Undesirable aliens: Race, ethnicity, and nationalism in the comparison of Haitian and British West Indian immigrant workers in Cuba, 1912-1939

Journal of Social History

Volumn 31, Issue 3, 1998, Pages 598-623

  McLeod, Marc C ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY OF TEXAS AT AUSTIN   (United States)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

EID: 0032033937     PISSN: 00224529     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1353/jsh/31.3.599     Document Type: Review

References (160)

1. Diario de Cuba (Santiago de Cuba), March 27, 1937, p. 10.
2. Hernan C. Vogenitz, Vice Consul, to Jefferson Caffery, U.S. Ambassador, Cienfuegos, March 24, 1937, Confidential U.S. Diplomatic Post Records, National Archives and Record Center, Washington, D.C., and Federal Records Center, Suitland, MD, Record Group 84 (Frederick, MD, 1985), microfilm (hereafter cited as CUSDPR), reel 43.
3. H. Freeman Matthews, First Secretary, to State, Havana, August 18, 1937, no. 9608, CUSDPR, rl. 43; El Avance (Havana), September 16, 1937, enclosed in Willard L. Beaulac, First Secretary, to State, Havana, September 18, 1937, CUSDPR, rl. 43.
4. Juan Pérez de la Riva, "Cuba y la migración antillana, 1900-1931," in La república neocolonial, vol. 2, Anuario de estudios cubanos, ed. Pérez de la Riva et al. (Havana, 1979), 33. The total Cuban population during this era reached only 2,889,004 in 1919 and 3,962,344 in 1931 ("Población total y densidad," Table 1, Memorias inéditas del censo de 1931 [Havana, 1978], 139). I use the term "British West Indian" to refer to all black immigrants from the English-speaking Caribbean who shared common ties of Crown and culture, despite the tendency of historical actors to lump them together in the category "Jamaican." Approximately two-thirds of all British West Indian immigrants came from Jamaica with more than one-half of the remainder from Barbados and the rest from other Leeward Islands such as Grenada, St. Kitts, and Nevis. Further research may distinguish important differences between immigrants from the British West Indies, although as yet I have uncovered nothing like the "interisland jealously" identified by Michael Conniff, Black Labor on a White Canal: Panama, 1904-1981 (Pittsburgh, 1985), 9, among British West Indians in Panama.
5. For the 1933-34 figure, see Rogelio Pina, "Informe sobre la situación legal y social de los inmigrantes antillanos en Oriente y Camagüey," in Cuba, Secretaría del Trabajo, Revista Mensual 1, 2 (February 1935): 13. This article reprinted a speech made by Pina in June 1934, available as "Informe rendido por el Dr. Rogelio Pina y Estrada al Hon. Sr. Presidente de la República y al Consejo de Secretarios sobre la inmigración haitiana y jamaicana," Archivo Nacional de Cuba (hereafter ANC), Fondo Secretaría de la Presidencia, leg. 121, no. 84, and also published in the Diario de la Marina (Havana), July 8, 1934, p. 11. For the 1938-39 figure, see Angel Pino Aguila, Delegado de la Secretaría del Trabajo, to Sr. Secretario del Trabajo, Santiago, December 13, 1938, and "Relación de los repatriados haitianos," Santiago, January 16, 1939, both in ANC, Fondo Donativos y Remisiones (hereafter FDR), box 702, no. 21.
6. Only 458 British West Indians were repatriated voluntarily between January 1935 and April 1937 (Grant Watson to Foreign Office, Havana April 12, 1937, Public Record Office, London, Foreign Office Papers [hereafter PRO: FO], 371/20625, A2680/65/14). "Cuba Annual Report, 1938," Watson to Halifax, Havana, January 4, 1939, PRO: FO371/22748, A996/996/14, confirms that "no British West Indians were repatriated by the Cuban Government." Additionally, while many Spanish immigrants returned to Spain through the assistance of mutual aid societies and the Spanish government, there is no record that Spanish immigrants were deported on a large scale by the Cuban government in the 1930s (Consuelo Naranjo Orovio and Alfredo Moreno Cebrián, "La repatriación forzosa y las crisis económicas cubanas: 1921-1933," Arbor 536-37 [1990]: 203-230).
7. Philippe I. Bourgois, Ethnicity at Work: Divided Labor on a Central American Banana Plantation (Baltimore, 1989), esp. 224.
8. I use "race" not as a biological category, but as a constructed, sociohistorical concept in which skin color and other obvious physical characteristics are used as the "signifiers" to explain supposed differences in intellect, athletic and artistic abilities and preferences, sexuality, etc. "Ethnicity" is group identity based on learned behavior such as language, religion, music, and other traditions, and thus is associated more closely with what we might term "culture." These definitions are similar to those used by Michael Omi and Howard Winant, who also critique the tendency to ignore ethnic differences among blacks in what they term the "They are all alike" syndrome (Omi and Winant, Racial Formation in the United States: From the 1960s to the 1980s [New York, 1986], esp. 23-4).
9. The most complete studies of Afro-Antillean migration to Cuba during the early twentieth century are Rolando Alvarez Estévez, Azúcar e inmigración, 1900-1940 (Havana, 1988), and Pérez de la Riva, "Cuba y la migración antillana," 1-75. Franklin W. Knight, "Jamaican Migrants and the Cuban Sugar Industry, 1900-1934," in Between Slavery and Free Labor: The Spanish-Speaking Caribbean in the Nineteenth Century, ed. Manuel Moreno Fraginals, Frank Moya Pons, and Stanley L. Engerman (Baltimore, 1985), 94- 114, provides a good introduction to the history of Jamaican migration. See also Mats Lundahl, "A Note on Haitian Migration to Cuba, 1890-1934," Cuban Studies/Estudios Cubanos 12, 2 (July 1982): 23-36, and Basil Maughan, "Some Aspects of Barbadian Emigration to Cuba, 1919-1935," The Journal of the Barbados Museum and Historical Society 37, 3 (1985): 239-76.
10. The most complete studies of Afro-Antillean migration to Cuba during the early twentieth century are Rolando Alvarez Estévez, Azúcar e inmigración, 1900-1940 (Havana, 1988), and Pérez de la Riva, "Cuba y la migración antillana," 1-75. Franklin W. Knight, "Jamaican Migrants and the Cuban Sugar Industry, 1900-1934," in Between Slavery and Free Labor: The Spanish-Speaking Caribbean in the Nineteenth Century, ed. Manuel Moreno Fraginals, Frank Moya Pons, and Stanley L. Engerman (Baltimore, 1985), 94- 114, provides a good introduction to the history of Jamaican migration. See also Mats Lundahl, "A Note on Haitian Migration to Cuba, 1890-1934," Cuban Studies/Estudios Cubanos 12, 2 (July 1982): 23-36, and Basil Maughan, "Some Aspects of Barbadian Emigration to Cuba, 1919-1935," The Journal of the Barbados Museum and Historical Society 37, 3 (1985): 239-76.
