Meanings of citizenship in the U.S. Empire: Puerto Rico, Isabel Gonzalez, and the Supreme Court, 1898 to 1905

Journal of American Ethnic History

Volumn 27, Issue 4, 2008, Pages 5-33

  Erman, Sam ^a  

^a NONE

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

EID: 61449165981     PISSN: 02785927     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: None     Document Type: Review

References (123)

1. Gonzales v. Williams, 192 U.S. 1 (1904); Transcript of Record Gonzales. Documentary inconsistencies foreclose precise dating of Gonzalez's departure and arrival. I abbreviate four citations: (1) National Archives and Records Administration, Record Group: NARA, RG; (2) William Williams Papers, New York Public Library: WWP, NYPL; (3) El Centro de Documentación Obrera Santiago Iglesias Pantín, Microfilm Roll 2: CDO:2; and (4) Centro de Investigaciones Históricas, Colección Angel M. Mergal, caja -, cartapacio -, documento-: CIHCAM -/-/-. Various spellings of Gonzalez's name appear in official records. From among them, the Court chose Isabella Gonzales. I use her spelling in the one letter I have found which she signed. Isabel Gonzalez to Federico Degetau, April 10, 1904, CIHCAM 5/I/5. I presume others did not depart from Spanish usage and omit tildes in their names. Filings and lower-court records in Gonzales are available at the Making of Modern Law database
2. Downes v. Bidwell, 182 U.S. 244 (1901); Treaty of Paris, 30 Stat. 754 (April 11, 1899); Foraker Act, 31 Stat. 77 (April 12, 1900); infra n. 11. The United States had annexed Hawai'i in 1898. See Newlands Resolution, 30 Stat. 750 (July 7, 1898). On prior annexations, see, e.g., Louisiana Purchase Treaty, 8 Stat. 200 (April 30, 1803), Art. III; Florida Cession Treaty, 8 Stat. 252 (February 19, 1821), Art. 6; Texas Annexation Resolution, 5 Stat. 797 (March 1, 1845); Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo, 9 Stat. 922 (February 2, 1848), Arts. VIII-IX; Gadsden Purchase Treaty, 10 Stat. 1031 (December 30, 1853), Art. V; and Alaska Purchase Treaty, 15 Stat. 539 (March 30, 1867), Art. III. Judicial affirmation that U.S. territories existed to become U.S. states and that citizenship and constitutional rights followed free, nontribal U.S. migrants into U.S. territories had come in Scott v. Sandford, 60 U.S. 393, 446-51 (1857). The archetypal federal law guaranteeing U.S. territories self-governance upon reaching threshold populations of U.S. citizens is the Northwest Ordinance, 1 Stat. 50 (August 7, 1789). Variation characterized U.S. treatment of 1898 and 1899 acquisitions. Hawai'i gained U.S. citizenship and a fully elected legislature via the Organic Act of Hawaii, 31 Stat. 141 (April 30, 1900). Filipinos suffered a civil war, anemic self-governance, and no recognition as U.S. citizens
3. See Philippines Organic Act, 32 Stat. 691 (July 1, 1902), and Paul A. Kramer, The Blood of Government: Race, Empire, the United States, and the Philippines (Chapel Hill, NC, 2006). Cuba became formally independent in 1902
4. See Rebecca J. Scott, Degrees of Freedom: Louisiana and Cuba after Slavery (Cambridge, MA, 2005). Between 1889 and 1912, all ten U.S. territories contiguous to existing states became states. Yet only Hawai'i among the lands acquired in 1898 and 1899 subsequently became a U.S. state
5. See Hawai'i Admission Act, 73 Stat. 4 (March 18, 1959), and Lucy Maddox, Citizen Indians: Native American Intellectuals, Race, and Reform (Ithaca, NY, 2005), 9. The heterogeneous opinions of U.S. officials and commentators differentiated various 1898 and 1899 acquisitions
6. See, e.g., Lanny Thompson, "The Imperial Republic: A Comparison of the Insular Territories under U.S. Dominion after 1898," Pacific Historical Review 71 (November 2002): 535-74
