Laser beam wander in the atmosphere: Implications for optical turbulence vertical profile sensing with imaging LIDAR

Journal of Applied Remote Sensing

Volumn 2, Issue 1, 2008, Pages

  Zilberman, Arkadi ^a   Kopeika, Norman S ^a  

^a BEN GURION UNIVERSITY OF THE NEGEV   (Israel)

Author keywords

Angle of arrival; Atmospheric propagation; Atmospheric turbulence; Beam wander; LIDAR

Indexed keywords

ADAPTIVE OPTICS; ATMOSPHERIC THERMODYNAMICS; DIRECTION OF ARRIVAL; IMAGE RECONSTRUCTION; IMAGING SYSTEMS; LASER BEAMS; OPTICAL COMMUNICATION; OPTICAL RADAR; SATELLITE COMMUNICATION SYSTEMS; WAVEFRONTS; ATMOSPHERIC OPTICS; ATMOSPHERIC TURBULENCE; ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES; TURBULENCE; WAVE PROPAGATION;

ANGLE OF ARRIVAL; ANGLE-OF-ARRIVAL VARIANCE; ATMOSPHERIC EFFECTS; ATMOSPHERIC PROPAGATION; BEAM-WANDER; IMAGE MOTION ANALYSIS; REFRACTIVE TURBULENCE; SENSING CONFIGURATION; OPTICAL SATELLITES; OPTICAL TURBULENCE; REMOTE MEASUREMENT;

ATMOSPHERIC TURBULENCE; OPTICAL RADAR;

EID: 61349173230     PISSN: None     EISSN: 19313195     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1117/1.3008058     Document Type: Article

References (79)