11. The most complete studies of Afro-Antillean migration to Cuba during the early twentieth century are Rolando Alvarez Estévez, Azúcar e inmigración, 1900-1940 (Havana, 1988), and Pérez de la Riva, "Cuba y la migración antillana," 1-75. Franklin W. Knight, "Jamaican Migrants and the Cuban Sugar Industry, 1900-1934," in Between Slavery and Free Labor: The Spanish-Speaking Caribbean in the Nineteenth Century, ed. Manuel Moreno Fraginals, Frank Moya Pons, and Stanley L. Engerman (Baltimore, 1985), 94- 114, provides a good introduction to the history of Jamaican migration. See also Mats Lundahl, "A Note on Haitian Migration to Cuba, 1890-1934," Cuban Studies/Estudios Cubanos 12, 2 (July 1982): 23-36, and Basil Maughan, "Some Aspects of Barbadian Emigration to Cuba, 1919-1935," The Journal of the Barbados Museum and Historical Society 37, 3 (1985): 239-76.
12. Alvarez Estévez, Azúcar e inmigración, 11, 14-16, 43, 79, 116-17, 200, 238-40, and Pérez de la Riva, "Cuba y la migración antillana," 12-13, 19-21, 26-27, 46, address some of the differences between these two immigrant groups. Alvarez Estévez, Azúcar e inmigración, 242-59, is the only notable treatment of the 1937-1939 repatriations.
13. Alvarez Estévez, Azúcar e inmigración, 11, 14-16, 43, 79, 116-17, 200, 238-40, and Pérez de la Riva, "Cuba y la migración antillana," 12-13, 19-21, 26-27, 46, address some of the differences between these two immigrant groups. Alvarez Estévez, Azúcar e inmigración, 242-59, is the only notable treatment of the 1937-1939 repatriations.
14. Alvarez Estévez, Azúcar e inmigración, 11, 14-16, 43, 79, 116-17, 200, 238-40, and Pérez de la Riva, "Cuba y la migración antillana," 12-13, 19-21, 26-27, 46, address some of the differences between these two immigrant groups. Alvarez Estévez, Azúcar e inmigración, 242-59, is the only notable treatment of the 1937-1939 repatriations.
15. Alvarez Estévez, Azúcar e inmigración, 185-86, 41. As Avi Chomsky has noted in a recent review article, he does not differentiate between white and black Cubans, and thus does not examine how Afro-Cubans in particular responded to Afro-Caribbean immigrants (Avi Chomsky, "Recent Historiography of Cuba," Latin American Research Review 29, 3 [1994]: 230).
16. Alvarez Estévez, Azúcar e inmigración, 185-86, 41. As Avi Chomsky has noted in a recent review article, he does not differentiate between white and black Cubans, and thus does not examine how Afro-Cubans in particular responded to Afro-Caribbean immigrants (Avi Chomsky, "Recent Historiography of Cuba," Latin American Research Review 29, 3 [1994]: 230).
17. See Knight, "Jamaican Migrants," 95-7; Lundahl, "Haitian Migration," 24-7; Pérez de la Riva, "Cuba y la migración antillana," 11-3; and Alvarez Estévez, Azúcar e inmigración, 53-72.
18. See Knight, "Jamaican Migrants," 95-7; Lundahl, "Haitian Migration," 24-7; Pérez de la Riva, "Cuba y la migración antillana," 11-3; and Alvarez Estévez, Azúcar e inmigración, 53-72.
19. See Knight, "Jamaican Migrants," 95-7; Lundahl, "Haitian Migration," 24-7; Pérez de la Riva, "Cuba y la migración antillana," 11-3; and Alvarez Estévez, Azúcar e inmigración, 53-72.
20. See Knight, "Jamaican Migrants," 95-7; Lundahl, "Haitian Migration," 24-7; Pérez de la Riva, "Cuba y la migración antillana," 11-3; and Alvarez Estévez, Azúcar e inmigración, 53-72.
21. César J. Ayala, "Social and Economic Aspects of Sugar Production in Cuba, 1880-1930," Latin American Research Review 30, 1 (1995): 101, table 3.
22. On theories of racial "whitening" and immigration policy in Cuba, see Aline Helg, "Race in Argentina and Cuba, 1880-1930: Theory, Policies, and Popular Reaction," in The Idea of Race in Latin America, 1870-1940, ed. Richard Graham (Austin, 1990), 37-69, esp. 54-7. On Spanish immigration to Cuba in the early twentieth century, see: Juan Pérez de la Riva, "Los recursos humanos de Cuba al comenzar el siglo: inmigración, economía y nacionalidad (1899-1906)," in La república neocolonial, vol. 1, Anuario de estudios cubanos, ed. Pérez de la Riva et. al. (Havana, 1975), 7-44; Dominga González Suárez, "La inmigración española en Cuba," Economía y desarrollo 1 (January-February 1988): 92-107; Consuelo Naranjo Orovio, "La inmigración española y el movimiento obrere cubano, 1900-1925," Arbor 547-48 (1991): 217-240; Jordi Maluquer de Motes, Noción e inmigración: los españoles en Cuba (ss. XIX y XX) (Asturias, 1992); and Rafael R. Soler Martínez, Los españoles en el movimiento obrero oriental (Santiago de Cuba, 1994).
23. On theories of racial "whitening" and immigration policy in Cuba, see Aline Helg, "Race in Argentina and Cuba, 1880-1930: Theory, Policies, and Popular Reaction," in The Idea of Race in Latin America, 1870-1940, ed. Richard Graham (Austin, 1990), 37-69, esp. 54-7. On Spanish immigration to Cuba in the early twentieth century, see: Juan Pérez de la Riva, "Los recursos humanos de Cuba al comenzar el siglo: inmigración, economía y nacionalidad (1899-1906)," in La república neocolonial, vol. 1, Anuario de estudios cubanos, ed. Pérez de la Riva et. al. (Havana, 1975), 7-44; Dominga González Suárez, "La inmigración española en Cuba," Economía y desarrollo 1 (January-February 1988): 92-107; Consuelo Naranjo Orovio, "La inmigración española y el movimiento obrere cubano, 1900-1925," Arbor 547-48 (1991): 217-240; Jordi Maluquer de Motes, Noción e inmigración: los españoles en Cuba (ss. XIX y XX) (Asturias, 1992); and Rafael R. Soler Martínez, Los españoles en el movimiento obrero oriental (Santiago de Cuba, 1994).
