Some notes on the comitatus in medieval Eurasia with special reference to the Khazars

Russian History

Volumn 28, Issue 1-2, 2001, Pages 153-170

  Golden, Peter B ^a  

^a RUTGERS UNIVERSITY   (United States)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

EID: 34547524956     PISSN: 0094288X     EISSN: 18763316     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1163/187633101X00109     Document Type: Review

References (164)

1. On military slavery in the Islamic world, see P. Crone, Slaves on Horseback: The Evolution of the Islamic Polity (Cambridge: Cambridge Univ. Press, 1981)
2. D. Pipes, Slave Soldiers and Islam. The Genesis of a Military System (New Haven, CT: Yale Univ. Press, 1981)
3. the numerous studies of D. Ayalon, The Mamlûk Military Society (London: Variorum, 1979) and most recently his "The Mamluks. The Mainstay of Islam's Military Might," in Slavery in the Islamic Middle East, ed. S. E. Marmon (Princeton, NJ: Markus Wiener Publisher, 1999), 89-117
4. J. Hathaway, The Politics of Households in Ottoman Egypt (Cambridge: Cambridge Univ. Press, 1997)
5. M. Chamberlain, Knowledge and Social Practice in Medieval Damascus, 1190-1350 (Cambridge: Cambridge Univ. Press, 1994), 45
6. See O. Patterson, Slavery and Social Death (Cambridge, MA: Harvard Univ. Press, 1982), esp. chap. 2 and 308-14
7. D. Ayalon, L'esclavage du Mamelouk [Oriental Notes and Studies, 1] (Jerusalem: Israel Oriental Society, 1951), 27-37
8. Patterson, Slavery and Social Death, 62-65
9. D. Ze'evi, "My Slave, My Son, My Lord: Slavery, Family and State in the Islamic Middle East" in Slave Elites in the Middle East and Africa. A Comparative Study, eds. M. Toru and J. E. Philips (London: Kegan Paul International, 2000), 75-80
10. On the murky politics of the post T'ang era, see Wang Gungwu, The Structure of Power in North China during the Five Dynasties (Kuala Lumpur: Univ. of Malaya Press, 1963, repr. 1967)
11. W. Eberhard, Conquerors and Rulers. Social Forces in Medieval China (Leiden: Brill, 1970), 149-50
12. The Chinggisid Mongol realm was particularly adept in recruiting skilled foreigners. See T. Allsen, Mongol Imperialism. The Policies of the Grand Qan Möngke in China, Russia, and the Islamic Lands, 1251-1250 (Berkeley: Univ. of California Press, 1987), 189ff
13. and I. De Rachewiltz et al., eds., In the Service of the Khan. Eminent Personalities of the Early Mongol-Yüan Period (Wiesbaden: Harrassowitz Verlag, 1993)
14. The redistributive aspects of these endeavors were particularly important; see A. Ia. Gurevich, Kategorii srednevekovoi kul'tury (Moscow: Iskusstvo, 1972), 196-99, 201
15. See discussions and definitions in L. Dreger "Druzhina," in A. I. Pershits and D. Traide, eds., Svod etnograficheskikh poniatii i terminov. Sotsial'no-ekonomicheskie otnosheniia i sotsionormativnaia kul'tura (Moscow: Nauka, 1986), 52-53
16. M. Weber, Economy and State, eds. G. Roth and C. Wittich (Berkeley: Univ. of California Press, 1978), 2: 1134-35
17. A. M. Khazanov, Sotsial'naia istoriia skifov (Moscow: Nauka, 1975), 185
18. and his Nomads and the Outside World, trans. J. Crookenden (Cambridge: Cambridge Univ. Press, 1984), 158
19. and the revised 3rd ed. of his Kochevniki i vneshnii mir (Almaty: Daik-Press, 2000), 269