1. J. L. Bufton, P. O. Minott, and M. W. Fitzmaurice, "Measurements of turbulence profiles in the troposphere," J Opt. Soc. Am. 62, 1068-1070 (1972).
2. J. L. Bufton, "Comparison of vertical profile turbulence structure with stellar observations," Appl. Opt. 12, 1785-1793 (1973).
3. G. R. Ochs, T. Wang, R. S. Lawrence, and S. F. Clifford, "Refractive-turbulence profiles measured by one-dimensional spatial filtering of scintillations," Appl Opt. 15,2504-2510(1976).
4. 2, " Appl. Opt. 21, 3373-3376 (1982).
5. 2 estimation using a horizontal pair of sensors, " Radio Sci. 32, 1261-1268 (1997) [doi:10.1029/97RS00053].
6. M. Azouit and J. Vernin, "Remote investigation of tropospheric turbulence by two-dimensional analysis of stellar scintillation," J. Atmos. Sci. 37, 1550-1557 (1980)[doi:10.1175/1520-0469(1980) 037〈1550:RIOTTB〉2.0.CO;2].
7. J. Vernin, M. Crochet, M. Azouit, and O. Ghebrebrhan, "SCIDAR radar simultaneous measurements of atmospheric turbulence," Radio Sci. 25, 953-959 (1990)[doi:10.1029/RS025i005p00953].
8. R. Avila, J. Vernin, and E. Masciadri, "Whole atmospheric-turbulence profiling with generalized scidar," Appl Opt. 36, 7898-7905 (1997).
9. R. Avila, J. Vernin, and L. J. Sanchez, "Atmospheric turbulence and wind profiles monitoring with generalized scidar," Astron. Astrophys, 369, 364-372 (2001) [doi: 10.1051/0004-6361:20010134].
10. F. D. Eaton, "Recent developments of optical turbulence measurement techniques (Invited Paper)" Proc. SPIE 5793, 68-77 (2005) [doi: 10.1117/12.604904].
11. B. M. Welsh and S. C Koeffler, "Remote sensing of atmospheric turbulence and transverse winds from wave-front slope measurements from crossed optical paths" Appl. Opt. 33,4880-4888 (1994).
12. R.W. Wilson, "SLODAR: measuring optical turbulence altitude with a Shack-Hartmann wavefront sensor," Mon. Not. Roy. Astron. Soc. 337, 103-108 (2002) [doi:10.1046/j.1365-8711.2002.05847.x].
13. R. Wilson, J. Bate, J. C. Guerra, N. Hubin, M. Sarazin, and C. Saunter, "Development of a portable SLODAR turbulence profiler," Proc. SPIE 5490, 758765 (2004) [doi:10.1117/12.551258].
14. M. Subramanian, "Laser remote sensing of atmospheric refractive-indexfluctuation profile," J. Opt. Soc. Am. 62, 677-681 (1972).
15. R. R. Beland and J. Krause-Polstorff, Lidar Measurements of Optical Turbulence: Theory of the Crossed Path Technique, PL-TR-91-2139, Environmental Research Papers No. 1089, Phillips. Lab. Air Force Systems Com., Hanscom Air Force Base, MA (1991).
16. M. S. Belen'kii, "Effect of residual turbulent scintillation and a remote-sensing technique for simultaneous determination of turbulence and scattering parameters of the atmosphere," J Opt. Soc. Am. 11, 1150-1158 (1994).
17. M. S. Belen'kii and G. G. Gimmestad, "Design considerations for a residual turbulent scintillation (RTS) lidar," Proc. SPIE 1111, 628-632 (1994) [doi:10.1117/12.178035].
18. 2 on the basis of light scattering by atmospheric aerosol," Radiophys. Quantum Electron. 24, 206-209 (1981) [doi:10.1007/BF01035370].
19. M. S. Belen'kii, A. A. Makarov, V. L. Mironov, and V. V. Pokasov, "Lidar measurements of the structural characteristic of atmospheric turbulence," Izv. Atmos. Oceanic Phys. 20, 328-330 (1984).
20. 2 on a vertically pointing diffraction-limited lidar," Appl. Opt. 11, 2517-2523 (1988).
21. M. S. Belen'kii and G. G. Gimmestad, "Monostatic image distortion technique for measuring intensity of atmospheric turbulence," Proc SPIE 1111, 621-627 (1994) [doi: 10.1117/12.178039].
22. G. G. Gimmestad, J. R. White, and M. S. Belen'kii, "Design of an optical remote sensing system for measuring refractive turbulence in the Antarctic boundary layer, "ProcSPIE2828, 221-231 (1996) [doi:10.1117/12.254170].
23. Y. A. Kravtsov and A. I. Saichev, "Properties of coherent waves reflected in a turbulent medium," J. Opt. Soc. Am. A 2, 2100-2105 (1985).
24. M. S. Belen'kii and G. G. Gimmestad, "A new remote sensing technique for lidar monitoring of atmospheric turbulence," Proc. SPIE 1968, 596-606 (1993) [doi:10.1117/12.154893].
25. M. S. Belen'kii, D. W. Roberts, J. M. Stewart, G.G. Gimmestad, and W. R. Dagle, "Experimental validation of the differential image motion lidar concept," Opt. Lett. 25, 518-520 (2000) [doi:10.1364/OL.25. 000518].
26. G. G. Gimmestad, M. W. Dawsey, D. W. Roberts, J. M. Stewart, J. W. Wood, F. D. Eaton, M. L. Jensen, and R. J. Welch "Field validation of optical turbulence lidar technique," Proc. SPIE5193, 10-16 (2005) [doi: 10.1117/12.603058].