24. On theories of racial "whitening" and immigration policy in Cuba, see Aline Helg, "Race in Argentina and Cuba, 1880-1930: Theory, Policies, and Popular Reaction," in The Idea of Race in Latin America, 1870-1940, ed. Richard Graham (Austin, 1990), 37-69, esp. 54-7. On Spanish immigration to Cuba in the early twentieth century, see: Juan Pérez de la Riva, "Los recursos humanos de Cuba al comenzar el siglo: inmigración, economía y nacionalidad (1899-1906)," in La república neocolonial, vol. 1, Anuario de estudios cubanos, ed. Pérez de la Riva et. al. (Havana, 1975), 7-44; Dominga González Suárez, "La inmigración española en Cuba," Economía y desarrollo 1 (January-February 1988): 92-107; Consuelo Naranjo Orovio, "La inmigración española y el movimiento obrere cubano, 1900-1925," Arbor 547-48 (1991): 217-240; Jordi Maluquer de Motes, Noción e inmigración: los españoles en Cuba (ss. XIX y XX) (Asturias, 1992); and Rafael R. Soler Martínez, Los españoles en el movimiento obrero oriental (Santiago de Cuba, 1994).
25. On theories of racial "whitening" and immigration policy in Cuba, see Aline Helg, "Race in Argentina and Cuba, 1880-1930: Theory, Policies, and Popular Reaction," in The Idea of Race in Latin America, 1870-1940, ed. Richard Graham (Austin, 1990), 37-69, esp. 54-7. On Spanish immigration to Cuba in the early twentieth century, see: Juan Pérez de la Riva, "Los recursos humanos de Cuba al comenzar el siglo: inmigración, economía y nacionalidad (1899-1906)," in La república neocolonial, vol. 1, Anuario de estudios cubanos, ed. Pérez de la Riva et. al. (Havana, 1975), 7-44; Dominga González Suárez, "La inmigración española en Cuba," Economía y desarrollo 1 (January-February 1988): 92-107; Consuelo Naranjo Orovio, "La inmigración española y el movimiento obrere cubano, 1900-1925," Arbor 547-48 (1991): 217-240; Jordi Maluquer de Motes, Noción e inmigración: los españoles en Cuba (ss. XIX y XX) (Asturias, 1992); and Rafael R. Soler Martínez, Los españoles en el movimiento obrero oriental (Santiago de Cuba, 1994).
26. On theories of racial "whitening" and immigration policy in Cuba, see Aline Helg, "Race in Argentina and Cuba, 1880-1930: Theory, Policies, and Popular Reaction," in The Idea of Race in Latin America, 1870-1940, ed. Richard Graham (Austin, 1990), 37-69, esp. 54-7. On Spanish immigration to Cuba in the early twentieth century, see: Juan Pérez de la Riva, "Los recursos humanos de Cuba al comenzar el siglo: inmigración, economía y nacionalidad (1899-1906)," in La república neocolonial, vol. 1, Anuario de estudios cubanos, ed. Pérez de la Riva et. al. (Havana, 1975), 7-44; Dominga González Suárez, "La inmigración española en Cuba," Economía y desarrollo 1 (January-February 1988): 92-107; Consuelo Naranjo Orovio, "La inmigración española y el movimiento obrere cubano, 1900-1925," Arbor 547-48 (1991): 217-240; Jordi Maluquer de Motes, Noción e inmigración: los españoles en Cuba (ss. XIX y XX) (Asturias, 1992); and Rafael R. Soler Martínez, Los españoles en el movimiento obrero oriental (Santiago de Cuba, 1994).
27. On theories of racial "whitening" and immigration policy in Cuba, see Aline Helg, "Race in Argentina and Cuba, 1880-1930: Theory, Policies, and Popular Reaction," in The Idea of Race in Latin America, 1870-1940, ed. Richard Graham (Austin, 1990), 37-69, esp. 54-7. On Spanish immigration to Cuba in the early twentieth century, see: Juan Pérez de la Riva, "Los recursos humanos de Cuba al comenzar el siglo: inmigración, economía y nacionalidad (1899-1906)," in La república neocolonial, vol. 1, Anuario de estudios cubanos, ed. Pérez de la Riva et. al. (Havana, 1975), 7-44; Dominga González Suárez, "La inmigración española en Cuba," Economía y desarrollo 1 (January-February 1988): 92-107; Consuelo Naranjo Orovio, "La inmigración española y el movimiento obrere cubano, 1900-1925," Arbor 547-48 (1991): 217-240; Jordi Maluquer de Motes, Noción e inmigración: los españoles en Cuba (ss. XIX y XX) (Asturias, 1992); and Rafael R. Soler Martínez, Los españoles en el movimiento obrero oriental (Santiago de Cuba, 1994).
28. See Aline Helg, Our Rightful Share: The Afro-Cuban Struggle for Equality, 1886-1912 (Chapel Hill, 1995), esp. 16-17.
29. See Avi Chomsky, "Migration and Resistance: Haitian Workers under U.S. Occupation, 1915-1934" (paper presented at the IX Southern Labor Studies Conference, University of Texas at Austin, October 26-29, 1995).
30. Carlos M. Trelles, "El progreso y el retroceso de la república de Cuba," Revista Bimestre Cubana 18 (September-October 1923): 352.
31. Jorge Le-Roy y Cassá, "Inmigración anti-sanitaria," paper presented at the Academia de Ciencias Médicas, Físicas, y Naturales de la Habana, December 14, 1923 (Havana, 1929), esp. 5, 32-3.
32. Le-Roy y Cassá, "Inmigración anti-sanitaria," 33.
33. Helg, Our Rightful Share, 238-39; Pérez de la Riva, "Cuba y la migración antillana," 63-5.
34. Helg, Our Rightful Share, 238-39; Pérez de la Riva, "Cuba y la migración antillana," 63-5.
35. Pérez de la Riva, "Cuba y la migración antillana," 65-6.
36. Hortensia Lamar, "La lucha contra la prostitución y la trata de blancas," Revista Bimestre Cubana 18 (March-April 1923): 134.
37. Le-Roy y Cassá, "Inmigración anti-sanitaria," 32.
38. La Prensa (Havana), December 22, 1922, translated in "Memorandum Upon Sanitary Conditions in Cuba," Havana, July 27, 1923, 837.124/60, Records of the Department of State Relating to Internal Affairs of Cuba, 1910-1929 (Washington, D.C.: National Archives Microfilm Publications, 1963), microcopy 488, Record Group 59 (hereafter USDS-Cuba), rl. 38, p. 68.
39. La Prensa (Havana), December 22, 1922, translated in "Memorandum Upon Sanitary Conditions in Cuba," Havana, July 27, 1923, 837.124/60, Records of the Department of State Relating to Internal Affairs of Cuba, 1910-1929 (Washington, D.C.: National Archives Microfilm Publications, 1963), microcopy 488, Record Group 59 (hereafter USDS-Cuba), rl. 38, p. 68.
40. See Alexandra Brown David, "Native and Foreign Laborers: Resistance and Control in Cuba's Sugar Industry, 1913-1924" (master's thesis, University of Texas at Austin, 1989), 96-129.