20. M. Todd, The Early Germans (Oxford: Blackwell, 1992), 31-32
21. D. H. Green, Language and History in the Early Germanic World (Cambridge: Cambridge Univ. Press, 1998), 106-09
22. J. Critchley, Feudalism (London: George Allen and Unwin, 1978), 32-33
23. Green, Language and History, 109
24. C. T. Lewis and C. Short, A Latin Dictionary (1879, reprint: Oxford: Oxford Univ. Press, 1998), 373-74
25. see also Sir William Smith and Sir John Lockwood, Chambers Murray Latin English Dictionary (Edinburgh-London: Chambers-Murray, 1933, repr., 1976), 124: comitor "to accompany, follow," comito "to accompany, attend" < con- + eo
26. A. H. M. Jones, The Later Roman Empire 284-602 (Oxford, 1964; repr., Baltimore: Johns Hopkins Univ. Press, 1986), 1: 49-50
27. S. Hornblower and A. Spawforth, eds., The Oxford Classical Dictionary, 3rd ed. (Oxford: Oxford Univ. Press, 1996), 371-72
28. E. I. Kychanov, Kochevye gosudarstva ot gunnov do man'chzhurov (Moscow: Vostochnaia Literatura, 1997), 45
29. Khazanov, Sotsial'naia istoriia, 185-86
30. See account of Priskos in R. Blockley, ed. and trans., The Fragmentary Classicizing Historians of the Later Roman Empire. Eunapius, Olympiodorus, Priscus and Malchus (Liverpool: Francis Cairns, 1981, 1983), 2: 244/245
31. and discussion in O. Maenchen-Helfen, The World of the Huns, ed. M. Knight (Berkleley: Univ. of California Press, 1973), 192-95
32. W. Pohl, Die Awaren. Ein Steppenvolk in Mitteleuropa 567-822 n. Chr. (Munich: C. H. Beck, 1988), 186
33. Tacitus, Germania, Loeb Classical Library, 35 (Cambridge, MA: Harvard Univ. Press, 1922; repr., 1992), 1: 150/151
34. B. Lyon, A Constitutional and Legal History of Medieval England, 2nd ed. (New York: Norton, 1980), 52
35. H. Wolfram, History of the Goths, trans. T. J. Dunlap (Berkeley: Univ. of California Press, 1988), 101
36. M. Bloch, Feudal Society, trans. L. A. Manyon (Chicago: Univ. of Chicago Press, 1961), 1: 154, 182
37. O. N. Trubachëv, ed., Etimologicheskii slovar' slavianskikh iazykov (Moscow: Nauka, 1974-), 5: 134-35
38. F. L. Ganshof, Feudalism, trans. F. Stenton (New York: Harper, 1961), 4-5
39. Critchley, Feudalism, 32-33
40. Bloch, Feudal Society, 1: 155
41. S. Wikander, Der arische Männerbund (Lund: Ohlsson, 1938), 22ff
42. M. Boyce, "Priests, Cattle and Man," Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies 50 (1987): 508, 512, 515
43. M. Eliade, Zalmoxis, The Vanishing God, trans. W. Trask (Chicago: Univ. of Chicago Press, 1972), 17
44. Sir Gerard Clauson, An Etymological Dictionary of Pre-Thirteenth Century Turkish (Oxford: Oxford Univ. Press, 1972), 84
45. E. V. Sevortian,Etimologicheskii slovar' tiurkskikh iazykov (Moscow: Nauka, Indrik, 1974-ongoing), 1: 411. The German, Polish and Russian Uhlan, Ulan and Hungarian ulánus derive from this
46. see E. N. Shipova, Slovar' tiurkizmov v russkom iazyke (Alma-Ata: Nauka, 1976), 344-45
47. and L. N. Benkö et al., A magyar nyelv történet- etimológiai szótára (Budapest: Akadémiai Kiadó, 1967-76), 3: 1030-31
48. H. Diem and H-P. Radenberg, Dictionary of the Arabic Materials of S. D. Goitein's A Mediterranean Society (Wiesbaden: Harrassowitz Verlag, 1994), 158: "young man; apprentice, person in service of another, servant, freedman or employee, armed slave."
