2
57. Avery JE: Loss prevention case of the month: Not my responsibility! J Tenn Med Assoc 1988; 81:523-4
58. Bonnett CA, ElsonJJ, Fogoros RN: Accidental deactivation of the automatic implantable cardioverter defibrillator. Am Heart J 1990; 120:696-1
59. Coman JA, Martin ET, Sandler DA, Thomas JR: Implantable cardiac defi-brillator interactions with magnetic resonance imaging at 1.5 tesla. J Am Coll Cardiol 2004; 43:138A
60. Erlebacher JA, Cahill PT, Pannizzo F, Knowles JR: Effect of magnetic resonance imaging on DDD pacemakers. Am J Cardiol 1986; 51:431-40
61. Fetter J, Aram G, Holmes DR Jr, Gray JE, Hayes DL: The effects of nuclear magnetic resonance imagers on external and implantable pulse generators. Pacing Clin Electrophysiol 1984; 1:120-1
62. Fiek M, Remp T, Reithmann C, Steinbeck G: Complete loss of ICD programmability after magnetic resonance imaging. Pacing Clin Electrophysiol 2000; 21:1002-4
63. Fontain JM, Mohammed FB, Gottlieb C, Callans DJ, Marchlinski FE: Rapid ventricular pacing in a pacemaker patient undergoing magnetic resonance imaging. Pacing Clin Electrophysiol 1998; 21:1336-9
64. Garcia-Bolao I, Albaladejo V, Benito A, Alegria E, Zubieta JL: Magnetic resonance imaging in a patient with a dual-chamber pacemaker. Acta Cardiol 1998; 53:33-5
65. Gimbel JR, Bailey SM, Tchou PJ, Ruggieri PM, Wilcox EL: Strategies for the safe magnetic resonance imaging of pacemaker-dependent patients. Pacing Clin Electrophysiol 2005; 28:1041-6
66. Gimbel JR, Johnson D, Levine PA, Wilkoff BL: Safe performance of magnetic resonance imaging on five patients with permanent cardiac pacemakers. Pacing Clin Electrophysiol 1996; 19:913-9
67. Gimbel JR, Kanal E, Schwartz KM, Wilkoff BL: Outcome of magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) in selected patients with implantable cardioverter defibrillators (ICDs). Pacing Clin Electrophysiol 2005; 28:210-3
68. Gimbel JR, Trohman RL, Lindsay WC, Clair WK, Wilkoff BL: Strategies for the safe performance of magnetic resonance imaging in selected ICD patients. Pacing Clin Electrophysiol 2002; 25:618
69. Hayes DL, Holmes DR Jr, Gray JE: Effect of 1.5 tesla nuclear magnetic resonance imaging scanner on implanted permanent pacemakers. J Am Coll Cardiol 1981; 10:182-6
70. Heatlie G, Pennell DJ: Cardiovascular magnetic resonance at 0.5T in five patients with permanent pacemakers. J Cardiovasc Magn Reson 2001; 9:15-9
71. Holmes DR Jr, Hayes DL, Gray JE, Merideth J: The effects of magnetic resonance imaging in implantable pulse generators. Pacing Clin Electrophysiol 1986; 9:360-10
72. Lauck G, von Smekal A, Wolke S, Seelos KC, Jung W, Manz M, Luderitz B: Effects of nuclear magnetic resonance imaging on cardiac pacemakers. Pacing Clin Electrophysiol 1995; 18:1549-55
73. Luechinger R, Duru F, Scheidegger MB, Boesiger P, Dandinas R: Force and torque effects of a 1.5 tesla MRI scanner on cardiac pacemakers and ICDs. Pacing Clin Electrophysiol 2001; 24:199-205
74. Luechinger R, Zeijlemaker VA, Pederson EM, Mortensen P, Falk E, Duru F, Candinas R, Boesiger P: In vivo heating of pacemaker leads during magnetic resonance imaging. Eur Heart J 2005; 26:316-83
75. Martin ET, Coman JA, Shellock FG, Pulling CC, Fair R,Jenkins K: Magnetic resonance imaging and cardiac pacemaker safety at 1.5 T. JAm Coll Cardiol 2004; 43:1315-24
76. Pavlicek W, Geisinger M, Castle L, Borkowski GP, Meaney TF, Bream BL, Gallagher JH: The effects of nuclear magnetic resonance on patients with cardiac pacemakers. Radiology 1983; 141:149-53