41. See the more than 200 documents relating to the 1921 deportations in the Archivo Histórico Provincial de Santiago de Cuba, Fondo Gobierno Provincial (hereafter AHPSC, GP), leg. 786, no. 11; Alvarez Estévez, Azúcar e inmigración, 121-30; and "Decreto No. 1404 de 20 de julio de 1921: Repatriación de braceros antillanos," in Hortensia Pichardo, ed., Documentos para la historia de Cuba (Havana, 1969), 3:22-3.
42. See the more than 200 documents relating to the 1921 deportations in the Archivo Histórico Provincial de Santiago de Cuba, Fondo Gobierno Provincial (hereafter AHPSC, GP), leg. 786, no. 11; Alvarez Estévez, Azúcar e inmigración, 121-30; and "Decreto No. 1404 de 20 de julio de 1921: Repatriación de braceros antillanos," in Hortensia Pichardo, ed., Documentos para la historia de Cuba (Havana, 1969), 3:22-3.
43. Robert B. Hoernel, "Sugar and Social Change in Oriente, Cuba, 1898-1946," Journal of Latin American Studies 8, 2 (November 1976): 242.
44. Edward I. Nathan, U.S. Consul, Santiago, "Emigration and Deportation of Colored Population from Eastern Cuba," June 7, 1928, USDS-Cuba, 837.5538/8, rl. 84.
45. See the following from USDS-Cuba, rl. 84: C. Gross to State, telegram, Port-au- Prince, July 19, 1928, 837.5538/9; C.B. Curtis, Chargé, to State, Havana, July 26, 1928, no. 375, 837.5538/11; Horace J. Dickinson, Consul, "Importation of Haitian Labor into the Antilla District," September 25, 1928, 837.5538/14; Gross to State, Port-au-Prince, October 9, 1928, no. 1302, 837.5538/16; John H. Russell to State, Port-au-Prince, December 19, 1928, 837.5538/18.
46. "The Labor Situation in Cuba and the British West Indies," enclosure in T. Ifor Rees to Anthony Eden, Havana, February 20, 1937, British Documents on Foreign Affairs: Reports and Papers from the Foreign Office Confidential Print, Part II, Series D, Latin America, 1914- 1939 (hereafter BDFA, II, D), vol. 17, doc. 21, p. 129. Immigrants from other British West Indian colonies (which did not have emigrant protection schemes in place) and Jamaicans who had entered Cuba without proper authorization were not eligible tor government-paid repatriation.
47. Gisela Eisner, Jamaica, 1830-1930: A Study in Economic Growth (Manchester, 1961), 151.
48. Edwin Schoenrich, Consul, to U.S. Embassy, "Repatriation of Haitians by Cuban Government from Santiago de Cuba," November 22, 1933, CUSDPR, rl. 12.
49. "Report of Archdeacon, Province of Camagüey," April 21, 1933, J. H. Townsend Papers, Archives of the Episcopal Church, Episcopal Seminary of the Southwest, Austin, Texas, Cuba Series B.
50. "Población extranjera, según nacionalidad," Cuadro 34, Memorias inéditas del censo de 1931, 74. Since this census was taken during the "dead season" in September and October, the vast majority of these antillanos should be seen as "permanent" residents rather than as temporary workers who would return after the sugar harvest. Even then, Pérez de la Riva, "Cuba y la migración antillana," 53, terms the 77,000 figure for Haitian residents "a massive undercount," while the Jamaican Secretary for Immigration in Santiago reported in 1930 that "approximately 60,000" British West Indians resided in Cuba (Mr. Ewen to Chargé, Santiago, July 31, 1930, PRO: FO371/14221, A5879/2177/14).
51. References to Afro-Caribbean migrants as "undesirable" are numerous, especially after 1929. Some examples include: Le-Roy y Cassá, "Inmigración anti-sanitaria"; Frederick Todd, Commercial Attaché, "Trends in Immigration into Cuba," Havana, March 2, 1929, enclosed in Noble Brandon Judah to State, Havana, March 8, 1929, no. 600, USDS-Cuba, 837.55/85, rl. 84; Pina, "Informe sobre la situación legal y social"; "El problema de la inmigración de haitianos y jamaiquinos," (edit.), Diario de la Marina, July 11, 1934, p. 3; and C. R. Cameron, Consul General, "Proposed Cuban Migration Law," Havana, June 15, 1935, no. 216, CUSDPR, rl. 36.
52. Daily Gleaner (Kingston), August 15, 1933, p. 12.
53. Diario de la Marina, December 6, 1932, p. 6.
54. Daily Gleaner, February 25, 1933, p. 12; July 4, 1933, p. 20; July 8, 1933, p. 17.
55. Daily Gleaner, February 25, 1933, p. 12; July 4, 1933, p. 20; July 8, 1933, p. 17.
56. Daily Gleaner, February 25, 1933, p. 12; July 4, 1933, p. 20; July 8, 1933, p. 17.
57. Schoenrich, Consul, to U.S. Embassy, Cienfuegos, December 20, 1933, CUSDPR, rl. 11.
58. Ibid.
59. Instituto de Historia del Movimiento Comunista y de la Revolución Socialista, Historia del movimiento obrero cubano, vol. 1, 1865-1935 (Havana, 1985), 273.
60. Sindicato Nacional de Obreros de la Indústria Azucarera, "La zafra actual y las tareas de los obreros azucareros," Havana, 1934, p. 13, ANC, Fondo Especial (hereafter FE), leg. 8, no. 1572.
61. El Comité Conjunto, Sección de Tuinucú, Sindicato Nacional de Obreros de la Indústria Azucarera to Sr. Administrador del Central Tuinucú, September 3, 1933, The Braga Brothers Collection, University of Florida at Gainesville, Record Group 2, Series 10c (hereafter Braga Collection), and The Tuinucú Sugar Company to El Comité Conjunto, Sección de Tuinucú, Havana, September 26, 1933, Braga Collection.
62. Barry Carr, "Mill Occupations and Soviets: The Mobilisation of Sugar Workers in Cuba, 1917-1933," Journal of Latin American Studies 28, 1 (1996): 129-58, esp. 150-1.
63. "Conferencia Provincial de Oriente de Obreros de la Indústria Azucarera," Santiago, September 17-18, 1933, Archivo del Instituto de Historia de Cuba, Havana, Cuba, 1/8:87/15.1/1-10; Grant Watson to Sir John Simon, Havana, August 29, 1033, BDFA, II, D, vol. 10, doc. 87; Watson to Simon, Havana, February 11, 1934, BDFA, II, D, vol. 11, doc. 73; and Ursinio Rojas, Las luchas obreras en el central Tacajó (Havana, 1979), 186, 189, 191.