49. In brief see G. Vernadsky, Kievan Russia (New Haven, CT: Yale Univ. Press, 1959), 138-40
50. see also A. E. Presnikov, Kniazhoe pravo v Drevnei Rusi (St. Peterburg, 1909), reprinted in his Kniazhoe pravo v Drevnei Rusi. Lektsii po russkoi istorii. Kievskaia Rus' (Moscow: Nauka, 1993), 185ff
51. A. S. L'vov, Leksika Povest' vremennykh let (Moscow: Nauka, 1975), 202-06
52. P. H. Sawyer, Kings and Vikings (London-New York: Methuen, 1982), 54-55
53. and Birgit and Peter Sawyer, Medieval Scandinavia. From Conversion to Reformation circa 800-1500 (Minneapolis: Univ. of Minnesota Press, 1993), 93-95
54. G. Jones, A History of the Vikings, rev. ed. (Oxford: Oxford Univ. Press, 1984), 152-53
55. L'vov, Leksika, 282-82
56. B. Strumiński, Linguistic Interrelations in Early Rus' (Rome-Edmonton-Toronto: Canadian Institute of Ukrainian Studies, 1996), 232. Rus' grid' might also be derived from hiro
57. W. Treadgold, Byzantium and Its Army 284-1081 (Stanford, CA: Stanford Univ. Press, 1995), 110, 115
58. M. Whittow, The Making of Byzantium 600-1025 (Berkeley: Univ. of California Press, 1996), 169-70
59. A. Kazhdan, ed., The Oxford Dictionary of Byzantium (Oxford: Oxford Univ. Press, 1991), 2: 925
60. In addition to the literature noted in fn. 1, see H. D. Yildiz, İslâmiyet ve Türkler (Istanbul: Edebiyat Fakültesi Matbaasi, 1976)
61. and H. Töllner, Die türkischen Garden am Kalifenhof vom Samarra, Beiträge zur Sprach- und Kulturgeschichte des Orients, 21 (Walldorf-Hessen: Verlag für Orientkunde, 1971), 20-21
62. and and the new study by M. S. Gordon, The Breaking of a Thousand Swords. A History of the Turkish Military of Samarra (A.H. 200-275/815-889 C.E.) (Albany: State Univ. of New York Press, 2001)
63. Ayalon, "The Mamluks. The Mainstay of Islam's Military Might," in Marmon, Slavery in the Islamic Middle East, 90
64. They are noted under their prince Afshîn and his general, the "Bukhârâ-khudâ," see al-Tcombining dot belowabarî, Ta'rîkh al-Tcombining dot belowabarî Ta'rikh al-Rasûl wa'l-Mulûk, ed. M. Ibrâhîm (Cairo: Dâr al-Ma'ârif bi-Mißr, 1967-69), 9: 29-30
65. see also The History of al-Tcombining dot belowabarî, vol. 33
66. Storm and Stress along the Northern Frontiers of the 'Abbâsid Caliphate, trans. C. E. Bosworth (Albany: State Univ. of New York Press, 1991), 46-49
67. Bosworth in an important note (49 n. 159) underscores the "strength and importance of Iranian elements from Transoxania within the 'Abbâsid army side by side with the Turkish ghilmân." Nonetheless, he takes exception here with M. A. Shaban, Islamic History. A New Interpretation, vol. 2, A.D. 750-1055 (A.H. 132-448) (Cambridge: Cambridge Univ. Press, 1976), 63-66 who would considerably reduce the servile element in the caliphal army, viewing the Iranian contingents (correctly) and most of the Turkic troops (more problematic) as freemen. The general consensus is that many of the important commanders of Turkic origin began their careers in the Caliphate as slaves
68. see H. Kennedy, The Prophet and the Age of the Caliphates (London-New York: Longman, 1986), 158-60. The important element, for Kennedy, is that these troops, regardless of origins were foreigners from the periphery, individuals without ties to the core Islamic lands