7. and José Cabranes, Citizenship and the American Empire: Notes on the Legislative History of the United States Citizenship of Puerto Ricans (New Haven, CT, 1979)
8. Downes, 182 U.S. at 341, 288-93, 300, 306 (White, J., concurring)
9. Frederic R. Coudert, "The Evolution of the Doctrine of Territorial Incorporation," Columbia Law Review 26 (November 1926): 850
10. Charles E. Littlefield, "The Insular Cases," Southern Law Review 1 (1901-2): 478. Justice John Harlan sought fuller constitutional rights for Puerto Ricans
11. See Downes, 182 U.S. at 375 (Harlan, J., dissenting)
12. On the development, legacy, and doctrinal implications of the anomalous status of Puerto Rico and the Insular Cases, see, e.g., Christina Duffy Burnett and Burke Marshall, eds., Foreign in a Domestic Sense: Puerto Rico, American Expansion, and the Constitution (Durham, NC, 2001)
13. Christina Duffy Burnett, "Untied States: American Expansion and Territorial Deannexation," University of Chicago Law Review 72 (Summer 2005): 797-879
14. César Ayala and Rafael Bernabe, Puerto Rico in the American Century: A History since 1898 (Chapel Hill, NC, 2007), 177, passim
15. Efrén Rivera Ramos, The Legal Construction of Identity: The Judicial and Social Legacy of American Colonialism in Puerto Rico (Washington, DC, 2001)
16. Bartholomew H. Sparrow, The Insular Cases and the Emergence of American Empire (Lawrence, KS, 2006)
17. and Juan R. Torruella, The Supreme Court and Puerto Rico: The Doctrine of Separate and Unequal (Rio Piedras, PR, 1985)
18. "Porto Rican Test Case," New York Times, November 3, 1903, 6
19. Motion to Reassign, Gonzales; Dred Scott v. Sanford, 60 U.S. 393 (1857); U.S. Const. amend. 14, § 1
20. On insubstantiality of nonincorporation, see Downes, 182 U.S. at 373 (Fuller, C. J., dissenting). In subsequent years some legal scholars included Gonzales among the Insular Cases
21. See, e.g., Pedro Capó Rodríguez, "The Relations between the United States and Porto Rico," American Journal of International Law 13 (1919): 483-525
22. and Quincy Wright, "Treaties and the Constitutional Separation of Powers in the United States," American Journal of International Law 12 (1918): 64-95. Many modern scholars, including this author, concur
23. See Sparrow, Insular Cases
24. Rivera Ramos, Legal Construction of Identity
25. and Christina Duffy Burnett, "A Note on the Insular Cases," in Burnett and Marshall, eds., Foreign in a Domestic Sense, 389-92
26. I am indebted to Rebecca J. Scott and her idea of concepts of citizenship in "Public Rights and Private Commerce: A Nineteenth-Century Atlantic Creole Itinerary," Current Anthropology (April 2007): 237-56
27. See also Laurent Dubois, "An Enslaved Enlightenment: Rethinking the Intellectual History of the French Atlantic," Social History 31 (February 2006): 1-14
28. William J. Novak, "The Legal Transformation of Citizenship in Nineteenth-Century America," in The Democratic Experiment: New Directions in American Political History; ed. Meg Jacobs, William J. Novak, and Julian E. Zelizer (Princeton, NJ, 2003), 85-119
29. and Mae M. Ngai, Impossible Subjects: Illegal Aliens and the Making of Modern America (Princeton, NJ, 2004)
30. By contrast, Rogers M. Smith uses citizenship as a baseline for cross-temporal comparisons in Civic Ideals: Conflicting Visions of Citizenship in U.S. History (New Haven, CT, 1997)
31. while T. H. Marshall uses it as a modern analytic category under which to group related historical practices in Citizenship and Social Class, and Other Essays (Cambridge, UK, 1950)
32. James H. Kettner examines citizenship as a relatively stable legal term in The Development of American Citizenship: 1608-1870 (Chapel Hill, NC, 1978)