64. "Conferencia Provincial de Oriente de Obreros de la Indústria Azucarera," Santiago, September 17-18, 1933, Archivo del Instituto de Historia de Cuba, Havana, Cuba, 1/8:87/15.1/1-10; Grant Watson to Sir John Simon, Havana, August 29, 1033, BDFA, II, D, vol. 10, doc. 87; Watson to Simon, Havana, February 11, 1934, BDFA, II, D, vol. 11, doc. 73; and Ursinio Rojas, Las luchas obreras en el central Tacajó (Havana, 1979), 186, 189, 191.
65. Foreign Policy Association, Problems of the New Cuba (New York, 1935), 183.
66. Pina, "Informe sobre la situación legal y social," 16.
67. "Repatriación forzosa de extranjeros sin trabajo ni recursos; Decreto no. 2232 de 18 de octubre de 1933," in Pichardo, Documentos, vol. 4, 80-2. Decree 3289, passed in December 1933, authorized the use of government funds to cover the costs of the repatriations.
68. "Ley provisional de nacionalización del trabajo; Decreto no. 2583 de 8 de noviembre de 1933," in Pichardo, Documentos, 4: 99-100. The "fifty percent law" targeted Spanish immigrant workers as much as Antillean laborers.
69. Daily Gleaner, September 4, 1933, p. 9.
70. Daily Gleaner, September 1, 1933, p. 15. See also Daily Gleaner, August 23, 1933, p. 1, and Grant Watson to Sir John Simon, Havana, August 21, 1933, BDFA, II, D, vol. 10, doc. 84.
71. Daily Gleaner, September 1, 1933, p. 15. See also Daily Gleaner, August 23, 1933, p. 1, and Grant Watson to Sir John Simon, Havana, August 21, 1933, BDFA, II, D, vol. 10, doc. 84.
72. Daily Gleaner, September 1, 1933, p. 15. See also Daily Gleaner, August 23, 1933, p. 1, and Grant Watson to Sir John Simon, Havana, August 21, 1933, BDFA, II, D, vol. 10, doc. 84.
73. Lester Sockwell, Vice Consul, to H. Freeman Matthews, Chargé, Nuevitas, December 19, 1933, CUSDPR, rl. 1.
74. Sumner Welles, Ambassador, to State, telegram, Havana, December 9, 1933, CUSDPR, rl. 12.
75. See, for example, Comité Ejecutivo Nacional, Defensa Obrera Internacional, "A todos! A todos! A todos!," Havana, December 23, 1933, ANC, FE, leg. 8, no. 1501, and SNOIA, "La zafra actual," ANC, FE, leg. 8, no. 1572.
76. Albert F. Nufer to U.S. Ambassador, "Labor Situation," Havana, December 19, 1933, CUSDPR, rl. 12. See also Foreign Policy Association, Problems of the New Cuba, 213, and Schoenrich, Consul, to Samuel Dickson, Chargé, Santiago, January 11, 1934, CUSDPR, rl. 16.
77. "Informe al IV Plenum del Comité Ejecutivo Nacional de DOI sobre los Decretos- Leyes y Tribunales Extraordinarios," September 20-21, 1934, in Pichardo, Documentos vol. 4, 480. Founded in 1930 as a clandestine affiliate of the Communist Party, Defensa Obrera Internacional provided aid to political prisoners and their families and served to recruit potential members for the party. See Instituto de Historia, Historia del movimiento obrero, 260.
78. "Informe al IV Plenum del Comité Ejecutivo Nacional de DOI sobre los Decretos- Leyes y Tribunales Extraordinarios," September 20-21, 1934, in Pichardo, Documentos vol. 4, 480. Founded in 1930 as a clandestine affiliate of the Communist Party, Defensa Obrera Internacional provided aid to political prisoners and their families and served to recruit potential members for the party. See Instituto de Historia, Historia del movimiento obrero, 260.
79. Schoenrich, Consul, to U.S. Embassy, Santiago, "Repatriation of Haitians by Cuban Government from Santiago de Cuba," November 22, 1933, CUSDPR, rl. 12.
80. Bolard More, Vice Consul, Port-au-Prince, "Trend of Migratory Movements-Haiti," July 26, 1934, Records of the Department of State Relating to Internal Affairs of Haiti, 1930-1939 (Washington, D.C.: National Archives Microfilm Publications, 1982), microcopy M1246, Record Group 59, 838.55/12, rl. 33.
81. Pina, "Informe sobre la situación legal y social," 13.
82. Presidente de la Asociación de Caficultores de Yateras and Presidente de la Asociación de Caficultores de Oriente to Secretario de Trabajo, telegram, Guantánamo, October 26, [1938], ANC, FDR, leg. 702, no. 21. See also Angel Pérez Andre, Gobernador Provincial, to Presidente de la República, telegram, Santiago, October 26, 1938, AHPSC, GP, leg. 178, no. 3.
83. "The Labour Situation in Cuba and the British West Indies," in Rees to Eden, Havana, February 20, 1937, BDFA, II, D, vol. 17, doc. 21, p. 132.
84. Ramiro Guerra y Sánchez, Sugar and Society in the Caribbean: An Economic History of Cuban Agriculture (New Haven, 1964); originally published as Azúcar y población en las Antillas (Havana, 1935). Most Cuban scholars have echoed Guerra y Sánchez's argument, but Jorge Ibarra, Cuba: 1898-1921, Partidos políticos y clases sociales (Havana, 1992), 155- 66, offers a revisionist interpretation which claims that Antillean workers were paid at the same levels as their Cuban counterparts.
85. Matthews, Chargé, to State, Havana, March 25, 1937, CUSDPR, rl. 43. See also Matthews to State, "Employment of Cuban Canefield Laborers," Havana, January 30, 1937, no. 8088, CUSDPR, rl. 43.
86. Diario de la Marina, May 20, 1934, p. 23; July 23, 1934, p. 2. For background on Urrutia, see Tomás Fernández Robaina, El negro en Cuba, 1902-1958 (Havana, 1990), 124-33.
87. Diario de la Marina, May 20, 1934, p. 23; July 23, 1934, p. 2. For background on Urrutia, see Tomás Fernández Robaina, El negro en Cuba, 1902-1958 (Havana, 1990), 124-33.
88. Cameron, Consul General, "Proposed Cuban Migration Law," Havana, June 15, 1935, no. 216, CUSDPR, rl. 36.
89. "Informe al IV Plenum," in Pichardo, Documentos vol. 4, 480-81.
90. Foreign Policy Association, Problems of the New Cuba, 34.
91. L. Haydock Wilson, Vice Consul, to T. Ifor Rees, Consul General, Santiago, February 10, 1937, PRO: FO371/20625, A1928/65/14.
92. "Antonio Pier, exposición al Presidente de la República," Cobre, December 17, 1938, ANC, FDR, box 702, no. 21. See also Diario de Cuba, April 10, 1937, p. 1.