69. In the new city of Samarrâ built in 835 to further separate these "foreign legions," the Turks and Farâghina (Farghânians) were assigned neighboring quarters. The Turks were not permitted to "neighbor with others except the Farghânians." These quarters were at some distance from the markets and "town center" where they might mix with the local population. They were not allowed to intermarry with the local populace, Turkic slave-women being purchased for this purpose, see al-Ya'qûbî, Kitâb al-Buldân, ed. M. J. De Goeje (Leiden: Brill, 1892), 258-59, 262
70. J. Lássner, The Shaping of 'Abbâsid Rule (Princeton, NJ: Princeton Univ. Press, 1980), 113-15
71. R. Frye, History of Ancient Iran (Munich: Beck, 1984), 352-54
72. and his The Heritage of Central Asia (Princeton, NJ: Markus Wiener, 1996), 195-96
73. C. Beckwith, "Aspects of the Early History of the Central Asian Guard Corps in Islam," Archivum Eurasiae Medii Aevi 4 (1984): 29-43
74. F. Steingass, A Comprehensive Persian-English Dictionary (1892; repr., Beirut: Librairie du Liban, 1970), 386
75. V. I. Abaev, Istoriko-etimologicheskii slovar' osetinskogo iazyka (Moscow-Leningrad: Izdatel'stvo Akademii nauk, 1958), 1: 286
76. S. Beal, Si-Yu-Ki. Buddhist Records of the Western World (London: Kegan Paul, Trench, Trübner, n.d.), 1: 33 (Hsüan-tsang)
77. E. Chavannes, Documents sur les Tou-kiue (Turcs) Occidentaux (Paris: Librairie d'Amérique et d'Orient, 1941), 137, 147, 313
78. Beckwith, "Aspects," 37
79. M. Zakeri, Sâsânid Soldiers in Early Muslim Society. The Origins of 'Ayyârân and Futuwwa (Wiesbaden: Harrassowitz Verlag, 1995), 57-59, 66, 69-70
80. Ibn al-Balkhî, The Fârs-Nâma of Ibnu'l-Balkhî, ed. G. Le Strange and R. A. Nicholson, Gibb Memorial Series, n. s. 1 (Cambridge: Cambridge Univ. Press, 1921), 43
81. cited in Zakeri, Sâsânid Soldiers, 70-73
82. Shaban, Islamic History, 2: 64-65
83. Liu Mau-tsai, Die chinesischen Nachrichten zur Geschichtee der Ost-Türken (T'u-küe) [henceforth CN], Göttinger Asiatische Forschungen, Bd. 10 (Wiesbaden: Harrassowitz Verlag, 1958), 1: 9, 181 (from the T'ang-shu)
84. For the she-wolf ethnogenetic myth of the Türks, see Liu Mau-tsai, Die chinesischen Nachrichten zur Geschichtee der Ost-Türken (T'u-küe) [ibid., 1: 5-6
85. Clauson, Etymological Dictionary, 356
86. See discussion in P. B. Golden, "Wolves, Dogs and Qipchaq Religion," Acta Orientalia Academiae Scientiarum Hungaricae 50/1-3 (1997): 88-93
87. O. Pritsak, The Origin of Rus (Cambridge, MA: Harvard Univ. Press, 1981), 1: 77, 83
88. L. Krader, The Social Organization of the Mongol-Turkic Pastoral Nomads, Indiana Univ. Uralic and Altaic Series 20 (The Hague: Mouton, 1963), 184-85
89. Gy. Györffy, "Die Rolle des buyruq in der alttürkischen Gesellschaft," Acta Orientalia Academiae Scientiarum Hungarica 11 (1960): 169-70
90. O. Pritsak, "The Distinctive Features of the Pax Nomadica" in Popoli delle Steppe: Unni, Avari, Ungari, Settimane di Studio del Centro Italiano di Studi sull' Alto Medioevo (Spoleto: Centro italiano de studi sull'alto Medioevo, 1988), 768-69
91. According to Pritsak, the Soghdian equivalent of buyruq was ghwrgh'p'ynt which he renders as qorqa (qorry-qa) bâyan "the distinguished one (commanded) for prevention (of violence)," see his "The Old Turkic Title 'γwrγ'p'ynt'" in Studia Turcologica Memoriae Alexii Bombaci Dicata, eds. Aldo Gallotta and Ugo Marazzi (Napoli-Roma: Herder, 1982), 406
92. A. Donuk, Eski Türk Devletlerinde İdarî-Askerî Ünvan ve Terimler (Istanbul: Türk Dünyasi Araştirmalari, 1988), 11-13
93. T. Tekin, ed., Orhon Yazitlari (Ankara: Türk Tarih Kurumu Basimevi, 1988), 54/Turk. trans., 55. S= South, and so on