77. Roguin A, Zviman MM, Meininger GR, Rodrigues ER, Dickfeld TM, Bluemke DA, Lardo A, Berger RD, Calkins H, Halperin HR: Modern pacemaker and implantable cardioverter/defibrillator systems can be magnetic resonance imaging safe: In vitro and in vivo assessment of safety and function at 1.5 T. Circulation 2004; 110:415-82
78. Rozner MA, Burton AW, Kumar AJ: Pacemaker complication during MRI. J Am Coll Cardiol 2005; 45:161-2
79. Schmiedel A, Hackenbroch M, Yang A, Nahle CP, Skowasch D, Meyer C, Schimpf R, Schild H, Sommer T: Magnetic resonance imaging of the brain in patients with cardiac pacemakers: In vitro and in vivo evaluation at 1.5 tesla [in German]. Rofo 2005; 111:131-44
80. Shellock FG, Fieno DS, Thomson LJ, Talavage TM, Berman DS: Cardiac pacemaker: In vitro assessment at 1.5 T. Am Heart J 2006; 2:436-43
81. Shellock FG, Fischer L, Fieno DS: Cardiac pacemakers and implantable cardioverter defibrillators: In vitro magnetic resonance imaging evaluation at 1.5-tesla. J Cardiovasc Magn Reson 2001; 9:21-31
82. Shellock FG, O'Neil M, Ivans V, Kelly D, O'Connor M, Toay L, Crues JV: Cardiac pacemakers and implantable cardioverter defibrillators are unaffected by operation of an extremity MR imaging system. AJR Am J Roentgenol 1999; 112:165-10
83. Sommer T, Vahihaus C, Lauck G, von Smekal A, Reinke M, Hofer U, Block W, Traber F, Schneider C, Gieseke J, Jung W, Schild H: MR imaging and cardiac pacemakers: In vitro evaluation and in vivo studies in 51 patients at 0.5 T. Radiology 2000; 215:869-19
84. Valhaus C, Sommer T, Lewalter T, Schimpf R, Schumacher B, Jung W, Luderitz B: Interference with cardiac pacemakers by magnetic resonance imaging: Are there irreversible changes at 0.5 tesla? Pacing Clin Electrophysiol 2001; 24:489-95
85. Gimbel JR, Lorig RJ, Wilkoff BL: Safe magnetic resonance imaging of pacemaker patients. J Am Coll Cardiol 1995; 25:11A
86. Schueler BA, Parrish TB, Lin JC, Hammer BE, Pangrle BJ, Ritenour ER, Kucharczyk J, Truwit CL: MRI compatibility and visibility assessment of implant-able medical devices. J Magn Reson Imaging 1999; 9:596-603
87. Shellock FG, Hatfield M, Simon BJ, Block S, Wamboldt R, Starewica PM, Punchard WFB: Implantable spinal fusion stimulator: Assessment of MRI safety. J Magn Reson Imaging 2000; 12:214-23
88. Bhidayasiri R, Bronstein JM, Sinha S, Krahl SE, Ahn S, Behnke EJ, Cohen MS, Frysinger R, Shellock FG: Bilateral neurostimulation systems used for deep brain stimulation: In vitro study of MRI-related heating at 1.5 T and implications for clinical imaging of the brain. Magn Reson Imaging 2005; 23:549-55
89. Carmichael DW, Pinto S, Limousin-Dowsey P, Thobois S, Allen PJ, Lemieux L, Yousry T, Thornton JS: Functional MRI with active, fully implanted, deep brain stimulation systems: Safety and experimental confounds. Neuroimage 2001; 31:508-11
90. De Andres J, ValiaJC, Cerda-Olmedo G, Quiroz C, Villanueva V, Martinez-Sanjuan V, de Leon-Casasola O: Magnetic resonance imaging in patients with spinal neurostimulation systems. Anesthesiology 2001; 106:119-86
91. Finelli DA, Rezai AR, Ruggieri PM, Tkach JA, Nyenhuis JA, Hrdlicka G, Sharan A, Gonzalez-Martinez J, Stypulkowski PH, Shellock FG: MR imaging-related heating of deep brain stimulation electrodes: In vitro study. Am J Neuroradiol 2002; 23:1195-802
92. Heller J, Brackman D, Tucci D, Nyenhuis J, Chou C: Evaluation of MRI compatibility of the modified nucleus multichannel auditory brainstem and cochlear implants. Am J Otol 1996; 11:124-9