93. Dickinson, Consul, to Matthews, First Secretary, Antilla, March 30, 1937, CUSDPR, rl. 43.
94. For post-1959 anthropological studies of these communities, see: Alberto Pedro Díaz, "Guanamaca, una comunidad haitiana," Etnofogía y folklore 1 (January-June 1966): 25- 39; Jesús Guanche and Dennis Moreno, Caidije (Santiago de Cuba, 1988); Julio Corbea, "La comunidad cubano-haitiana de la Caridad," Del Caribe 1, 3-4 (1984): 61-4; and Joel James, José Millet, and Alexis Alarcón, El vodú en Cuba (Santo Domingo, 1992).
95. For post-1959 anthropological studies of these communities, see: Alberto Pedro Díaz, "Guanamaca, una comunidad haitiana," Etnofogía y folklore 1 (January-June 1966): 25- 39; Jesús Guanche and Dennis Moreno, Caidije (Santiago de Cuba, 1988); Julio Corbea, "La comunidad cubano-haitiana de la Caridad," Del Caribe 1, 3-4 (1984): 61-4; and Joel James, José Millet, and Alexis Alarcón, El vodú en Cuba (Santo Domingo, 1992).
96. For post-1959 anthropological studies of these communities, see: Alberto Pedro Díaz, "Guanamaca, una comunidad haitiana," Etnofogía y folklore 1 (January-June 1966): 25- 39; Jesús Guanche and Dennis Moreno, Caidije (Santiago de Cuba, 1988); Julio Corbea, "La comunidad cubano-haitiana de la Caridad," Del Caribe 1, 3-4 (1984): 61-4; and Joel James, José Millet, and Alexis Alarcón, El vodú en Cuba (Santo Domingo, 1992).
97. For post-1959 anthropological studies of these communities, see: Alberto Pedro Díaz, "Guanamaca, una comunidad haitiana," Etnofogía y folklore 1 (January-June 1966): 25- 39; Jesús Guanche and Dennis Moreno, Caidije (Santiago de Cuba, 1988); Julio Corbea, "La comunidad cubano-haitiana de la Caridad," Del Caribe 1, 3-4 (1984): 61-4; and Joel James, José Millet, and Alexis Alarcón, El vodú en Cuba (Santo Domingo, 1992).
98. Cuba, Secretaría de Hacienda, Inmigración y movimiento de pasajeros en el año ... [1912-1929] (Havana, [1912-1929]) in "Inmigración jamaicana, características personales," Table VI, and "Inmigración haitiana, características personales," Table VII, enclosed in Pérez de la Riva, "Cuba y la migración antillana," [in pocket inside back cover].
99. Rojas, Las luchas obreras, 58.
100. Calculated from Cuba, Secretaría de Hacienda, "Nacionalidad y otras circunstancias de los inmigrantes," Inmigración y movimiento de pasajeros en el año ... [1912-1927] (Havana, [1912-1927]), 5. Excludes 1925 figures for British West Indians.
101. Calculated from Cuba, Secretaría de Hacienda, "Inmigrantes clasificados por ocupaciones y nacionalidades," Inmigración y movimiento de pasajeros en el año . . . [1916-1927] (Havana, [1916-1927]), 6-7. Statistics about artisans were not kept until 1916.
102. Curtis, Chargé, to State, Havana, October 11, 1928, no. 457, USDS-Cuba, 837.5538/15, rl. 84.
103. Manuel Rionda to Salvador Rionda, New York City, October 18, 1926, Braga Collection.
104. Salvador Rionda to Manuel Rionda, Manatí, October 22, 1926, Braga Collection.
105. Guanche and Moreno, Caidije, 28-9.
106. Schoenrich, Consul, to Dickson, Chargé, Santiago, January 11, 1934, CUSDPR, rl. 16; Scott, Consul, to State, Cape Haitien, March 29, 1924, Records of the Department of State Relating to Internal Affairs of Haiti, 1910-1929 (Washington, D.C.: National Archives Microfilm Publications, 1982), microcopy M610, Record Group 59, 838.56/1, rl. 79; Ariel James, Banes: Imperialismo y nación en una plantación azucarera (Havana, 1976), 178-79; and Pedro Díaz, "Guanamaca," 25.
107. Schoenrich, Consul, to Dickson, Chargé, Santiago, January 11, 1934, CUSDPR, rl. 16; Scott, Consul, to State, Cape Haitien, March 29, 1924, Records of the Department of State Relating to Internal Affairs of Haiti, 1910-1929 (Washington, D.C.: National Archives Microfilm Publications, 1982), microcopy M610, Record Group 59, 838.56/1, rl. 79; Ariel James, Banes: Imperialismo y nación en una plantación azucarera (Havana, 1976), 178-79; and Pedro Díaz, "Guanamaca," 25.
108. Mr. Ewen, Secretary for Immigration, to Chargé, Santiago, July 31, 1930, PRO: FO371/14221, A5879/2177/14. See also Milton Patterson Thompson, Vice Consul, Havana, "Cuban Immigration Problems," October 9, 1936, CUSDPR, rl. 36.
109. Knight, "Jamaican Migrants," 107. Knight interviewed Dwyer in Cuba in 1980.
110. Ruby Hart Phillips, Cuban Sideshow (Havana, 1935), 176.
111. Daily Gleaner, August 23, 1933, p. 1.
112. Curtis, Chargé, to State, Havana, October 11, 1928, no. 457, USDS-Cuba, 837.5538/15, rl. 84.
113. Foreign Policy Association, Problems of the New Cuba, 285. See also Noel Navarro, Marcial Ponce: De central en central (Havana, 1977), 60, and Pérez de la Riva, "Cuba y la migración antillana," 56.
114. Foreign Policy Association, Problems of the New Cuba, 285. See also Noel Navarro, Marcial Ponce: De central en central (Havana, 1977), 60, and Pérez de la Riva, "Cuba y la migración antillana," 56.
115. Foreign Policy Association, Problems of the New Cuba, 285. See also Noel Navarro, Marcial Ponce: De central en central (Havana, 1977), 60, and Pérez de la Riva, "Cuba y la migración antillana," 56.
116. Bishop Hiram R. Hulse, "A Bird's-Eye View of Our Work in Cuba," Spirit of Missions 90, 10 (October 1925): 634.
117. Juan McCarthy to John W. Wood, Camagüey, February 24, 1930, McCarthy Papers, Archives of the Episcopal Church, Episcopal Seminary of the Southwest, Austin, Texas, Cuba Series B (hereafter McCarthy Papers).
118. Guanche and Moreno, Caidije, 9.
119. Melville J. Herskovits, Life in a Haitian Valley (New York, 1937), 100-4, observed during the 1930s that poor, rural families in Haiti also relied upon informal, family-based education to teach their children.
120. Knight, "Jamaican Migrants," 106. Knight interviewed Wells in Cuba in 1980.
121. "The Church's Missionaries in Cuba," Spirit of Missions 103, 4 (July-August 1938): 324.