94. Movsês Dasxuranci, The History of the Caucasian Albanians, trans. C. Dowsett (London: Oxford Univ. Press, 1961), 99-100
95. Gardîzî, Ta'rîkh-i Gardîzî, ed. 'Abd al-Hcombining dot belowayy Hcombining dot belowabîbî (Tehran: Dunyâ-yi Kitâb, 1363/1984), 569
96. Sharâf al-Zamân Tcombining dot belowahir Marvazî on China, the Turks and India, ed. and trans. V. F. Minorsky (London: The Royal Asiatic Society, 1942), Arabic, 18/Eng. trans., 29
97. Sir James Redhouse, A Turkish and English Lexicon (Constantinople, 1890; repr., Beirut: Librairie du Liban, 1974), 705
98. See R. Toparli, ed. and Turk, trans., Ed-Dürretü'l-Mudiyye fi'l-Lugati't-Turkiyye (Erzerum: Fen-Edebiyat Fakültesi Yayinlari, 1991), f. 14a/59/126
99. Redhouse, Lexicon, 707
100. K. K. Iudakhin, Kirgizsko-russkii slovar' (Moscow: Sovetskaia Entsiklopediia, 1965), 854-55. The Qirghiz shaqar (with regular eh- > sh- shift in Eastern Qipchaq) "bedovyi, vidavshii vidy, khitryi, bol'shoi" (Iudakhin, 855) and Qazaq shaqar "desperate, mischievous (man), dare-devil)"
101. (see B. N. Shnitnikov, Kazakh-English Dictionary [London-The Hague-Paris: Mouton, 1966], 231 ) are most probably not related
102. Z. M. Ma'rufov, Özbek tilining izâhli lughati (Moscow: Rus Tili Nashriyâti, 1981), 2: 377
103. Z. Z. Bammatov, Kumyksko-russkii slovar' (Moscow: Sovetskaia Entsiklopediia, 1969), 351
104. E. R. Tenishev et al., Karachaevo-balkarsko-russkii slovar' (Moscow: Russkii Iazyk, 1989), 720
105. Ordo -Turk, ordu, "royal residence ... palace ... royal camp," later denoting "military camp" and finally "army," Clauson, An Etymological Dictionary, 203
106. K. Wittfogel and Fêng Chia-shêng, eds. and trans., History of Chinese Society. Liao (907-1125) Transactions of the American Philosophical Society, n. s. 36 (1946) (Philadelphia: The American Philosophical Society, 1949), 540, 547
107. See also Kychanov, Kochevye gosudarstva, 142-43
108. Mahcombining dot belowmud al-Kašγgarî, Compendium of the Turkic Dialects. Dîwân Luγât at-Turk, ed. and trans. R. Dankoff in collaboration with J. Kelley, Sources of Oriental Languages and Literatures, 7 (Cambridge, MA: Harvard Univ. Press, 1982-85), 1: 328
109. Compendium of the Turkic Dialects. Dîwân Luγât at-Turk, 2: 169
110. Compendium of the Turkic Dialects. Dîwân Luγât at-Turk, 3: 180, 231
111. C. E. Bosworth, The Ghaznavids. Their Empire in Afghanistan and Eastern Iran 994-1040 (Edinburgh: Edinburgh Univ. Press, 1963), 101-05
112. See T. T. Allsen, "Guard and Government in the Reign of the Grand Qan Möngke, 1251-1259," Harvard Journal of Asiatic Studies 46 (1986): 495-521 and the literature cited there
113. F. Lessing et al., Mongolian-English Dictionary (Bloomington, IN: Mongolia Society, 1995), 592-93, cf. also nöküce- "to become intimate, contract a friendship."
114. See the full discussion of this term in G. Doerfer, Türkische und Mongolische Elemente im Neupersischen (Wiesbaden: Harrassowitz Verlag, 1963-75), 1: 521-25
115. and Gy. Németh, "Wanderungen des mongolischen Wortes nökür 'Genosse'," Acta Orientalia Academiae Scientiarum Hungaricae 3 (1952): 1-23
116. L. Ligeti, A magyar török kapcsolatai a honfoglalás elõtt és az Árpád-korban (Budapest: Akadémiai Kiadó, 1986), 110
117. G. Ramstedt, Einführung in die Altaische Sprachwissenschaft, Mémoires de la Société Finno-Ougrienne 104 (Helsinki: Suomalais-Ugrilainen Seura, 1957-66), 1: 77 suggests its derivation from Mong. nök "Seite."