33. Gonzales, 192 U.S.
34. Morton J. Horwitz, The Transformation of American Law, 1870-1960: The Crisis of Legal Orthodoxy (New York, 1992)
35. Thomas C. Grey, "Langdell's Orthodoxy," University of Pittsburgh Law Review 45 (1983): 1-53
36. Duncan Kennedy, "Toward an Historical Understanding of Legal Consciousness: The Case of Classical Legal Thought in America, 1850-1940," Research in Law and Sociology 3 (1980): 3-24
37. see also, e.g., cases cited infra n. 22
38. Plessy v. Ferguson, 163 U.S. 537 (1896); Giles v. Harris, 189 U.S. 475 (1903); Chae Chan Ping v. United States, 130 U.S. 581 (1889); Francis Paul Prucha, The Great Father: The United States Government and the American Indians, vols. 1 and 2 (Lincoln, NE, 1984); Lone Wolf v. Hitchcock, 187 U.S. 553 (1903); Scott, Degrees of Freedom
39. Nancy F. Cott, Public Vows: A History of Marriage and the Nation (Cambridge, MA, 2000)
40. Linda Kerber, No Constitutional Right to Be Ladies: Women and the Obligations of Citizenship (New York, 1998)
41. Candice Lewis Bredbenner, A Nationality of Her Own: Women, Marriage, and the Law of Citizenship (Berkeley, CA, 1998)
42. Linda K. Kerber, "The Stateless as the Citizen's Other: A View from the United States," American Historical Review 112 (February 2007): 1-34
43. see also, e.g., Cyrus Veeser, A World Safe for Capitalism: Dollar Diplomacy and America's Rise to Global Power (New York, 2002)
44. and Rebecca J. Scott, "Public Rights, Social Equality, and the Conceptual Roots of the Plessy Challenge," Michigan Law Review 106 (March 2008): 777-804
45. On interrelationships of race and U.S. empire, see Sanford Levinson, "Why the Canon Should Be Expanded to Include The Insular Cases and the Saga of American Expansionism," Constitutional Commentary 17 (Summer 2000): 241-66
46. Richard H. Pildes, "Democracy, Anti-Democracy, and the Canon," Constitutional Commentary 17 (Summer 2000): 295-319
47. and Shelley Fisher Fishkin, "Crossroads of Cultures: The Transnational Turn in American Studies," American Quarterly 57 (March 2005): 17-57
48. On Puerto Rico within U.S. empire, see Laura Briggs, Reproducing Empire: Race, Sex, Science, and U.S. Imperialism in Puerto Rico (Berkeley, CA, 2002)
49. "Mr. Bryan's Speech of Acceptance," New York Times, August 9, 1900, 8
50. Sparrow, Insular Cases, 108
51. Cabranes, Citizenship and the American Empire, 1-6, 18-44
52. DeLima v. Bidwell, 182 U.S. 1, 200 (1901); Downes v. Bidell, 182 U.S. at 287; U.S. Const. art. 1, § 8; Downes, 182 U.S. at 306 (White, J., concurring); Virginia Kays Veenswijk, Coudert Brothers: A Legacy in Law: The History of America's First International Law Firm, 1853-1993 (New York, 1993)
53. Sarah H. Cleveland, "Powers Inherent in Sovereignty: Indians, Aliens, Territories, and the Nineteenth Century Origins of Plenary Power over Foreign Affairs," Texas Law Review 81 (November 2002): 1-284
54. George A. Finch, "Frederic René Coudert: February 11, 1871-April 1, 1955," American Journal of International Law 49 (October 1955): 548-49
55. Opening Argument of Mr. Coudert for Plaintiff in Error in DeLima, 182 U.S. 1 (1901), Downes, 182 U.S. 244 (1901)
56. see also, e.g., New Associated Press, "Locating Porto Rico," Los Angeles Times, January 10, 1901, 1
57. "Porto Ricans' Ambition," Washington Times, (date, page unknown), available at MD NARA, RG 350 Bureau of Insular Affairs, General Records, General Classified Files, 1898-1945, Entry 5, Box 21, File 168:40; correspondence of Federico Degetau, CIHCAM 2/I
58. Manuel F. Rossy et al., Platform of the Porto-Rican Republican Party (San Juan, PR, 1899)
59. Gonzalo F. Córdova, Resident Commissioner, Santiago Iglesias and His Times (Río Piedras, PR, 1993), 65-71, 91-95; Foraker Act, 31 Stat. 77 (April 12, 1900)
60. Pedro A. Cabán, Constructing a Colonial People: Puerto Rico and the United States, 1898-1932 (Boulder, CO, 1999), 62-71
61. Elmer B. Adams, "The Causes and Results of Our War with Spain from a Legal Standpoint," Yale Law Journal 8 (December 1898): 119-33
