Khazar Turkic Ghulâms in Caliphal service

Journal Asiatique

Volumn 292, Issue 1-2, 2004, Pages 279-309

  Golden, Peter B ^a  

^a NONE

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EID: 61249601663     PISSN: 0021762X     EISSN: 17831504     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.2143/JA.292.1.556639     Document Type: Article

References (81)

1. H. D. Yildiz, İslâmiyet ve Türkler (Istanbul, 1976), p.81, suggests that this term did not really mean "slave," but rather one who was at the disposal of another, commenting that it has different connotations from Arab. 'abd or raqîq both of which denote "slave." These terms, he remarks, are never used with regard to the Turkic ghilmân. Yildiz further notes (pp. 84-86) that "Taking all these possibilities into account, the hitherto held view regarding the origin of the Turkic units in the ' Abbâsid army, that is that they were slaves who could be bought, should, in our opinion, be met with doubt." Rather, he concludes, these were hired soldiers. This is not entirely accurate. Al-Istakhrî, Kitâb Masâlik al-Mamâlik, ed. M.J. De Goeje (Leiden, 2nd ed., 1927), p. 318, refers directly to the raqîq Mâ warâ'n-Nahr ("the slaves of Transoxiana"), one of the leading sources of the Turkic ghilmân, see below, note 11.
2. R.P. Mottahedeh, Loyalty and Leadership in an Early Islamic Society (Princeton, 1980), pp.82-83.
3. Turkic military slaves or Turks serving in a military capacity are sporadically noted in the pre-'Abbâsid period, see Yildiz, İslâmiyet ve Türkler, p. 47;
4. D. Pipes, "Turks in Early Muslim service" Journal of Turkish Studies 2 (1978), pp. 86-97;
5. On these names, see P.B. Golden, "Khazar Turkic Ghulâms in Caliphal Service: Onomastic Notes" Archivum Eurasiae Medii Aevi 12 (2002-2003), pp. 15-27.
6. D. Ayalon, "The Mamlûks of the Seljuks: Islamic Military Might at the Crossroads" Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society, 3rd ser. 6/3 (1996), p. 313,
7. R.N. Frye, The Golden Age of Persia. The Arabs in the East (London, 1975), p. 48.
8. In purchasing as many ghulâms as he could acquire in Baghdad, al-Mu'tasim often pestered their owners into selling them to him, see al-Ya'qûbî, Kitâb al-Buldân, ed. M.J. De Goeje (Leiden, 1892), pp. 253-256;
9. Pipes, "Turks in Early Muslim Service," Journal of Turkish Studies, 2 (1978), pp. 88-90;
10. Y ild iz, İslâmiyet ve Türkler, pp. 66-79 (who estimates that al-Mu'tasim eventually built up a force of 25,000 Turkic military slaves);
11. H. Kennedy, The Prophet and the Age of the Caliphates (London, 1986), pp. 158-159;
12. Lassner, Shaping, pp. 113-114.
13. See E. De La Vaissière, Histoire des marchands sogdiens (Paris, 2002), p. 305.
14. Al-Balâdhurî, Futûh al-Buldân, ed. R.M. Radwân (Cairo, 1959), pp.418-419;
15. H. Kennedy, The Armies of the Caliphs (London-New York, 2001), pp. 124-125.
16. W.Treadgold, Byzantium and its Army 284-1081 (Stanford, 1995), pp. 110,115;
17. M. Whittow, The Making of Byzantium 600-1025 (Berkeley, 1996), pp.169-170;