118. See the classic discussion in B. Ia. Vladimirtsov, Obshchestvennyi stroi mongolov (Leningrad: Akademiia nauk SSSR, 1934), 87-96
119. See also J. Fletcher, "The Mongols: Ecological and Social Perspectives," Harvard Journal of Asiatic Studies 46 (1986): 17-20
120. I. Togan, Flexibility and Limitation in Steppe Formations. The Keracombining dot belowit Khanate and Chinggis Khan (Leiden: Brill, 1998), 111
121. Allsen, "Guard and Government," 518 and his Mongol Imperialism, 100
122. P. B. Golden, "I Will Give the People unto Thee: The Činggisid Conquests and Their Aftermath in the Turkic World," Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society, ser. 3, 10 (2000): 21-41
123. Ligeti, A magyar török kapcsolatai, 411-12
124. I. Vásáry, Az Arany Horda (Budapest: Kossuth Könyvkiadó, 1986), 176, 236
125. H. Inalcik, "The Khan and the Tribal Aristocracy: The Crimean Khanate under Sahib Giray I," Harvard Ukrainian Studies 3-4 (1979-80): 451
126. H. Inalcik, "The Question of the Emergence of the Ottoman State," International Journal of Turkish Studies 2 (1982): 71-79
127. 'Ashiqpashazade Ta'rikhi, ed., 'Alî Bey (Istanbul: Matbaa-yi Âmire, 1332/1914), 24
128. see also C. N. Atsiz, Osmanli Tarihleri (Istanbul: Türkiye Yayinlari, 1949), 107
129. and Inalcik, "Question," 75
130. R. Tapper, Frontier Nomads of Iran. A Political and Social History of the Shahsevan (Cambridge: Cambridge Univ. Press, 1997), 46-47
131. J. E. Woods, The Aqquyunlu. Clan, Confederation, Empire, rev. 2nd ed. (Salt Lake City: Univ. of Utah Press, 1999), 13-14
132. "Yaqshilari nöker wa yamanlari ra'yat boldilar" (A. N. Kononov, ed. and trans., Rodoslovnaia turkmen. Sochinenie Abu-l-Gazi khana khivinskogo/Shajara-yi Tarâkima [Moscow-Leningrad: Izdatel'stvo Akadernii Nauk, 1958], Turkmen. P4-5/Russ. Trans., 35-36)
133. Jebu Khak'an is the Jabghu Qaghan/Yabghu Qaghan, noted here as the "viceroy of the king of the north." Yabghu Qaghan was the title of the ruler of the Western Turk realm who was, indeed, second in rank to the senior Türk Qaghan ruling in the East, see Dasxuranci/Dowsett, History of the Caucasian Albanians, 87
134. P. B. Golden, Khazar Studies (Budapest: Akadémiai Kiadó, 1980), 1: 187-90
135. Dasxuranci/Dowsett, History of the Caucasian Albanians, 87-88
136. D. Ludwig, Struktur und Gesellschaft des Chazaren-Reiches im Licht der schriftlichen Quellen (Ph.D. diss., Westfälische Wilhelms-Universität, Münster, 1982), 286-87
137. Golden, Khazar Studies, 1: 218-19
138. Theophanes, Chronographia, ed. C. De Boer (Leipzig, 1883; repr., Hildesheim: Georg Olms Verlag, 1963), 1: 315-16
139. see also The Chronicle of Theophanes Confessor, eds. and trans. C. Mango and R. Scott (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1997), 446-47. Dionysius of Tel Mahcombining dot belowrê repeats the figure of 40,000
140. see The Seventh Century in the West-Syrian Chronicles, trans. A. Palmer et at. (Liverpool: Liverpool Univ. Press, 1993), 137
141. Ludwig, Struktur und Gesellschaft, 211-23 gives a thorough survey of the sources on Khazar manpower