62. Selden Bacon, "Territory and the Constitution," Yale Law Journal 10 (January 1901): 99-117
63. James W. Stillman, "Citizenship in Ceded Territory," Green Bag 11 (May 1899): 203-8. Other legal scholars argued that annexation had brought Puerto Ricans something less than U.S. citizenship, full constitutional protections, and eventual statehood. Congressional views also varied. Some senators opposed extending Puerto Ricans U.S. citizenship because they worried that full constitutional protections and eventual U.S. statehood might accompany it. Others at least briefly supported U.S. citizenship for Puerto Ricans
64. and Cabranes, Citizenship and the American Empire, 18-44
65. Henry A. Cooper to Federico Degetau, July 8, 1901, CIHCAM 3/II/33; "Roosevelt Hears All," Washington Post, November 19, 1901, 3
66. Henry Randall Webb to Federico Degetau, November 15, 1901, CIHCAM 3/III/99; "Porto Rican Commissioner," Washington Post, December 15, 1900, 4; Henry Randall Webb to Federico Degetau, August 14, 1901, CIHCAM 3/III/61; Federico Degetau y González to Secretary of State, January 30, 1901, CIHCAM 2/VI/19; John W. Willis to F. Degetau, April 3, 1901, CIHCAM 2/IX/3; F. Degetau to Manuel F. Rossy, May 3, 1901, CIHCAM 3/I/4; Resident Commissioner to Henry A. Cooper, July 15, 1901, CIHCAM 3/II/33
67. Federico Degetau to Secretary of Treasury, October 5, 1902, CIHCAM 3/VI/56; Circular No. 97, August 2, 1902, in Circular Instruction of the Treasury Department Relating to the Tariff, Navigation, and Other Laws for the Year Ended December 31, 1902 (Washington, DC, 1903)
68. Transcript of Record, Gonzales at 3-6
69. Immigration Act of 1891, 26 Stat. 1084 (March 3, 1891) § 1; Lucy E. Salyer, Laws Harsh as Tigers: Chinese Immigrants and the Shaping of Modern Immigration Law (Chapel Hill, NC, 1995), 147, 141-48, 154, 184, 196-97, passim
70. Louis Anthes, "The Island of Duty: The Practice of Immigration Law on Ellis Island," New York University Review of Law and Social Change 24 (1998): 563-600, 565-66, 581-82, 587-89, passim
71. Stephen Skowronek, Building a New American State: The Expansion of National Administrative Capacities, 1877-1920 (New York, 1982)
72. Erika Lee, At America's Gates: Chinese Immigration during the Exclusion Era, 1882-1943 (Chapel Hill, NC, 2003)
73. Secretary to the President to William Williams, April 1, 1902, Box 1, WWP, NYPL; Linda Gordon, "Social Insurance and Public Assistance: The Influence of Gender in Welfare Thought in the United States, 1890-1935," American Historical Review 97 (February 1992): 19-54
74. Joanne L. Goodwin, "'Employable Mothers' and 'Suitable Work': A Re-Evaluation of Welfare and Wage-Earning for Women in the Twentieth-Century United States," Journal of Social History 29 (Winter, 1995): 253-74
75. Transcript of Record, Gonzales at 4-5, passim
76. see also, e.g., Rivera Ramos, Legal Construction of Identity, 3, 6
77. Salyer, Laws Harsh as Tigers, 147
78. William Williams, Outline of Address Delivered to the Senior Class of Princeton in November 1904, Box 6, Folder 4, WWP, NYPL
79. John Higham, Strangers in the Land: Patterns of American Nativism, 1860-1925 (New Brunswick, NJ, 1955)
80. Matthew Frye Jacobson, Whiteness of a Different Color: European Immigrants and the Alchemy of Race (Cambridge, MA, 1999)
81. Transcript of Record, Gonzales at 4-6, passim
82. On Latin American honor generally, see Sueann Caulfield, In Defense of Honor: Sexual Morality, Modernity, and Nation in Early-Twentieth-Century Brazil (Durham, NC, 2000)
83. Sueann Caulfield, Sarah C. Chambers, and Lara Putnam, eds., Honor, Status and Law in Modern Latin America (Durham, NC, 2005)
84. On honor in Puerto Rico, including its relations to class, race, gender, and periodicals, see Eileen J. Suárez Findlay, Imposing Decency: The Politics of Sexuality and Race in Puerto Rico, 1870-1920 (Durham, NC, 1999), 4, 7, 20, 25-26, 32, 34-35, 40-46, 56, 85-86, 94-95, passim
85. Transcript of Record, Gonzales at 5-6
86. Findlay, Imposing Decency, 40-16