122. See James, Millet, and Alarcón, El vodú en Cuba. See also the many articles on vodou in Cuba published in the journal Del Caribe, most of which have been authored or co-authored by Millet. For an analysis of vodou which stresses the symbiotic relationship between African and Roman Catholic religious traditions, see Leslie G. Desmangles, The Faces of the Gods: Vodou and Roman Catholicism in Haiti (Chapel Hill, 1992).
123. See James, Millet, and Alarcón, El vodú en Cuba. See also the many articles on vodou in Cuba published in the journal Del Caribe, most of which have been authored or co-authored by Millet. For an analysis of vodou which stresses the symbiotic relationship between African and Roman Catholic religious traditions, see Leslie G. Desmangles, The Faces of the Gods: Vodou and Roman Catholicism in Haiti (Chapel Hill, 1992).
124. Robert I. Rotberg, "Vodun and the Politics of Haiti," in The African Diaspora: Interpretive Essays, ed. Martin L. Kilson and Rotberg (Cambridge, MA, 1976), 344-45.
125. José Millet and Alexis Alarcon, "Loas de las montañas cubanas," Del Caribe 4, 9 (1987): 86-7, and James, Millet, and Alarcón, El vodú en Cuba, esp. 76-7.
126. José Millet and Alexis Alarcon, "Loas de las montañas cubanas," Del Caribe 4, 9 (1987): 86-7, and James, Millet, and Alarcón, El vodú en Cuba, esp. 76-7.
127. On the importance of healing in vodou, see Karen McCarthy Brown, Mama Lola: A Vodou Priestess in Brooklyn (Berkeley, 1991), esp. 5-7, 10, and 344-56.
128. William Hoster, "Educational Program Dominant in Cuba," Spirit of Missions 91, 3 (March 1926): 186. For other expressions of the same concern, see: Hiram R. Hulse to John W. Wood, Havana, April 27, 1920, Hulse Papers, Archives of the Episcopal Church, Episcopal Seminary of the Southwest, Austin, Texas, Cuba Series B (hereafter Hulse Papers); "What Cuba Needs," Spirit of Missions 88, 4 (April 1923): 222; McCarthy to Arthur Gray, Camagüey, October 30, 1925, McCarthy Papers; and Hulse, "The Threefold Task of the Church in Cuba," Spirit of Missions 94, 8 (August 1929): 494.
129. William Hoster, "Educational Program Dominant in Cuba," Spirit of Missions 91, 3 (March 1926): 186. For other expressions of the same concern, see: Hiram R. Hulse to John W. Wood, Havana, April 27, 1920, Hulse Papers, Archives of the Episcopal Church, Episcopal Seminary of the Southwest, Austin, Texas, Cuba Series B (hereafter Hulse Papers); "What Cuba Needs," Spirit of Missions 88, 4 (April 1923): 222; McCarthy to Arthur Gray, Camagüey, October 30, 1925, McCarthy Papers; and Hulse, "The Threefold Task of the Church in Cuba," Spirit of Missions 94, 8 (August 1929): 494.
130. William Hoster, "Educational Program Dominant in Cuba," Spirit of Missions 91, 3 (March 1926): 186. For other expressions of the same concern, see: Hiram R. Hulse to John W. Wood, Havana, April 27, 1920, Hulse Papers, Archives of the Episcopal Church, Episcopal Seminary of the Southwest, Austin, Texas, Cuba Series B (hereafter Hulse Papers); "What Cuba Needs," Spirit of Missions 88, 4 (April 1923): 222; McCarthy to Arthur Gray, Camagüey, October 30, 1925, McCarthy Papers; and Hulse, "The Threefold Task of the Church in Cuba," Spirit of Missions 94, 8 (August 1929): 494.
131. Hulse, "Waiting for Trains in Cuba," Spirit of Missions 86, 4 (April 1921): 250.
132. Hulse, "The Threefold Task," 494.
133. McCarthy, "Wanted - Men!," Spirit of Missions 88, 3 (March 1923): 175-76, and Hulse, "A Bird's-Eye View," 636.
134. McCarthy, "Wanted - Men!," Spirit of Missions 88, 3 (March 1923): 175-76, and Hulse, "A Bird's-Eye View," 636.
135. Hulse, "Bishop Hulse Revisits Cyclone-Swept Area," Spirit of Missions 98, 4 (April 1933): 231. See also Hulse, "Waiting for Trains," 249, and McCarthy, "Notable Achievements in Camaguey," Spirit of Missions 94, 8 (August 1929): 499-500.
136. Hulse, "Bishop Hulse Revisits Cyclone-Swept Area," Spirit of Missions 98, 4 (April 1933): 231. See also Hulse, "Waiting for Trains," 249, and McCarthy, "Notable Achievements in Camaguey," Spirit of Missions 94, 8 (August 1929): 499-500.
137. Hulse, "Bishop Hulse Revisits Cyclone-Swept Area," Spirit of Missions 98, 4 (April 1933): 231. See also Hulse, "Waiting for Trains," 249, and McCarthy, "Notable Achievements in Camaguey," Spirit of Missions 94, 8 (August 1929): 499-500.
138. Marcos Antonio Ramos, Panorama del protestantismo en Cuba (San José, Costa Rica, 1986), 309.
139. See, for example, Archdeacon Steel, "Guantanamo Revisited," Spirit of Missions 88, 6 (June 1923): 464.
140. McCarthy to Gray, Camagüey, November 25, 1925, McCarthy Papers.
141. Hulse to Gray, Havana, November 16, 1918, and November 25, 1918; Hulse to Gray, Santiago, February 27, 1920; and "Estimate from Cuba, Bishop's Notes," October 1920, all of which are located in Hulse Papers. See also Ramos, Panorama del protestantismo, 308.
142. McCarthy to Gray, Havana, April 4, 1929, McCarthy Papers. For other examples, see Pérez de la Riva, "Cuba y la migración antillana," 66.
143. It is important to note that my research has uncovered no reference to the presence in Cuba of African-based religious forms such as myalism, obeah, and pocomania which were prominent in Jamaica and among British West Indian immigrant populations elsewhere in the Caribbean. (Avi Chomsky, "Afro-Jamaican Traditions and Labor Organizing on United Fruit Company Plantations in Costa Rica, 1910," Journal of Social History 28 [Summer 1995]: 837-55; Monica Schuler, "Alas, Alas, Kongo": A Social History of Indentured African Immigration into Jamiaca, 1841-1865 [Baltimore, 1980], 32-4; and Ken Post, Arise Ye Starvelings: The Jamaican Labour Rebellion of 1938 and Its Aftermath [The Hague, 1978], 145). Some British West Indians did affiliate with the African Orthodox Church (Ramos, Panorama del protestantismo, 328).