142. Ibn A'tham al-Kûfî, Kitâb al-Futûh, ed. 'Abdu'l-Mu'îd Khân Bukhârî (Hyderabad: Osmania Oriental Publications Bureau, 1969-75), 8: 61
143. By Qarakhanid times it seems to have only designated "an emir" in the Arghu dialect, see Kâshgharî/Dankoff, Dîwân Luγât at-Turk, I: 329
144. See P. B. Golden, "Gosudarstvo i gosudarstvennost' u khazar: vlast' khazarskikh kaganov," in Fenomen vosotchnogo despotizma. Struktura upravleniia i vlasti, ed. N. A. Ivanov (Moscow: Nauka, 1993), esp. 219-27
145. Ibn Rusta, Kitâb al-A'lâq an-Nafisa, ed. M. J. De Goeje (Leidein: Brill, 1892), 140
146. Al-Iştcombining dot belowakhrî, Kitab Masâlik al- Mamâlik, ed. M. J. De Goeje (Leiden: Brill, 1870), 220-21
147. and the more recent edition: Kitâb al-Masâlik wa'l-Mamâlik, eds. M. al-Hcombining dot belowinnî and M. Ghurbâl (Cairo: Ministry of Culture and National Guidance, 1381/1971), 129
148. This account is largely followed verbatim by Ibn Hcombining dot belowawqal, Kitâb Scombining dot belowûrat al-Ardcombining dot below (Beirut: Dâr al-Maktaba al-Hayyât, 1992), 330
149. Al-Iscombining dot belowtcombining dot belowakhrî, Kitab Masâlik al- Mamâlik, ed. De Goeje, 222, ed. al-Hcombining dot belowinnî and Ghurbâl, 130
150. Ibn Hcombining dot belowawqal, Kitâb Scombining dot belowûrat al-Ardcombining dot below, 332
151. See discussion in D. M. Dunlop, The History of the Jewish Khazars (Princeton, NJ: Princeton Univ. Press, 1954), 94-95, esp. n. 21
152. Ligeti, A magyar nyelv török kapcsolatai, 270
153. Al-Mas'ûdî, Murûj adh-Dhahab wa Ma'âdin al-Jawhar, ed. Ch. Pellat (Beirut: Publications de l'Université Libanaise, 1966-79), 1: 213
154. Al-Mas'ûdî, Murûj adh-Dhahab, ed. Pellat, 1: 214
155. T. Lewicki, "Un peuple iranien peu connu: les Arsiya ou Orsiya" in Studies in Honour of Julius Németh, ed. Gy. Káldy-Nagy (Budapest: Loránd Eötvös Univ., 1976), 30-33
156. F. Altheim, Geschichte der Hunnen (Berlin: De Gruyter, 1959-62), 1: 61, 70, 73
157. V. I. Abaev, Osetinskii iazyk i fol'klor (Moscow-Leningrad: Nauka, 1949), 1: 148
158. O. MaenchenHelfen, "The Yueh-chi Problem Re-Examined," Journal of the American Oriental Society 65 (1945): 78
159. V. S. Torgueva et al., eds., Osnovy iranskogo iazykoznaniia. Srednepersidskie iazyki (Moscow: Nauka, 1981), 240
160. On this, see my forthcoming "War and Warfare in the Pre-Chinggisid Western Steppes of Eurasia" in Inner Asian Warfare, ed. N. Di Cosmo (Leiden: Brill, in press)
161. See the brief discussion of this type of regime in S. P. Blake, "The Patrimonial-Bureaucratic Empire of the Mughals," Journal of Asian Studies 39 (1979): 79-80. I hesitate to use the term "patrimonial- bureaucratic" as nomadic states did not usually develop bureaucracies unless they conquered sedentary states which already had them in place
162. See Khazanov, Nomads, 167
163. Khazanov, idem, Kochevniki, 283
164. P. B. Golden, "Cumanica III: Urusoba" in Aspects of Altaic Civilization III, ed. D. Sinor, Indiana Univ. Uralic and Altaic Series 145 (Bloomington, IN: Research Institute for Inner Asian Studies, 1990), 33-46