27. 2," Proc SPIE 2471,482-486 (1995) [doi:10.1117/12.211959].
28. V. P. Lukin and B. V. Fortes, Adaptive Beaming and Imaging in the Turbulent Atmosphere, SPIE Press, Bellingham, WA (2002).
29. M. S. Belenkii, "Tilt angular anisoplanatism and a full-aperture tilt-measurement technique with a laser guide star," Appl. Opt. 39, 6097 -6108 (2000).
30. V. P. Lukin, "Monostatic and bistatic schemes and an optimal algorithm for tilt correction in ground-based adaptive telescopes," Appl. Opt. 37,4634-4644 (1998).
31. V. P. Lukin, "Comparison the efficiencies of different schemes for laser guide stars forming," Proc. SPIE 3116, 460-466 (1997) [doi:10.1117/12.290163].
32. R. Ragazzoni, "Robust tilt determination from laser guide stars using a combination of different techniques," Astron. Astrophys. 319, L9-L12 (1997).
33. C. R. Neyman, "Focus anisoplanatism: a limit to the determination of tip-tilt with laser guide stars," Opt. Lett. 21, 1806-1808 (1996).
34. F. Rigaut and E. Gendron, "Laser guide star in adaptive optics: the tilt determination problem," Astron. Astrophys. 261, 677-684 (1992).
35. V. P. Lukin, B. V. Fortes, and E. V. Nosov, "Efficiencies of different schemes for the formation of laser guide stars," Proc. SPIE 3353, 1109-1120 (1998) [doi:10.1117/12.321656].
36. M. S. Belenkii, "Fundamental limitation in adaptive optics: how to eliminate it? A full aperture tilt measurement technique with a laser guide star," Proc. SPIE 2201, 321-323 (1994) [doi:10.1117/12. 176046].
37. A. I. Kon, V. L. Mironov and V. V. Nosov," Fluctuations of the centers of gravity of light beams in a turbulent atmosphere," Radiofizika 17, 1501-1511 (1974).
38. V. L. Mironov and V. V. Nosov, "Random displacements of image in the focus of a telescope during lidar measurement of the turbulent atmosphere," Radiofizika 20, 1530-1533 (1977).
39. J. H. Churnside and R. J. Lataitis, "Angle-of-arrival fluctuations of a reflected beam in atmospheric turbulence," J. Opt. Soc. Am. A 4, 1264-1272 (1987).
40. J. H. Churnside, "Angle-of-arrival fluctuations of retroreflected light in the turbulent atmosphere," J Opt. Soc. Am. A 6, 275-279 (1989).
41. V. M. Orlov, I. V. Samokhvalov, G. G. Matvienko, M. L. Belov, and A .N. Kozhemyakov, The Elements of Theory of Wave Scattering and Optical Ranging, Nauka, Novosibirsk (1982).
42. V. L. Mironov, Laser Beam Propagation in the Turbulent Atmosphere, Nauka, Novosibirsk (1981).
43. V.I. Tatarskii, The effects of the turbulent atmosphere on wave propagation, Jerusalem (1971).
44. L. C Andrews and R. L. Phillips, Laser Beam Propagation through Random Media, 2nd Ed., SPIE Press, Bellingham, WA (2005).
45. L. A. Chernov, Wave Propagation in a Random Medium, Dover, New York (1967).
46. P. Beckmann, "Signal degeneration in laser beams propagated through a turbulent atmosphere," Radio. Sci. 69D, 629-640 (1965).
47. G. A. Andreev and E. I. Gelfer, "Angular random walks of the centre of gravity of the cross section of a diverging light beam," Radiophys. Quantum Electron. 14, 1145-1147 (1971) [doi: 10.1007/BFO 1029481]
48. J. A. Dowling and P. M. Livingston, "Behavior of focused beams in atmospheric turbulence: measurements and comments on the theory," J. Opt. Soc. Am. 63, 846-858 (1973).
49. J. R. Dunphy and J. R. Kerr, "Turbulence effects on target illumination by laser sources: phenomenological analysis and experimental results," App. Opt. 16, 1345-1358(1977).
50. M. A. Kallistratova and V. V. Pokasov, "Defocusing and fluctuations of the displacement of a focused laser beam in the atmosphere," Radiophys. Quantum Electron. 14, 940-945 (1971) [doi:10.1007/BF01029493].
51. R. L. Fante, "Electromagnetic beam propagation in turbulent media," Proc. IEEE 63, 1669-1692 (1975).
52. T. Chiba, "Spot dancing of the laser beam propagated through the atmosphere," Appl. Opt. 10, 2456-2461 (1971).
53. J. H. Churnside and R. J. Lataitis, "Wander of an optical beam in the turbulent atmosphere," Appl. Opt. 29, 926-930 (1990).
54. V. I. Klyatskin and A. I. Kon, "On the displacement of spatially-bounded light beams in a turbulent medium in the Markovian-random- process approximation," Radiophys. Quantum Electron. 15, 1056-1061 (1972) [doi: 10.1007/BFO 1031824].
55. V. L. Mironov and V. V. Nosov, "On the theory of spatially limited light beam displacements in a randomly inhomogeneous medium, "J. Opt. Soc. Am. 67, 1073-1080 (1977).