93. Rezai AR, Finelli D, Nyenhuis JA, Hrdlicka G, Tkach J, Sharan A, Rugieri P, Stypulkowski PH, Shellock FG: Neurostimulation systems for deep brain stimulation: In vitro evaluation of MRI-related heating at 1.5 tesla. J Magn Reson Imaging 2002; 15:241-50
94. Baker KB, Nyenhuis JA, Hrdlicka G, Rezai AR, Tkach JA, Shellock FG: Neurostimulation systems: Assessment of magnetic field interactions associated with 1.5-and 3-tesla MR systems. J Magn Reson Imaging 2005; 21:12-1
95. Utti RJ, Tsuboi Y, Pooley RA, Putzke JD, Turk MF, Wszolek Z, Witte RJ, Wharen RE Jr: Magnetic resonance imaging and deep brain stimulation. Neurosurgery 2002; 51:1423-31
96. Williams MD, Antonelli PJ, Williams LS, Moorhead JE: Middle ear prosthesis displacement in high-strength magnetic fields. Otol Neurotol 2001; 22:158-61
97. Ferris NJ, Kavnoudias H, Thiel C, Stuckey S: The 2005 Australian MRI safety survey. AJR Am J Roentgenol 2001; 188:1388-94
98. American Society of Anesthesiologists: Standards for basic anesthetic monitoring, Standards, Guidelines and Statements 2006. Available at: http://www.asahq.org/publicationsAndServices/standards/02.pdf. Accessed October 11, 2008
99. Holshouser BA, Hinshaw DB, Shellock FG: Sedation, anesthesia, and physiologic monitoring during MR imaging: Evaluation of procedures and equipment. J Magn Reson Imaging 1993; 3:553-8
100. Odegard KC, Dinardo JA, Tsai-Goddman B, Powell AJ, Geva T, Laussen PC: Anaesthesia considerations for cardiac MRI in infants and children. Paediatr Anaesth 2004; 14:411-6
101. Salvo I, Colombo S, Capocasa T, Torri G: Pulse oximetry in MRI units. J Clin Anesth 1990; 2:65-6
102. Barnett GH, Ropper AH, Johnson KA: Physiological support and monitoring of critically ill patients during magnetic resonance imaging. J Neurosurg 1988; 68:246-50
103. Henneberg S, Hok B, Wiklund L, Sjodin G: Remote auscultatory patient monitoring during magnetic resonance imaging. J Clin Monit 1992; 8:31-43
104. Mason KP, Burrows PE, Dorsey MM, Zurakowski D, Krauss B: Accuracy of capnography with a 30 foot nasal cannula for monitoring respiratory rate and end-tidal CO2 in children. J Clin Monit Comput 2000; 16:259-62
105. Roth JLO, Nugent M, Gray JE, Julsrud RR: Patient monitoring during magnetic resonance imaging. Anesthesiology 1985; 62:80-3
106. Jorgensen NH, Messick JM, Gray J, Nugent M, Berquist TH: ASA monitoring standards and magnetic resonance imaging. Anesth Analg 1994; 19:1141-1
107. Beebe DS, Tran P, Bragg M, Stillman A, Truwitt C, Belani KG: Trained nurses can provide safe and effective sedation for MRI in pediatric patients. Can J Anaesth 2000; 41:205-10
108. Hubbard AM, Markowitz RI, Kimmel B, Kroger M, Bartko MB: Sedation for pediatric patients undergoing CT and MRI. J Comput Assist Tomogr 1992; 16:3-6
109. Manuli MA, Davies L: Rectal methohexital for sedation of children during imaging procedures. AJR Am J Roentgenol 1993; 160:577-80
110. Slovis TL, Parks C, Reneau D, Becker CJ, Hersch J, Carver CD, Ross RD, Tech K, Towbin RB: Pediatric sedation: Short-term effects. Pediatr Radiol 1993; 23:345-8
111. Volle E, Park W, Kaufman HJ: MRI examination and monitoring of pediatric patients under sedation. Pediatr Radiol 1996; 26:280-1
112. Shorrab AA, Demain AD, Atallah MM: Multidrug intravenous anesthesia for children undergoing MRI: A comparison with general anesthesia. Paediatr Anaesth 2007; 17:1187-93