18. A. Kazhdan (ed.), The Oxford Dictionary of Byzantium, (Oxford, 1991, henceforth ODB), 2, p. 925.
19. See also J. Marquart, Osteuropäische und ostasiatische Streifzüge (Leipzig, 1903), p. 227
20. Ibn Rusta, Kitâb al-A'lâq an-Nafîsa, ed. M.J. De Goeje (Leiden, 1892), pp. 120, 124;
21. Marquart, Streifzüge, pp. 219, 226
22. S. Dahan (ed.), Le Diwan d'Abu Firas al-Hamdani (Damascus, 1363/1944), II, p. 279;
23. See N. Golb, O. Pritsak, Khazarian Hebrew Documents of the Tenth Century (Ithaca, 1982), pp. 112ff., 136.
24. M.A. Shaban, Islamic History. A New Interpretation, 2, A.D. 750-10554 (A.H. 132-448) (Cambridge, 1976), pp. 63-66;
25. R. Frye, History of Ancient Iran (München, 1984), pp. 352-3 and his Heritage of Central Asia (Princeton, 1996), pp. 195-196;
26. C. Beckwith, "Aspects of the Early History of the Central Asian Guard Corps in Islam," Archivum Eurasiae Medii Aevi, IV (1984), pp. 29-43.
27. De La Vaissière, Histoire, p. 282, who notes the importance of "Soghdian military elites" modelled on the châkar ("gardes du corps nobles du souverain") in al-Ma'mûn's entourage after his stay in Merv and subsequent assumption of the caliphal throne.
28. F. Steingass, A Comprehensive Persian-English Dictionary (1892, reprint: Beirut, 1970, henceforth noted as Steingass), p. 386;
29. See E.G. Pulleyblank, Lexicon of Reconstructed Pronunciation of Early Middle Chinese, Late Middle Chinese, and Early Mandarin (Vancouver, BC, 1991), pp. 154, 401.
30. and E. Chavannes, Documents sur les Tou-kiue (Turcs) Occidentaux suivi De Notes Additionnelles (Paris, 1941), pp. 137, 147, 313;
31. Beckwith, "Aspects," p. 37.
32. Shaban, Islamic History, 2, pp. 64-65.
33. Beckwith, "Aspects" AEMAe, IV (1984), p. 38.
34. Gordon, Breaking, pp. 40-41.
35. Kennedy, The Armies of the Caliphs, p. 122.
36. M. Zakeri, Sâsânid Soldiers in Early Muslim Society. The Origins of 'Ayyârân and Futuwwa (Wiesbaden, 1995), pp. 57-59, 66, 69-70.
37. R. G. Kent, Old Persian. Grammar, Texts, Lexicon, rev. 2nd ed. (American Oriental Series, 33, New Haven, 1953), p. 199;
38. V.S. Rastorgueva and D.I. Edel'man, Etimologicheskii slovar' iranskikh iazykov (Moskva, 2000-2003), 2, pp. 68-75,
39. Zakeri, Sâsânid Soldiers, p. 77.
40. P.B. Golden, "The Terminology of Slavery and Servitude in Medieval Turkic" in D. DeWeese (ed.), Studies on Central Asian History in Honor of Yuri Bregel (Bloomington, 2001), p. 29.
41. Clauson, ED, pp. 427-28, remarks on its relatively rare appearance in Old Turkic texts and places it as "something smaller than a xaǧan and more than a beg."
42. Eng. trans. The History of at- Tabarî, ed.Yar-Shater et al., vol. XXXIV, Incipient Decline, trans. J.L. Kraemer (Albany, 1989, henceforth: Kraemer, XXXIV, Incipient Decline), pp.19,63 (and n. 225), 79.
43. See A. De Biberstein, Kazimirski, Dictionnaire arabe-français (Paris, 1860), I, p. 1258, shâkirî< Pers. Châkar "Employé au service, salarie, à gages, mercennaire"