56. D. H. Tofsted, "Outer-scale effects on beam-wander and angle-of-arrival," Appl. Opt. 31, 5865-5870 (1992).
57. R. J. Cook, "Beam wander in a turbulent medium: an application of Ehrenfest's theorem," J. Opt. Soc. Am. 65, 942-948 (1975).
58. V. I. Klyatskin, Statistical description of dynamical systems with fluctuating parameters, Nauka, Moscow (1975).
59. V. E. Zuev, V. A. Banakh, and V. V. Pokasov, Optics of the Turbulent Atmosphere, Gidrometeoizdat, Leningrad (1988).
60. W. L. Wolfe and G. J. Zissis, Eds., "Propagation through atmospheric turbulence" in The Infrared Handbook, IRIA Center, ERIM and SPIE Press (1989).
61. A. I. Kon, V. L. Mironov, and V. V. Nosov, "Dispersion of light beam displacements in the atmosphere with strong intensity fluctuations," Radiophys. Quantum Electron. 19, 722-725 (1976) [doi: 10.1007/BF01034240].
62. H. T. Yura, "Short-term average optical-beam spread in a turbulent medium," J. Opt. Soc. Am. 63, 567-572 (1973).
63. J. R. Kerr, P. J. Titterton, A. R. Kraemer, and C R. Cooke, "Atmospheric optical communications systems," Proc. IEEE 58, 1691-1709 (1970).
64. J. W. Goodman, Statistical Optics, John Wiley and Sons, Inc., New York (1985).
65. C. E. Coulman, J. Vernin, Y. Coqueugniot, and J. L. Caceia, "Outer scale of turbulence appropriate to modeling refractive-index structure profiles," Appl. Opt. 27, 155-160 (1988).
66. A. Ziad, M. Schock, G. A. Chanan, M. Troy, R. Děkany, B. F. Lane, J. Borgnino, and F. Martin, "Comparison of measurements of the outer scale of turbulence by three different techniques," Appl. Opt. 43, 2316-2324 (2004) [doi:10.1364/AO.43.002316].
67. A. Muschinski, "Turbulence and gravity waves in the vicinity of a midtropospheric warm front: a case study using VHF echo-intensity measurements and radiosonde data, " Radio Sci. 32, 1161-1178 (1997) [doi:10.1029/97RS00054].
68. W. W. Brown, M. C. Roggemann, T. J. Schulz, T. C. Havens, J. T. Beyer, and L. J. Otten, " Measurement and data-processing approach for estimating the spatial statistics of turbulence-induced index of refraction fluctuations in the upper atmosphere," Appl. Opt. 40, 1863-1871 (2001) [doi:10.1364/AO.40.001863].
69. A. Agabi, J. Borgnino, F. Martin, A. Tokbvinin, and A. Ziad, "G.S.M. : a grating scale monitor for atmospheric turbulence measurements. II First measurements of the wave front outer scale at O.C.A." Astron. Astrophys. Suppl Ser. 100, 557-562 (1995).
70. A. Ziad, R. Conan, A. Tokovinin, F. Martin, and J. Borgnino, "From the grating scale monitor to the generalized seeing monitor," Appl. Opt. 39, 5415-5425 (2000).
71. F. Martin, A. Tokovinin, A. Ziad, R. Conan, J. Borgnino, R. Avila, A. Agabi, and M. Sarazin, "First statistical data on wavefront outer scale at La Silla observatory from the GSM instrument," Astron. Astrophys. 336, L49-L52 (1998).
72. R. Conan, R. Avila, L. J. Sanchez, A. Ziad, F. Martin, J. Borgnino, O. Harris, S. I. Gonzalez, R. Michel, and D. Hiriait, "Wavefront outer scale and seeing measurements at San Pedro Mártir Observatory," Astron. Astrophys. 396, 723-730 (2002) [doi:10.1051/0004-6361:20021323].
73. A. Zilberman and N. S. Kopeika, "Middle East model of vertical turbulence profile," Proc. SPIE 5793, 89-97 (2005) [doi:10.1117/12.602320].
74. A. Zilberman and N. S. Kopeika, "Lidar measurements of atmospheric turbulence vertical profiles," Proc. SPIE 5338, 288-297 (2004) [doi:10.1117/12.532386].
75. C. S. Cardner, B. M. Welsh, and L. A. Thompson, "Design and performance analysis of adaptive optical telescopes using laser guide stars," Proc. IEEE 78, 1721-1743 (1990) [doi:10.1109/5.63300] .
76. J.-L. Nieto and E. Thouvenot, "Recentring and selection of short-exposure images with photon-counting detectors," Astron. Astrophys. 241, 663-672 (1991).
77. G. Cao and X. Yu, "Accuracy analysis of a Hartmann-Shack wavefront sensor operated with a faint object," Opt. Eng. 33, 2331-2334 (1994) [doi:10.1117/12.169716].
78. J. Ares and J. Arines, "Influence of thresholding on centroid statistics: full analytical description," Appl. Opt. 43, 5796-5805 (2004) [doi:10.1364/AO.43.005796].
79. A. Patwardhan, "Subpixel position measurement using 1D, 2D and 3D centroid algorithms with emphasis on applications in confocal microscopy," J. Microscopy 186, 246-257 (1996) [doi:10.1046/j.1365-2818.1997. 1970761.x].