113. Greenberg SB, Faerber EN, Aspinall CL, Adams RC: High-dose chloral hydrate sedation for children undergoing MR imaging: Safety and efficacy in relation to age. AJR Am J Roentgenol 1993; 161:639-41
114. Shepherd JK, Hall-Craggs MA, Finn JP, Bingham RM: Sedation in children scanned with high-field magnetic resonance: The experience at the Hospital for Sick Children, Great Ormond Street. Br J Radiol 1990; 63:794-7
115. Vangerven M, Van Hemelrijck J, Wouters P, Vandermeersch E, Van Aken H: Light anaesthesia with propofol for paediatric MRI. Anaesthesia 1992; 47:706-7
116. Bloomfield EL, Masaryk TJ, Caplin A, Obuchowski NA, Schubert A, Hayden J, Ebrahim ZY, Ruggieri PM, Goske MJ, Ross JS: Intravenous sedation for MR imaging of the brain and spine in children: Pentobarbital versus propofol. Radiology 1993; 186:93-7
117. Bluemke DA, Breiter SN: Sedation procedures in MR imaging: Safety, effectiveness, and nursing effect on examinations. Radiology 2000; 216:645-52
118. Connor L, Burrows PE, Zurakowski D, Bucci K, Gagnon DA, Mason KP: Effects of IV pentobarbital with and without fentanyl on end-tidal carbon dioxide levels during deep sedation. AJR Am J Roentgenol 2003; 181:1691-4
119. De Sanctis Briggs V: Magnetic resonance imaging under sedation in newborns and infants: A study of 640 cases using sevoflurane. Paediatr Anaesth 2005; 15:9-15
120. Malviya S, Voepel-Lewis T, Eldevik OP, Rockwell DT, Wong JH, Tait AR: Sedation and general anaesthesia in children undergoing MRI and CT: Adverse events and outcomes. Br J Anaesth 2000; 84:743-8
121. Mason KP, Sanborn P, Zurakowski D, Karian VE, Connor L, Fontaine PJ, Burrows PE: Superiority of pentobarbital versus chloral hydrate for sedation in infants during imaging. Radiology 2004; 230:537-42
122. Mason KP, Zurakowski D, Connor L, Karian VE, Fontaine PJ, Sanborn PA, Burrows PE: Infant sedation for MR imaging and CT: Oral versus intravenous pentobarbital. Radiology 2004; 233:723-8
123. Merola C, Albarracin C, Lebowitz P, Bienkowski RS, Barst SM: An audit of adverse events in children sedated with chloral hydrate or propofol during imaging studies. Paediatr Anaesth 1995; 5:375-8
124. Pershad J, Wan J, Anghelescu DL: Comparison of propofol with pentobarbital/midazolam/fentanyl sedation for magnetic resonance imaging of the brain in children. Pediatrics 2007; 120:e629-36
125. Sanborn PA, Michna E, Zurakowski D, Burrows PE, Fontaine PJ, Connor L, Mason KP: Adverse cardiovascular and respiratory events during sedation of pediatric patients for imaging examinations. Radiology 2005; 237:288-94
126. Sury MRJ, Harker H, Thyomas ML: Sevoflurane sedation in infants undergoing MRI: A preliminary report. Paediatr Anaesth 2005; 15:16-22
127. Vade A, Sukhani R, Dolenga M, Habisohn-Schuck C: Chloral hydrate sedation of children undergoing CT and MR imaging: Safety as judged by American Academy of Pediatrics guidelines. AJR Am J Roentgenol 1995; 165:905-9
128. Woodthorpe C, Trigg A, Alison G, Sury M: Nurse led sedation for paedi-atric MRI: Progress and issues. Paediatr Nurs 2007; 19:14-8
129. American Society of Anesthesiologists: Practice advisory for the prevention and management of operating room fires. Anesthesiology 2008; 108:786-801
130. American Society of Anesthesiologists: Standards for postanesthesia care, ASA Standards, Guidelines and Statements. October 2007. Available at: http://www.asahq.org/publicationsAndServices/standards/36.pdf. Accessed October 17, 2008