87. Eileen J. Findlay, "Courtroom Tales of Sex and Honor: Rapto and Rape in Late Nineteenth-Century Puerto Rico," in Honor, Status and Law, ed. Sueann Caulfield Sarah C. Chambers, and Lara Putnam, 205
88. Trow's General Directory of the Boroughs of Manhattan and Bronx City of New York (New York, 1909 and 1910 eds.); U.S. Censuses of 1910 and 1920, http://ancestry.com
89. "Porto Ricans Not Aliens," New York Times, January 5, 1904, 8
90. Transcript of Record, Gonzales at 7, 1, 8-9, passim (Lacombe later approved Gonzalez's parole); MD NARA, RG 350, Personal Name Information File, 1914-1945, Coleman to Collier, Entry 21, Box 121, Domingo Collazo
91. D. Collazo, "Desde Nueva York," La Correspondencia de Puerto Rico, December 19, 1903, 1
92. Las Dos Antillas Political Club Minutes, 1892-1908, Schomburg Collection, NYPL; Aline Helg, Our Rightful Share: The Afro-Cuban Struggle for Equality, 1886-1912 (Chapel Hill, NC, 1995); Instituto de Literatura y Lingüística de la Academia de Ciencias de Cuba, Diccionario de la literatura cubana, digital ed. (Alicante, Spain, 1999)
93. In the 1890s Collazo was a member of the Dos Antillas Political Club, a New York group comprised primarily of Antilleans of color. I am grateful to Professor Jesse Hoffnung-Garskof, who told me about the ethnic makeup of this club. On activism and social networks of Caribbean immigrants of color in New York, see Irma Watkins-Owens, Blood Relations: Caribbean Immigrants and the Harlem Community, 1900-1930 (Bloomington, IN, 1996)
94. Winston James, Holding Aloft the Banner of Ethiopia: Caribbean Radicalism in Early Twentieth-Century America (New York, 1998)
95. and Jesse Hoffnung-Garskof, "The Migrations of Arturo Schomburg: On Being Antillano, Negro, and Puerto Rican in New York, 1891-1938," Journal of American Ethnic History 21 (Fall 2001): 3-49
96. On the importance of a being a national of one's nation of residence or of a nation important to one's nation of residence, see, e.g., Benjamin Heber Johnson, Revolution in Texas: How a Forgotten Rebellion and Its Bloody Suppression Turned Mexicans into Americans (New Haven, CT, 2003)
97. and Marc C. McLeod "Undesirable Aliens: Race, Ethnicity, and Nationalism in the Comparisons of Haitian and British West Indian Immigrant Workers in Cuba, 1912-1939," Journal of Social History 31 (Spring 1998): 599-623
98. Federico Degetau to Secretary of Treasury, October 5, 1902, CIHCAM 3/VI/56; Appellant's Brief, Gonzales at 3; Charles E. Le Barbier and Orrel A. Parker to Federico Degetau, January 12, 1903, CIHCAM 3/VII/6; Transcript of Record, Gonzales at 12; Frederic R. Coudert Jr. to Federico Degetau, April 20, 1903, CIHCAM 4/II/144
99. "Porto Ricans Not Aliens" (quotation 1). Two implications of this article merit additional study. First, because most Puerto Ricans in 1903 could not naturalize as U.S. citizens, it would have been unusual had Gonzalez married a Puerto Rican recognized as a U.S. citizen. Second, it would be curious had Gonzalez's lawyers known of Gonzalez's marriage mooting her case, deceived the Court by not mentioning it, and then revealed the deception immediately after the decision. Barbara Young Welke, Recasting American Liberty: Gender, Race, Law, and the Railroad Revolution, 1865-1920 (Cambridge, MA, 2001), 234-45 (quotation 2); Gonzales, 192 U.S. at 7. Thank you, Monica Kim, for a helpful suggestion
100. Brief for the United States, Gonzales at 55-60
101. Appellant's Brief, Gonzales at 18-28
102. Slaughter-House Cases, 83 U.S. 36 (1873); Minor v. Happersett, 88 U.S. 162 (1875); The Civil Rights Cases, 109 U.S. 3 (1883); Wong Wing v. United States, 163 U.S. 228 (1896); United States v. Wong Kim Ark, 169 U.S. 649 (1898)
103. Appellant's Brief, Gonzales at 32, 3-4
104. On judicial paternalism, see Michael Grossberg, Governing the Hearth: Law and Family in Nineteenth-Century America (Chapel Hill, NC, 1985). Rapto was not part of U.S. law, but U.S. justices had come of age in a legal culture that enforced a civil action for breach of contract to marry. Ibid