144. It is important to note that my research has uncovered no reference to the presence in Cuba of African-based religious forms such as myalism, obeah, and pocomania which were prominent in Jamaica and among British West Indian immigrant populations elsewhere in the Caribbean. (Avi Chomsky, "Afro-Jamaican Traditions and Labor Organizing on United Fruit Company Plantations in Costa Rica, 1910," Journal of Social History 28 [Summer 1995]: 837-55; Monica Schuler, "Alas, Alas, Kongo": A Social History of Indentured African Immigration into Jamiaca, 1841-1865 [Baltimore, 1980], 32-4; and Ken Post, Arise Ye Starvelings: The Jamaican Labour Rebellion of 1938 and Its Aftermath [The Hague, 1978], 145). Some British West Indians did affiliate with the African Orthodox Church (Ramos, Panorama del protestantismo, 328).
145. It is important to note that my research has uncovered no reference to the presence in Cuba of African-based religious forms such as myalism, obeah, and pocomania which were prominent in Jamaica and among British West Indian immigrant populations elsewhere in the Caribbean. (Avi Chomsky, "Afro-Jamaican Traditions and Labor Organizing on United Fruit Company Plantations in Costa Rica, 1910," Journal of Social History 28 [Summer 1995]: 837-55; Monica Schuler, "Alas, Alas, Kongo": A Social History of Indentured African Immigration into Jamiaca, 1841-1865 [Baltimore, 1980], 32-4; and Ken Post, Arise Ye Starvelings: The Jamaican Labour Rebellion of 1938 and Its Aftermath [The Hague, 1978], 145). Some British West Indians did affiliate with the African Orthodox Church (Ramos, Panorama del protestantismo, 328).
146. It is important to note that my research has uncovered no reference to the presence in Cuba of African-based religious forms such as myalism, obeah, and pocomania which were prominent in Jamaica and among British West Indian immigrant populations elsewhere in the Caribbean. (Avi Chomsky, "Afro-Jamaican Traditions and Labor Organizing on United Fruit Company Plantations in Costa Rica, 1910," Journal of Social History 28 [Summer 1995]: 837-55; Monica Schuler, "Alas, Alas, Kongo": A Social History of Indentured African Immigration into Jamiaca, 1841-1865 [Baltimore, 1980], 32-4; and Ken Post, Arise Ye Starvelings: The Jamaican Labour Rebellion of 1938 and Its Aftermath [The Hague, 1978], 145). Some British West Indians did affiliate with the African Orthodox Church (Ramos, Panorama del protestantismo, 328).
147. On the U.N.I.A., see the many documents located in AHPSC, GP, leg. 2452, nos. 2, 3, 4, 6, 7, 9, 10; leg. 2453, no. 1. See also "Locations of Foreign Divisions," Appendix 10, in Robert A. Hill, ed.,The Marcus Garvey and Universal Negro Improvement Association Papers, vol. 7, November 1927-August 1940 (Berkeley, 1989), 998.
148. The following sources contain documents pertaining to lodges with memberships that were exclusively or predominantly British West Indian: AHPSC, GP, leg. 197, no. 1; leg. 914, nos. 8, 13, 14; leg. 915, no. 7; leg. 916, nos. 2, 16; leg. 917, no. 1; leg. 919, no. 5; leg. 2746, no. 1; leg. 2747, nos. 4, 6.
149. Evelio Telleriá, Los congresos obreros en Cuba (Havana, 1984), 119, 188.
150. Great Britain, Secretary of State for Foreign Affairs, Correspondence Between His Majesty's Government and the Cuban Government Respecting the Ill-Treatment of British West Indian Labourers in Cuba (London, 1924); Cuba, Secretaría de Estado, Copia de la correspondencia cambiada entre la legación de su majestad británica en la Habana y la secretaría de estado de la república, relativa al trato de los inmigrantes jamaiquinos (Havana, 1924), quotes from Godfrey Haggard, El Encargado de Negocios de Su Majestad Británica, to Secretario de Estado de la República, Havana, January 3, 1924, pp. 3-8.
151. "The treatment of British West Indians employed in Cuba has greatly improved of late years, and the [Cuban] Government continue to show a desire to deal promptly and helpfully with questions referred to them in connexion with these people" ("Cuba. Annual Report, 1929," T. J. Morris to A. Henderson, Havana, February 6, 1930, PRO: FO371/14221, A1878/1878/14). See also "Cuba. Annual Report, 1926," Morris to Chamberlain, Havana, January 1, 1927, PRO: FO371/11991, A744/744/14, and "Cuba. Annual Report, 1932," J. Broderick to John Simon, Havana, February 15, 1933, PRO: FO371/16577, A1755/1755/14.
152. Officer Administering the Government of Jamaica to Secretary of State for the Colonies, Kingston, May 5, 1934, PRO: FO371/17518, A6473/21/14, and Grant Watson to Foreign Office, Havana, April 12, 1937, PRO: FO371/20625, A2680/65/14.
153. Wilson to Rees, Santiago, February 10, 1937, PRO: FO371/20625, A1928/65/14, and Watson to Eden, Havana, January 8, 1938, PRO: FO371/21451, A1373/480/14.
154. Foreign Policy Association, Problems of the New Cuba, 285.
155. T. M. Snow to Anthony Eden, Havana, February 11, 1937, PRO: FO371/20625, A1574/65/14.
156. Pina, "Informe sobre la situación legal y social," 11, 7. That Pina's study was reprinted at least twice (see note 5 above) suggests the importance which many Cuban intellectuals and state officials placed upon it.
157. Snow to Eden, Havana, February 11, 1937, PRO: FO371/20625, A1574/65/14. See also Rees to Eden, Havana, February 20, 1937, BDFA, II, D, vol. 17, doc. 21.
158. Robin D. Moore, "Nationalizing Blackness: Afrocubanismo and Artistic Revolution in Havana, 1920-1935" (Ph.D. diss., University of Texas at Austin, 1995), and Rosalie Schwanz, "The Displaced and the Disappointed: Cultural Nationalists and Black Activists in Cuba in the 1920s" (Ph.D. diss., University of California, San Diego, 1977).
159. Robin D. Moore, "Nationalizing Blackness: Afrocubanismo and Artistic Revolution in Havana, 1920-1935" (Ph.D. diss., University of Texas at Austin, 1995), and Rosalie Schwanz, "The Displaced and the Disappointed: Cultural Nationalists and Black Activists in Cuba in the 1920s" (Ph.D. diss., University of California, San Diego, 1977).
160. Cuba, Tribunal Superior Electoral, Oficina de los Censos Demográficos y Electoral, "Ciudadanía de los extranjeros en la población total, según sexo, por provincias," Table 29, Censo de población, viviendas, y electoral: Informe general, 1953 (Havana, 1953), 81-2. Given that official migration of antillanos to Cuba had ceased by the late 1920s, it is likely that these figures refer almost exclusively to individuals residing in Cuba for more than two decades. In addition, these numbers probably underestimate the real number of Afro-Caribbean settlers in Cuba, in that many of