44. See P.B. Golden, "Some Notes on the Comitates in Medieval Eurasia with Special Reference to the Khazars" Russian History/Histoire Russe, 28, Nos. 1-4 (Spring-Summer-Fall-Winter 2001), pp. 153-170.
45. See Pulleyblank, Lexicon, pp. 101, 189;
46. Liu Mau-tsai, Die chinesischen Nachrichten zur Geschichte Der Ost-Türken (T'u-küe) (Wiesbaden, 1958), I, p. 9.
47. Gy. Györffy, "Die Rolle des buyruq in Der alttürkischen Gesellschaft," Acta Orientalia Hungarica, 11 (1960), pp. 169-79.
48. see Sir James W. Redhouse, A Turkish and English Lexicon (Constantinople, 1890, reprint: Beirut, 1974), p. 705.
49. Sheykh Süleyman Efendi, Lughat-i Chaghatay ve Türkî 'Osmânî (Istanbul 1298/ 1889-81), p. 147
50. B.N. Shnitnikov, Kazakh-English Dictionary (London-The Hague-Paris, 1966) p. 231;
51. Z.Z. Bammatov, Kumyksko-russkii slovar' (Moskva, 1969), 351;
52. E.R. Tenishev et al., Karachaevo-balkarsko-russkii slovar' (Moskva, 1989), 720.
53. See Orlando Patterson, Slavery and Social Death (Cambridge, Mass., 1982).
54. See P.B. Golden, Khazar Studies (Budapest, 1980), I, pp. 57-58.
55. Golden, Khazars Studies, I, pp. 123ff., concludes that the sparse Khazar vocabulary known to us does not yet provide a convincing case for either.
56. Golden, Khazar Studies, I, p. 78;
57. See Kennedy, Early Abbasid, pp. 170-174 (on the early phase of the war);
58. and B.S. Amoretti, "Sects and Heresies" in CHIr, VI, pp. 505-509;
59. Kennedy, The Prophet and the Age of the Caliphates, pp. 166-167.
60. For the impact on Byzantium, see W. Treadgold, The Byzantine Revival 780-842 (Stanford, 1988), pp. 232-233, 272-273, 282-286, 290-295.
61. Treadgold, The Byzantine Revival, pp. 297ff.
62. For an overview of the events of the latter half of the ninth century, see Kennedy, The Prophet and the Age of the Caliphate, pp. 159ff.
63. T. Lewicki, Źródła arabskie do dziejów Słowiańszczyzny (Wrocław-Kraków-Warszawa, 1956-1977), I, pp. 13-14.
64. Ibn Khurdâdhbih, Kitâb Masâlik wa'l-Mamâlik, ed. M.J. De Goeje (Leiden, 1889), pp. 162ff;
65. See also discussion in D.M. Dunlop, History of the Jewish Khazars (Princeton, 1954), pp. 190-192.
66. al-Ya'qûbî, Ta'rîkh, II, p. 479.
67. P.M. Cobb, White Banners. Contention in 'Abbasid Syria, 750-880 (Albany, 2001), p. 161 n. 84, suggests that Îtâkh may also have held the governorship of Syria.
68. Ya'qûbî, Ta 'rîkh, p. 486.
69. For an outline of his career, see Kramer, XXXIV, Incipient Decline, p. 5 n. 6;
70. See as-Sûlî, pp. 119-120/485.
71. al-Ya'qûbî, Ta 'rîkh, II, p. 492;
72. Ludwig, Struktur, pp. 359-360.
73. See discussion in Kennedy, The Prophet, pp. 187-199.
74. On the wars, see Dunlop, History, pp. 41-87.
75. al-Balâdhurî, Futûh, ed. Radwân. p. 210.
76. D.E. Mishin, Sakaliba. Slaviane v islamskom mire (Moskva, 2002);
77. M. Meouak, Saqâliba, eunuques et esclaves à La conquête du pouvoir (Helsinki, 2004).
78. Al-Balâdhurî, Ansâb al-Ashrâf, ed. Dûrî, III, p. 121
79. Eng. trans. The History of al-Tabarî, vol. XXV, The End of Expansion (Albany, 1989), p. 132
80. al-Istakhrî, ed. De Goeje, p. 123.
81. Golden, "Khazar Turkic Ghulâms: Onomastic Notes" AEMAe 12 (2002-2003), pp. 15-27.