105. Appellant's Brief, Gonzales at 6, 35-36, 33-34, 1-7, 22-24, 27-28, 37; see also Argument of Coudert, Gonzales at 51-53, 62-65. Coudert did not suggest that the Court should or might classify Puerto Ricans as active citizens
106. Appellant's Brief, Gonzales at 6, 38-39, 25, 28-32; Dred Scott v. Sanford, 60 U.S. 393 (1857); Elk v. Wilkins, 112 U.S. 94 (1884); Dawes Act, 24 Stat. 388 (February 8, 1887)
107. Argument of Coudert, Gonzales at 54-56, passim; Sparrow, Insular Cases, 147. My analysis here benefits from Christina Duffy Burnett, "Empire and the Transformation of Citizenship," in Colonial Crucible: Empire in the Making of the Modern American State, ed. Alfred W. McCoy and Francisco A. Scarano (Madison, WI, forthcoming), which emphasizes the Court's apparent acceptance of the idea of U.S. noncitizen nationals
108. See sources cited supra n. 17. On manhood mastery, honor, and U.S. citizenship rights, see Glenda Elizabeth Gilmore, Gender and Jim Crow: Women and the Politics of White Supremacy in North Carolina, 1896-1920 (Chapel Hill, NC, 1996)
109. and Laura F. Edwards, Gendered Strife & Confusion: The Political Culture of Reconstruction (Urbana, IL, 1997)
110. Amicus Curiae Brief, Gonzales at 27, 30, 18 (citing as the source of the quotation "Zamora y Coronado, 'Legislación Ultramarina,' Tomo I, p. 255-257"), 28 (citing the source of the quotation as "Foreign Relations of the United States, 1898. Correspondence with the United States Peace Commissioners, p. 961"), 5-7, 19-22, 29, 36
111. Amicus Curiae Brief, Gonzales at 25-26 (citing, in turn, sources of quotations as "General Order No. 101, July 13, 1898, President McKinley to the Secretary of War"; "Public Laws and Resolutions passed by the U. S. Phil. Com., p. 429"; and Degetau's own certificate); Foraker Act, 31 Stat. 77 (April 12, 1900)
112. Amicus Curiae Brief, Gonzales at 43, 6-7, 12-14 (noting that if Puerto Rican citizenship were held to be exclusive of U.S. citizenship, Puerto Ricans would be foreign citizens from whom the United States could not demand allegiance under international law), 37-42
113. Gonzales v. Williams, 192 U.S. at 12, 10, 8-11, passim. Though nonapplicability of the National Origins Act of 1924, 43 Stat. 153 (1924), would facilitate large-scale migrations of Puerto Ricans to the United States, explicit congressional extension of U.S. citizenship to Puerto Ricans, more than Gonzales, would be responsible
114. See Mae M. Ngai, "The Architecture of Race in American Immigration Law: A Reexamination of the Immigration Act of 1924," Journal of American History 86 (June 1999): 67-92, and infra nn. 39-40 and accompanying text
115. "Porto Ricans Not Aliens."
116. Isabel Gonzales "What Porto Rico Demands," New York Times, December 20, 1905, 10
117. Isabel Gonzalez, "Sauce for Goose and Gander," New York Times, August 5, 1905, 6
118. U.S. Const. amend. 14, § 1; Kettner, Development of American Citizenship
119. Austin Allen, Origins of the Dred Scott Case: Jacksonian Jurisprudence and the Supreme Court, 1837-1857 (Athens, GA, 2006)
120. Sam Erman, "An 'Unintended Consequence': Dred Scott Reinterpreted," Michigan Law Review 106 (April 2008): 1157-1165 (reviewing Allen)
121. Gonzalez, "Sauce for Goose and Gander"; Gonzales [sic], "What Porto Rico Demands"; Cabán, Constructing a Colonial People, 193
122. (quoting U.S. Senate Committee on Pacific Islands and Porto Rico, A Bill to Provide a Civil Government for Porto Rico: Hearings on S. 4604, 63d Cong., 2d sess., 1914, 23)
123. Santiago Iglesias to Samuel Gompers, April 20, 1914, CDO:2; Jones Act, 39 Stat. 951 (March 2, 1917); Balzac v. Porto Rico, 258 U.S. 298 (1922). Some later courts followed the lead of the U.S. Supreme Court, settling claims involving U.S. citizenship on other grounds. By extending Puerto Ricans rights regardless of their citizenship, these courts reduced the number of rights that Puerto Ricans could expect to accompany U.S. citizenship. See, e.g., ex rel. Rodriguez v. Bowyer, 25 App. D.C. 121 (1905) (construing a federal law as making Puerto Ricans eligible to apply for certain jobs whether or not they were U.S. citizens)